CONTENT

Sr. No Topic Page No

Introduction ...........................................................................................165
Objectives ...........................................................................................165
8.1 Introduction of Measurement Scales and Interpretation of Test Scores ......166
8.2 Interpreting Test Scores by Percentiles........................................................167
8.3 Interpreting Test Scores by Percentages ......................................................171
8.4 Interpreting Test Scores by ordering and ranking........................................173
8.4.1 Measurement Scales .......................................................................173
[Link] Nominal Scale ....................................................................173
[Link] Ordinal Scale .....................................................................174
[Link] Interval Scale .....................................................................174
[Link] Ratio Scale .........................................................................174
8.5 Frequency Distribution ................................................................................175
8.5.1 Frequency Distribution Tables ............................................................175
8.6 Interpreting Test Scores by Graphic Displays of Distributions ..................179
8.7 Measures of Central Tendency ..................................................................184
8.7.1 Mean ...........................................................................................185
8.7.2 Median ...........................................................................................187
8.7.3 Mode ...........................................................................................188
8.8 Measures of Variability ...............................................................................188
8.8.1 Range ...........................................................................................189
8.8.2 Mean Deviation...............................................................................191
8.8.3 Variance ..........................................................................................192
8.8.4 Standard Deviation .........................................................................194
8.8.9 Estimation .......................................................................................194
8.10 Planning the Test .........................................................................................198
8.11 Constructing and Assembling the Test ...................................................... 1202
8.12 Test Administration .....................................................................................203
8.13 Self Assessment Questions .........................................................................205

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8.14 References Suggested Reading’s .................................................................208

INTRODUCTION
Raw scores are considering as points scored in test when the test is scored according to
the set procedure or rubric of marking. These points are not meaningful without
interpretation or further information. Criterion referenced interpretation of test scores
describes students’ scores with respect to certain criteria while norm referenced
interpretation of test scores describes students’ score relative to the test takers. Test
results are generally reported to parents as a feedback of their young one’s learning
achievements. Parents have different academic backgrounds so results should be
presented them in understandable and usable way. Among various objectives three of the
fundamental purposes for testing are (1) to portray each student's developmental level
within a test area, (2) to identify a student's relative strength and weakness in subject
areas, and (3) to monitor time-to-time learning of the basic skills. To achieve any one of
these purposes, it is important to select the type of score from among those reported that
will permit the proper interpretation. Scores such as percentile ranks, grade equivalents,
and percentage scores differ from one another in the purposes they can serve, the
precision with which they describe achievement, and the kind of information they
provide. A closer look at various types of scores will help differentiate the functions they
can serve and the interpretations or sense they can convey.

OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, the students will be able to:
 understand what are the test score?
 understand what are the measurement scales used for test scores?
 ways of interpreting test score
 clarifying the accuracy of the test scores
 explain the meaning of test scores
 interpret test scores
 usability of test scores
 learn basic and significant concepts of statistics
 understand and usage of central tendency in educational measurements
 understand and usage of measure of variation in educational measurements
 planning and administration of test

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8.1 Introduction of Measurement Scales and Interpretation of Test Scores
Interpreting Test Scores
All types of research data, test result data, survey data, etc is called raw data and
collected using four basic scales. Nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio are four basic
scales for data collection. Ratio is more sophisticated than interval, interval is more
sophisticated than ordinal, and ordinal is more sophisticated than nominal. A variable
measured on a "nominal" scale is a variable that does not really have any evaluative
distinction. One value is really not any greater than another. A good example of a
nominal variable is gender. With nominal variables, there is a qualitative difference
between values, not a quantitative one. Something measured on an "ordinal" scale does
have an evaluative connotation. One value is greater or larger or better than the other.
With ordinal scales, we only know that one value is better than other or 10 is better than
9. A variable measured on interval or ration scale has maximum evaluative distinction.
After the collection of data, there are three basic ways to compare and interpret results
obtained by responses. Students’ performance can be compare and interpreted with an
absolute standard, with a criterion-referenced standard, or with a norm-referenced
standard. Some examples from daily life and educational context may make this clear:
Sr. Standard Characteristics daily life educational context
No.
1 Absolute simply state the He is 6' and 2" He spelled correctly
observed outcome tall 45 out of 50 English
words
2 criterion- compare the He is tall His score of 40 out
referenced person's enough to of 50 is greater than
performance with a catch the minimum cutoff
standard, or branch of this point 33. So he must
criterion. tree. promoted to the
next class.
3 norm-referenced compare a person's He is the third His score of 37 out
performance with fastest ballar of 50 was not very
that of other people in the good; 65% of his
in the same context. pakistani class fellows did
squad 15. better.

All three types of scores interpretation are useful, depending on the purpose for which
comparisons made.
An absolute score merely describes a measure of performance or achievement without
comparing it with any set or specified standard. Scores are not particularly useful without
any kind of comparison. Criterion-referenced scores compare test performance with a
specific standard; such a comparison enables the test interpreter to decide whether the
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scores are satisfactory according to established standards. Norm-referenced tests compare
test performance with that of others who were measured by the same procedure. Teachers
are usually more interested in knowing how children compare with a useful standard than
how they compare with other children; but norm-referenced comparisons may also
provide useful insights.

8.2 Interpreting Test Scores by Percentiles

The students’ scores in terms of criterion-referenced scores are most easy to understand
and interpret because they are straightforward and usually represented in percentages or
raw scores while norm-referenced scores are often converted to derive standard scores or
converted in to percentiles. Derived standard scores are usually based on the normal
curve having an arbitrary mean to compare respondents who took the same test. The
conversion of students’ score into student's percentile score on a test indicates what
percentage of other students are fell below that student's score who took the same test.
Percentiles are most often used for determining the relative standing position of any
student in a population. Percentile ranks are an easy way to convey a student's standing
at test relative to other same test takers.

For example, a score at the 60th percentile means that the individual's score is the same
as or higher than the scores of 60% of those who took the test. The 50th percentile is
known as the median and represents the middle score of the distribution.
Percentiles have the disadvantage that they are not equal units of measurement. For
instance, a difference of 5 percentile points between two individual’s scores will have a
different meaning depending on its position on the percentile scale, as the scale tends to
exaggerate differences near the mean and collapse differences at the extremes.

Percentiles cannot be averaged nor treated in any other way mathematically. However,
they do have the advantage of being easily understood and can be very useful when
giving feedback to candidates or reporting results to managers.

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If you know your percentile score then you know how it compares with others in the
norm group. For example, if you scored at the 70th percentile, then this means that you
scored the same or better than 70% of the individuals in the norm group.
Percentile score is easily understood when tend to bunch up around the average of the
group i.e. when most of the student are the same ability and have score with very small
rang.
To illustrate this point, consider a typical subject test consisting of 50 questions. Most of
the students, who are a fairly similar group in terms of their ability, will score around 40.
Some will score a few less and some a few more. It is very unlikely that any of them will
score less than 35 or more than 45.

These results in terms of achievement scores are a very poor way of analyzing them.
However, percentile score can interpret results very clearly.
Definition
A percentile is a measure that tells us what percent of the total frequency scored at or
below that measure. A percentile rank is the percentage of scores that fall at or below a
given score. OR
A percentile is a measure that tells us what percent of the total frequency scored below
that measure. A percentile rank is the percentage of scores that fall below a given score.
Both definitions are seams to same but statistically not same. For Example
Example No.1
If Aslam stand 25th out of a class of 150 students, then 125 students were ranked below
Aslam.

Formula:

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To find the percentile rank of a score, x, out of a set of n scores, where x is
included:
B  0.5E.100 percentilerank
n
Where B = number of scores below x
E = number of scores equal to x
n = number of scores
using this formula Aslam's percentile rank would be:

Formula:
To find the percentile rank of a score, x, out of a set of n scores, where x is not included:
numberof scoresbelowx
.100 percentilerank
n
using this formula Aslam's percentile rank would be:
125
.83  83rd percentile
150
Therefore both definition yields different percentile rank. This difference is significant
only for small data. If we have raw data then we can find unique percentile rank using
both formulae.

Example No.2
The science test scores are: 50, 65, 70, 72, 72, 78, 80, 82, 84, 84, 85, 86, 88, 88, 90, 94,
96, 98, 98, 99 Find the percentile rank for a score of 84 on this test.

Solution:
First rank the scores in ascending or descending order
50, 65, 70, 72, 72, 78, 80, 82, 84, |84, 85, 86, 88, 88, 90, 94, 96, 98, 98, 99
Since there are 2 values equal to 84, assign one to the group "above 84" and the other to
the group "below 84".

Solution Using Formula:

B  0.5E .100 percentilerank
n

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 8  0.52 9
.100 .100 45th percentile
20 20

Solution Using Formula:

numberof scores belowx
.100 percentilerank
n
9
.100 45th percentile
100
Therefore score of 84 is at the 45th percentile for this test.

Example No.3
The science test scores are: 50, 65, 70, 72, 72, 78, 80, 82, 84, 84, 85, 86, 88, 88, 90, 94,
96, 98, 98, 99. Find the percentile rank for a score of 86 on this test.

Solution:
First rank the scores in ascending or descending order
Since there is only one value equal to 86, it will be counted as "half" of a data value for
the group "above 86" as well as the group "below 86".
Solution Using Formula:

B  0.5E .100 percentilerank

n
11 0.5(1) 11.5
.100 .100 58th percentile
20 20

Solution Using Formula:

numberof scores belowx
.100 percentilerank
n
11.5
.100 57.5  58th percentile
20
The score of 86 is at the 58th percentile for this test.

Keep in Mind:
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 Percentile rank is a number between 0 and 100 indicating the percent of cases
falling at or below that score.
 Percentile ranks are usually written to the nearest whole percent: 64.5% = 65%
= 65th percentile
 Scores are divided into 100 equally sized groups.
 Scores are arranged in rank order from lowest to highest.
 There is no 0 percentile rank - the lowest score is at the first percentile.
 There is no 100th percentile - the highest score is at the 99th percentile.
 Percentiles have the disadvantage that they are not equal units of measurement.
 Percentiles cannot be averaged nor treated in any other way mathematically.
 You cannot perform the same mathematical operations on percentiles that you
can on raw scores. You cannot, for example, compute the mean of percentile
scores, as the results may be misleading.
 Quartiles can be thought of as percentile measure. Remember that quartiles
break the data set into 4 equal parts. If 100% is broken into four equal parts, we
have subdivisions at 25%, 50%, and 75% .creating the:

First quartile (lower quartile) to be at the 25th percentile.

Median (or second quartile) to be at the 50th percentile.
Third quartile (upper quartile) to be a the 75th percentile.

8.3 Interpreting Test Scores by Percentages

The number of questions a student gets right on a test is the student's raw score (assuming
each question is worth one point). By itself, a raw score has little or no meaning. For
example if teacher says that Fatima has scored 8 marks. This information (8 marks)
regarding Fatima’s result does not convey any meaning. The meaning depends on how
many questions are on the test and how hard or easy the questions are. For example, if
Umair got 10 right on both a math test and a science test, it would not be reasonable to
conclude that his level of achievement in the two areas is the same. This illustrates, why
raw scores are usually converted to other types of scores for interpretation purposes. The
conversion of raw score into percentage convey students’ achievements in understanding
and meaningful way. For example if Sadia got 8 questions right out of ten questions then
we can say that Sadia is able to solve
8
100=80% questions. If each question carries equal marks then we can say that
10
Sadia has scored 80% marks. If different questions carry different marks then first count
marks obtained and total marks the test. Use the following formula to compute % of
marks.

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 Marks Otained
 100 = % marks
Total Marks

Example:
The marks detail of Hussan’s math test is shown. Find the percentage marks of Hussan.
Question Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Total
Marks 10 10 5 5 20 50
Marks 8 5 2 3 10 28
obtained

Solution:
Hussan’ s marks = 28
Total marks =50
Marks Obtained 28
Hussan got =  100 =  100=56 %
Total Marks 50
For example, a number can be used merely to label or categorize a response. This sort of
number (nominal scale) has a low level of meaning. A higher level of meaning comes
with numbers that order responses (ordinal data). An even higher level of meaning
(interval or ratio data) is present when numbers attempt to present exact scores, such as
when we state that a person got 17 correct out of 20. Although even the lowest scale is
useful, higher level scales give more precise information and are more easily adapted to
many statistical procedures.
Scores can be summarized by using either the mode (most frequent score), the median
(midpoint of the scores), or the mean (arithmetic average) to indicate typical
performance. When reporting data, you should choose the measure of central tendency
that gives the most accurate picture of what is typical in a set of scores. In addition, it is
possible to report the standard deviation to indicate the spread of the scores around the
mean.
Scores from measurement processes can be either absolute, criterion referenced, or norm
referenced. An absolute score simply states a measure of performance without comparing
it with any standard. However, scores are not particularly useful unless they are
compared with something. Criterion-referenced scores compare test performance with a
specific standard; such a comparison enables the test interpreter to decide whether the
scores are satisfactory according to established standards. Norm-referenced tests compare
test performance with that of others who were measured by the same procedure. Teachers
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are usually more interested in knowing how children compare with a useful standard than
how they compare with other children; but norm referenced comparisons may also
provide useful insights.
Criterion-referenced scores are easy to understand because they are usually
straightforward raw scores or percentages. Norm-referenced scores are often converted to
percentiles or other derived standard scores. A student's percentile score on a test
indicates what percentage of other students who took the same test fell below that
student's score. Derived scores are often based on the normal curve. They use an arbitrary
mean to make comparisons showing how respondents compare with other persons who
took the same test.

8.4 Interpreting Test Scores by ordering and ranking

Organizing and reporting of students’ scores start with placing the scores in ascending or
descending order. Teacher can find the smallest, largest, rang, and some other facts like
variability of scores associated with scores from ranked scores. Teacher may use ranked
scoes to see the relative position of each student within the class but ranked scores does
not yield any significant numerical value for result interpretation or reporting.

8.4.1 Measurement Scales

Measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects or events in a systematic fashion.
Measurement scales are critical because they relate to the types of statistics you can use
to analyze your data. An easy way to have a paper rejected is to have used either an
incorrect scale/statistic combination or to have used a low powered statistic on a high
powered set of data. Following four levels of measurement scales are commonly
distinguished so that the proper analysis can be used on the data a number can be used
merely to label or categorize a response.

[Link] Nominal Scale

Nominal scales are the lowest scales of measurement. A nominal scale, as the name
implies, is simply some placing of data into categories, without any order or structure.
You are only allowed to examine if a nominal scale datum is equal to some particular
value or to count the number of occurrences of each value. For example, categorization of
blood groups of classmates into A, B. AB, O etc. In The only mathematical operation we
can perform with nominal data is to count. Variables assessed on a nominal scale are
called categorical variables; Categorical data are measured on nominal scales which
merely assign labels to distinguish categories. For example, gender is a nominal scale
variable. Classifying people according to gender is a common application of
a nominal scale.

Nominal Data

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 classification or gatagorization of data, e.g. male or female
 no ordering, e.g. it makes no sense to state that male is greater than female (M >
F) etc
 arbitrary labels, e.g., pass=1 and fail=2 etc

[Link] Ordinal Scale

Something measured on an "ordinal" scale does have an evaluative connotation. You are
also allowed to examine if an ordinal scale datum is less than or greater than another
value. For example rating of job satisfaction on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10
representing complete satisfaction. With ordinal scales, we only know that 2 is better than
1 or 10 is better than 9; we do not know by how much. It may vary. Hence, you can 'rank'
ordinal data, but you cannot 'quantify' differences between two ordinal values. Nominal
scale properties are included in ordinal scale.

Ordinal Data
 ordered but differences between values are not important. Difference between
values may or may not same or equal.
 e.g., political parties on left to right spectrum given labels 0, 1, 2
 e.g., Likert scales, rank on a scale of 1..5 your degree of satisfaction
 e.g., restaurant ratings

[Link] Interval Scale

An ordinal scale has quantifiable difference between values become interval scale. You
are allowed to quantify the difference between two interval scale values but there is no
natural zero. A variable measured on an interval scale gives information about more or
better as ordinal scales do, but interval variables have an equal distance between each
value. The distance between 1 and 2 is equal to the distance between 9 and 10. For
example, temperature scales are interval data with 25C warmer than 20C and a 5C
difference has some physical meaning. Note that 0C is arbitrary, so that it does not make
sense to say that 20C is twice as hot as 10C but there is the exact same difference
between 100C and 90C as there is between 42C and 32C. Students’ achievement scores
are measured on interval scale

Interval Data
 ordered, constant scale, but no natural zero
 differences make sense, but ratios do not (e.g., 30°-20°=20°-10°, but 20°/10° is
not twice as hot!
 e.g., temperature (C,F), dates

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[Link] Ratio Scale
Something measured on a ratio scale has the same properties that an interval scale has
except, with a ratio scaling, there is an absolute zero point. Temperature measured in
Kelvin is an example. There is no value possible below 0 degrees Kelvin, it is absolute
zero. Physical measurements of height, weight, length are typically ratio variables.
Weight is another example, 0 lbs. is a meaningful absence of weight. This ratio hold true
regardless of which scale the object is being measured in (e.g. meters or yards). This is
because there is a natural zero.

Ratio Data
 ordered, constant scale, natural zero
 e.g., height, weight, age, length
One can think of nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio as being ranked in their relation to
one another. Ratio is more sophisticated than interval, interval is more sophisticated than
ordinal, and ordinal is more sophisticated than nominal.

8.5 Frequency Distribution

Frequency is how often something occurs. The frequency (f) of a particular observation
is the number of times the observation occurs in the data.

Distribution
The distribution of a variable is the pattern of frequencies of the observation.

Frequency Distribution
It is a representation, either in a graphical or tabular format, which displays the number of
observations within a given interval. Frequency distributions are usually used within a
statistical context.

8.5.1 Frequency Distribution Tables

A frequency distribution table is one way you can organize data so that it makes more
sense. Frequency distributions are also portrayed as frequency tables, histograms,
orpolygons. Frequency distribution tables can be used for both categorical and numeric
variables. The intervals of frequency table must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Continuous variables should only be used with class intervals. By counting frequencies,
we can make a frequency distribution table. Following examples will figure out
procedure of construction of frequency distribution table.
Example 1
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For example, let’s say you have a list of IQ scores for a gifted classroom in a particular
elementary school. The IQ scores are: 118, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 130, 133,
136, 138, 141, 142, 149, 150, 154. That list doesn’t tell you much about anything. You
could draw a frequency distribution table, which will give a better picture of your data
than a simple list.

Step 1:
 Figure out how many classes (categories) you need. There are no hard rules about
how many classes to pick, but there are a couple of general guidelines:
 Pick between 5 and 20 classes. For the list of IQs above, we picked 5 classes.
 Make sure you have a few items in each category. For example, if you have 20
items, choose 5 classes (4 items per category), not 20 classes (which would give
you only 1 item per category).

Step 2:
 Subtract the minimum data value from the maximum data value. For example,
our the IQ list above had a minimum value of 118 and a maximum value of 154,
so:
154 – 118 = 36

Step 3:
 Divide your answer in Step 2 by the number of classes you chose in Step 1.
36 / 5 = 7.2

Step 4:
 Round the number from Step 3 up to a whole number to get the class width.
Rounded up, 7.2 becomes 8.

Step 5:
 Write down your lowest value for your first minimum data value:
The lowest value is 118

Step 6:
 Add the class width from Step 4 to Step 5 to get the next lower class limit:
118 + 8 = 126

Step 7:
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 Repeat Step 6 for the other minimum data values (in other words, keep on adding
your class width to your minimum data values) until you have created the
number of classes you chose in Step 1. We chose 5 classes, so our 5 minimum
data values are:
118
126 (118 + 8)
134 (126 + 8)
142 (134 + 8)
150 (142 + 8)

Step 8:
 Write down the upper class limits. These are the highest values that can be in the
category, so in most cases you can subtract 1 from class width and add that to the
minimum data value. For example:
118 + (8 – 1) = 125
118 – 125
126 – 133
134 – 142
143 – 149
150 – 157

Step 9:
 Add a second column for the number of items in each class, and label the
columns with appropriate headings:
IQ Number
118 – 125
126 – 133
134 – 142
143 – 149
150 – 157

Step 10:
 Count the number of items in each class, and put the total in the second column.
The list of IQ scores are: 118, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 130, 133, 136,
138, 141, 142, 149, 150, 154.
IQ Number
118 – 125 4
126 – 133 6

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 134 – 142 4
143 – 149 1
150 – 157 2
Example 2
A survey was taken in Lahore. In each of 20 homes, people were asked how many cars
were registered to their households. The results were recorded as follows:
1, 2, 1, 0, 3, 4, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 1, 4, 0, 0
Use the following steps to present this data in a frequency distribution table.
1. Divide the results (x) into intervals, and then count the number of results in each
interval. In this case, the intervals would be the number of households with no
car (0), one car (1), two cars (2) and so forth.
2. Make a table with separate columns for the interval numbers (the number of cars
per household), the tallied results, and the frequency of results in each interval.
Label these columns Number of cars, Tally and Frequency.
3. Read the list of data from left to right and place a tally mark in the appropriate
row. For example, the first result is a 1, so place a tally mark in the row beside
where 1 appears in the interval column (Number of cars). The next result is a 2,
so place a tally mark in the row beside the 2, and so on. When you reach your
fifth tally mark, draw a tally line through the preceding four marks to make your
final frequency calculations easier to read.
4. Add up the number of tally marks in each row and record them in the final
column entitled Frequency.

Your frequency distribution table for this exercise should look like this:
Table 1. Frequency table for the number of cars registered in
each household

Number of cars (x) Tally Frequency (f)

0 4

1 6

2 5

3 3

4 2

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By looking at this frequency distribution table quickly, we can see that out of
20 households surveyed, 4 households had no cars, 6 households had 1 car, etc.
Relative frequency and percentage frequency
An analyst studying these data might want to know not only how long batteries last, but
also what proportion of the batteries falls into each class interval of battery life.
This relative frequency of a particular observation or class interval is found by dividing
the frequency (f) by the number of observations (n): that is, (f ÷ n). Thus:
Relative frequency = frequency ÷ number of observations
The percentage frequency is found by multiplying each relative frequency value by 100.
Thus:
Percentage frequency = relative frequency X 100 = f ÷ n X 100
8.6 Interpreting Test Scores by Graphic Displays of Distributions
The data from a frequency table can be displayed graphically. A graph can provide a
visual display of the distributions, which gives us another view of the summarized data.
For example, the graphic representation of the relationship between two different test
scores through the use of scatter plots. We learned that we could describe in general
terms the direction and strength of the relationship between scores by visually examining
the scores as they were arranged in a graph. Some other examples of these types of
graphs include histograms and frequency polygons.
A histogram is a bar graph of scores from a frequency table. The horizontal x-axis
represents the scores on the test, and the vertical y-axis represents the frequencies. The
frequencies are plotted as bars.

Histogram of Mid-Term Language Arts Exam

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A frequency polygon is a line graph representation of a set of scores from a frequency
table. The horizontal x-axis is represented by the scores on the scale and the vertical y-
axis is represented by the frequencies.

Frequency Polygon of Mid-Term Language Arts Exam

A frequency polygon could also be used to compare two or more sets of data by
representing each set of scores as a line graph with a different color or pattern. For
example, you might be interested in looking at your students’ scores by gender, or
comparing students’ performance on two tests (see Figure 9.4).

Frequency Polygon of Midterm by Gender

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Frequency polygons are a graphical device for understanding the shapes of distributions.
They serve the same purpose as histograms, but are especially helpful in comparing sets
of data. Frequency polygons are also a good choice for displaying cumulative frequency
distributions.
To create a frequency polygon, start just as for histograms, by choosing a class interval.
Then draw an X-axis representing the values of the scores in your data. Mark the middle
of each class interval with a tick mark, and label it with the middle value represented by
the class. Draw the Y-axis to indicate the frequency of each class. Place a point in the
middle of each class interval at the height corresponding to its frequency. Finally,
connect the points. You should include one class interval below the lowest value in your
data and one above the highest value. The graph will then touch the X-axis on both sides.
A frequency polygon for 642 psychology test scores is shown in Figure 1. The first label
on the X-axis is 35. This represents an interval extending from 29.5 to 39.5. Since the
lowest test score is 46, this interval has a frequency of 0. The point labeled 45 represents
the interval from 39.5 to 49.5. There are three scores in this interval. There are 150 scores
in the interval that surrounds 85.
You can easily discern the shape of the distribution from Figure 1. Most of the scores are
between 65 and 115. It is clear that the distribution is not symmetric inasmuch as good
scores (to the right) trail off more gradually than poor scores (to the left). In the
terminology of Chapter 3 (where we will study shapes of distributions more
systematically), the distribution is skewed.

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 Figure 1: Frequency polygon for the psychology test scores.

A cumulative frequency polygon for the same test scores is shown in Figure 2. The graph
is the same as before except that the Y value for each point is the number of students in
the corresponding class interval plus all numbers in lower intervals. For example, there
are no scores in the interval labeled "35," three in the interval "45,"and 10 in the interval
"55."Therefore the Y value corresponding to "55" is 13. Since 642 students took the test,
the cumulative frequency for the last interval is 642.

Figure 2: Cumulative frequency polygon for the psychology test scores.

Frequency polygons are useful for comparing distributions. This is achieved by

overlaying the frequency polygons drawn for different data sets. Figure 3 provides an
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example. The data come from a task in which the goal is to move a computer mouse to a
target on the screen as fast as possible. On 20 of the trials, the target was a small
rectangle; on the other 20, the target was a large rectangle. Time to reach the target was
recorded on each trial. The two distributions (one for each target) are plotted together
in Figure 3. The figure shows that although there is some overlap in times, it generally
took longer to move the mouse to the small target than to the large one.

Figure 3: Overlaid frequency polygons.

It is also possible to plot two cumulative frequency distributions in the same graph. This
is illustrated in Figure 4 using the same data from the mouse task. The difference in
distributions for the two targets is again evident.

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 Figure 4: Overlaid cumulative frequency polygons.

The raw scores for the 10 pt. quiz are:

10 9 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 4 2 10 9 8 8 7 6 6 5 5 3 10 9 8 7 7 6 6 5 4 3
Draw frequency graph, bar graph, frequenvy polygone, and frequency curve

Solution

8.7 Measures of Central Tendency

Suppose that a teacher gave the same test to two different classes and following results
are obtained:
Class 1: 80%, 80%, 80%, 80%, 80%
Class 2: 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%
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If you calculate the mean for both sets of scores, you get the same answer: 80%. But the
data of two classes from which this mean was obtained was very different in the two
cases. It is also possible that two different data sets may have same mean, median, and
mode. For example:
Class A: 72 73 76 76 78
Class B: 67 76 76 78 80
Therefore class A and class B has same mean, mode, and median.
The way that statisticians distinguish such cases as this is known as measuring the
variability of the sample. As with measures of central tendency, there are a number of
ways of measuring the variability of a sample.
Probably the simplest method is to find the range of the sample, that is, the difference
between the largest and smallest observation. The range of measurements in Class 1 is 0,
and the range in class 2 is 40%. Simply knowing that fact gives a much better
understanding of the data obtained from the two classes. In class 1, the mean was 80%,
and the range was 0, but in class 2, the mean was 80%, and the range was 40%.
Statisticians use summary measures to describe patterns of data. Measures of central
tendency refer to the summary measures used to describe the most "typical" value in a
set of values.
Here, we are interested in the typical, most representative score. There are three most
common measures of central tendency are mean, mode, and median. A teacher should be
familiar with these common measures of central tendencies.

8.7.1 Mean
The mean is simply the arithmetic average. It is sum of the scores divided by the number
of scores. it is computed by adding all of the scores and dividing by the number of scores.
When statisticians talk about the mean of a population, they use the Greek letter μ to refer
to the mean score. When they talk about the mean of a sample, statisticians use the
symbol to refer to the mean score.

 X
It is symbolized as: X=
N
(read as "X-Bar") when computed on a sample
Computation - Example: find the mean of 2,3,5, and 10.

 X 2  3  5  10 2 0
X= = = =5
N 4 4
Since means are typically reported with one more digit of accuracy that is present in the
data, I reported the mean as 5.0 rather than just 5.
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Example 1
The marks of seven students in a mathematics test with a maximum possible mark of 20
are given below:
15 13 18 16 14 17 12
Find the mean of this set of data values.

Solution:

So, the mean mark is 15.

Symbolically, we can set out the solution as follows:

So, the mean mark is 15.

When working with grouped frequency distributions, we can use an approximation:

Where Mdpt. is midpoint of the group

For example:

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 Interval Midpoint f Mid*f

95-99 97 1 97

90-94 92 3 276

85-89 87 5 435

80-84 82 6 492

75-79 77 4 308

70-74 72 3 216

65-69 67 1 67

60-64 62 2 124

f=25=N Mid*f=2015

When computed on the raw data, we get:

Thus the formula for computing the mean with grouped data gives us a good
approximation of the actual mean. In fact, when we report the mean with one decimal
more accuracy than what is in the data, the two techniques give the same result.

8.7.2 Median or Md
The score that cuts the distribution into two equal halves (or the middle score in the
distribution).
The median of a set of data values is the middle value of the data set when it has been
arranged in ascending order. That is, from the smallest value to the highest value.

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Example
The marks of nine students in a geography test that had a maximum possible mark of 50
are given below:
47 35 37 32 38 39 36 34 35
Find the median of this set of data values.

Solution:
Arrange the data values in order from the lowest value to the highest value:
32 34 35 35 36 37 38 39 47
The fifth data value, 36, is the middle value in this arrangement.
 Median = 36
In general:

Median =
1
n  1 th value, where n is the number of data values in the sample.
2
If the number of values in the data set is even, then the median is the average of the two
middle values.
Fortunately, there is a formula to take care of the more complicated situations,
including computing the median for grouped frequency distributions.

Where:
L = Lower exact limit of the interval containing Md.

nb = number of scores below L.

nw = number of scores within the interval containing Md.

i = the width of the interval (for ungrouped data i=1).

N = the Number of scores.

Using our last example:

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8.7.3 Mode
Mode is the most frequently occurring score. Note:
o There can be more than one. Can have bi- or tri-modal distributions and then
speak of major and minor modes.
o It is symbolized as Mo.
Example: Find the mode of 2,2,6,0,9 6,8 5,4,5,4,6,4,7,4
Solution: 4 is most frequent occurring score therefore mode is 4.

8.8 Measures of Variability

Variability refers to the extent to which the scores in a distribution differ from each other.
An equivalent definition (that is easier to work with mathematically) says that variability
refers to the extent to which the scores in a distribution differ from their mean. If a
distribution is lacking in variability, we may say that it is homogenous (note the opposite
would be heterogenous).
We will discuss four measures of variability for now: the range, mean or average
deviation, variance and standard deviation.

8.8.1 Range
Probably range is the simplest method to find variability of the sample, that is, the
difference between the largest/maximum/highest and smallest/minimum/lowest
observation.
Range = Highest value - Lowest value
R = XH - XL
Example:
The range of the saleem’s four tests scores (3, 5, 5, 7) is:
XH = 7 and XL = 3
Therefore R = XH - XL= 7- 3= 4
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Example
Consider the previous example in which results of the two different classes are:
Class 1: 80%, 80%, 80%, 80%, 80%
Class 2: 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%
The range of measurements in Class 1 is 0, and the range in class 2 is 40%. Simply
knowing that fact gives a much better understanding of the data obtained from the two
classes. In class 1, the mean was 80%, and the range was 0, but in class 2, the mean was
80%, and the range was 40%. The relationship between rang and variability can be
graphically show as:

Distribution A has a larger range (and more variability) than Distribution B.

Because only the two extreme scores are used in computing the range, however, it is a
crude measure. For example:

The range of Distribution A and B is the same, although Distribution A has more
variability.

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Co-efficient of Range
It is relative measure of dispersion and is based on the value of range. It is also called
range co-efficient of dispersion. It is defined as:
Co-efficient of Range = (XH – XL) / (XH + XL)
Let us take two sets of observations. Set A contains marks of five students in
Mathematics out of 25 marks and group B contains marks of the same student in English
out of 100 marks.
Set A: 10, 15, 18, 20, 20
Set B: 30, 35, 40, 45, 50
The values of range and co-efficient of range are calculated as:

Range Coefficient of Range

20  10
Set A: (Mathematics) 20–10=10  0.33
20  10

50 30
Set B: (English) 50–30=20  0.25
50 30
In set A the range is 10 and in set B the range is 20. Apparently it seems as if
there is greater dispersion in set B. But this is not true. The range of 20 in set B is for
large observations and the range of 10 in set A is for small observations. Thus 20 and 10
cannot be compared directly. Their base is not the same. Marks in Mathematics are out of
25 and marks of English are out of 100. Thus, it makes no sense to compare 10 with 20.
When we convert these two values into coefficient of range, we see that coefficient of
range for set A is greater than that of set B. Thus there is greater dispersion or variation in
set A. The marks of students in English are more stable than their marks in Mathematics.

8.8.2 Mean Deviation

If a deviation (MD) is the difference of a score from its mean and variability is the extent
to which the scores differ from their mean, then summing all the deviations and dividing
by the number of them should give us a measure of variability. The problem though is
that the deviations sum to zero. However, computing the absolute value of the deviations
before summing them eliminates this problem. Thus, the formula for the MD is given by:

x X X
M .D  
N N

Thus for sample data in which the suitable average is the X , the mean deviation ( M.D
) is given by the relation:
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 X X
M .D 
n
For frequency distribution, the mean deviation is given by

f X X
M .D 
f
Example:
Calculate the mean deviation from arithmetic mean in respect of the marks obtained by
nine students gives below and show that the mean deviation from median is minimum.
Marks (out of 25): 7, 4, 10, 9, 15, 12, 7, 9, 7

Solution:
After arranging the observations in ascending order, we get
Marks: 4, 7, 7, 7, 9, 9, 10, 12, 15
 X 80
Mean   8.89
n 9

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 Marks X XX

4 1.89

7 1.89

7 1.89

7 1.89

9 0.11

9 0.11

10 1.11

12 3.11

15 6.11

Total 21.11

X  X 21.11
M .D from mean    2.35
n 9

8.8.3 Variance
Variance is another absolute measure of dispersion. It is defined as the average of the
squared difference between each of the observations in a set of data and the
mean. For a sample data the variance is denoted is denoted by S2 and the population
variance is denoted by 2 (sigma square).
That is:

Thus another name for the Variance is the Mean of the Squared Deviations About the
Mean (or more simply, the Mean of Squares (MS)). The problem with the MS is that its
units are squared and thus represent space, rather than a distance on the X axis like the
other measures of variability.

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Example:
Calculate the variance for the following sample data: 2, 4, 8, 6, 10, and 12.

Solution:

X XX 2

2 (2–7)2 = 25

4 (4–7)2 = 9

8 (8–7)2 = 1

6 (6–7)2 = 1

10 (10–7)2 = 9

12 (12–7)2 = 25

X=42 
 X X  =70
2

 X 42
X  7
n 6

S 
2 
 X X 2

S 
2 
 X X 2

n
70 35
S2    11.67
6 3

Variance = S2 = 11.67

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Variance is another absolute measure of dispersion. It is defined as the average of the
squared difference between each of the observations in a set of data and the mean.

8.8.4 Standard Deviation

The standard deviation is defined as the positive square root of the mean of the square
deviations taken from arithmetic mean of the data.

A simple solution to the problem of the MS representing a space is to compute its square
root. That is:

Since the standard deviation can be very small, it is usually reported with 2-3 more
decimals of accuracy than what is available in the original data.
The standard deviation is in the same units as the units of the original observations. If
the original observations are in grams, the value of the standard deviation will also be in
grams. The standard deviation plays a dominating role for the study of variation in the
data. It is a very widely used measure of dispersion. It stands like a tower among
measure of dispersion. As far as the important statistical tools are concerned, the first
important tool is the mean x and the second important tool is the standard deviation
. It is based on all the observations and is subject to mathematical treatment. It is of
great importance for the analysis of data and for the various statistical inferences.
Properties of the Variance & Standard Deviation:
1. Are always positive (or zero).
2. Equal zero when all scores are identical (i.e., there is no variability).
3. Like the mean, they are sensitive to all scores.
Example: in previous example

Variance = S2 = 11.67

Therefore SD= S = S2 = 11.67 = 3.41

8.8.9 Estimation
Estimation is the goal of inferential statistics. We use sample values to estimate
population values. The symbols are as follows:

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 Measure Sample Population

Mean X µ

Variance s2 x2

Standard Deviation s x

It is important that the sample values (estimators) be unbiased. An unbiased estimator of

a parameter is one whose average over all possible random samples of a given size equals
the value of the parameter.

While X is an unbiased estimator of x, s2 is not an unbiased estimator of x2.

In order to make it an unbiased estimator, we use N-1 in the denominator of the formula
rather than just N. Thus:

Note that this is a defining formula and, as we will see below, is not the best choice when
actually doing the calculations.

Overall Example
Let's reconsider an example from above of two distributions (A & B):

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Consider a possibility for the scores that go with these distributions:

Distribution A B

150 150

145 110

100 100
Data
100 100

55 90

50 50

600 600

N 6 6

X 100 100

Range 150-50+1=101 150-50+1=101

Notice that the central tendency and range of the two distributions are the same. That is,
the mean, median, and mode all equal 100 for both distributions and the range is 101 for
both distributions. However, while Distributions A and B have the same measures of
central tendency and the same range, they differ in their variability. Distribution A has
more of it. Let us prove this by computing the standard deviation in each case. First, for
Distribution A:

A X X X2
150 100 50 2500
145 100 45 2025
100 100 0 0
100 100 0 0
55 100 -45 2025
50 100 -50 2500
600 0 9050
N 6

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Plugging the appropriate values into the defining formula gives:
Measure A

9050 9050
   1810
6 1 5

Note that calculating the variance and standard deviation in this manner requires
computing the mean and subtracting it from each score. Since this is not very efficient
and can be less accurate as a result of rounding error, a computational formula is
typically used. It is given as follows:

Redoing the computations for Distribution A in this manner gives:

A X2

150 22500

145 21025

100 10000

100 10000

55 3025

50 2500

600 69050

N 6
Then, plugging in the appropriate values into the computational formula gives:

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Note that the defining and computational formulas give the same result, but the
computational formula is easier to work with (and potentially more accurate due to less
rounding error).

Doing the same calculations for Distribution B yields:

B X2

150 22500

110 12100

100 10000

100 10000

90 8100

50 2500

600 65200

N 6
Then, plugging in the appropriate values into the computational formula gives:

8.10 Planning the Test

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One essential step in planning a test is to decide why you are giving the test. (The word
"test" is used although we are using it in a broad sense that includes performance
assessments as well as traditional paper and pencil tests.)
Are you trying to sort the students (so you can compare them, giving higher scores to
better students and lower scores to poor students)? If so, you will want to include some
difficult questions that you expect only a few of the better students will be able to
answer correctly. Or do you want to know how many of the students have mastered the
content? If your purpose is the latter, you have no need to distribute the scores, so very
difficult questions are unnecessary. You will, however, have to decide how many
correct answers are needed to demonstrate mastery. Another way to address the "why"
question is to identify if this is to be a formative assessment to help you diagnose
students' problems and guide future instruction, or a summative measure to determine
grades that will be reported to parents.
Airasian (1994) lists six decisions usually made by the classroom teacher in the test
development process: 1. what to test, 2. how much emphasis to give to various
objectives, 3. what type of assessment (or type of questions) to use, 4. how much time to
allocate for the assessment, 5. how to prepare the students, and 6. whether to use the test
from the textbook publisher or to create your own. Other decisions, such as whether to
use a separate answer sheet, arise later.
You, as the teacher, decide what to assess. The term "assess" is used here because the
term "assess" is frequently associated only with traditional paper and pencil
assessments, to the exclusion of alternative assessments such as performance tasks and
portfolios. Classroom assessments are generally focused on content that has been
covered in the class, either in the immediate past or (as is the case with unit, semester,
and end-of-course tests) over a longer period of time. For example, if we were
constructing a test for preservice teachers on writing test questions, we might have the
following objectives:

The student will:

1. Know the advantages and disadvantages of the major selection-types of
questions.
2. Be able to differentiate between well and poorly written selection-type
questions.
3. Be able to construct appropriate selection-type questions using the
guidelines and rules that were presented in class.

We could have listed only the topics we have covered (e.g., true-false questions, short-

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answer questions, multiple-choice questions, and test format) instead of the objectives.

Now that we have made the what decision, we can move to the next step: deciding
how much emphasis to place on each objective. We can look at the amount of time in
class we have devoted to each objective. We can also review the number and types of
assignments the students have been given. For this example, let's assume that 20% of
the assessment will be based on knowing the advantages and disadvantages, 40% will
be on differentiating between well written and poorly written questions, and the other
40% will be on writing good questions. Now our planning can be illustrated with the use
of a table of specifications (also called a test plan or a test blueprint) as shown in table
below.

Table of Specifications:

#
Objectives/Content items/
Knowledge Comprehension Application
area/Topics % of
test

1. Know the advantages &

disadvantages of the major 20%
selection-types of questions.

2. Be able to differentiate
between well and poorly
40%
written selection-type
questions

3. Be able to construct
appropriate selection-type
questions using the 40%
guidelines and rules that
were presented in class.

A table of specifications is a two-way table that matches the objectives or content you
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have taught with the level at which you expect students to perform. It contains an
estimate of the percentage of the test to be allocated to each topic at each level at which
it is to be measured. In effect we have established how much emphasis to give to each
objective or topic.

In estimating the time needed for this test, students would probably need from 5 to 10
minutes for the 20 True-False questions (15-30 seconds each), 5-7 1/2 minutes for the
five comprehension questions (60-90 seconds each), and 20-30 minutes (rough estimate)
to read the material and write the four questions measuring application. The total time
needed would be from 30 to 48 minutes. If you are a middle or high school teacher,
estimated response time is an important consideration. You will need to allow enough
time for the slowest students to complete your test, and it will need to fit within a single
class period.

Another consideration in planning a classroom test may be alignment with standardized

tests used in your state to measure similar areas of student learning. How are those tests
constructed? What objectives are measured on those tests? How are they measured; i.e.,
what kinds of items are used and what levels of learning (knowledge, comprehension,
application, etc.) are emphasized? On your classroom test you need to measure what
you have taught in the ways you have taught it, but in both the teaching and the testing,
consider that your work is part of a broader educational system.
The final step in planning the test will be to write the test questions. If more information
is needed on item writing, please consult the other modules that correspond to the types
of questions of interest to you.

Accommodations
Accommodations may be needed for some of your students. It is helpful to keep those
students in mind as you plan your assessments. Some examples of accommodations
include:
Providing written instructions for students with hearing problems
Using large print, reading or recording the questions on audiotape (The student could
record the answers on tape.)
Having an aide or assistant write/mark the answers for the student who has coordination
problems, or having the student record the answers on audiotape or type the answers
Using written assessments for students with speech problems
Administering the test in sections if the entire test is too long for the attention of a
student Asking the students to repeat the directions to make sure they understand what
they are to do

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Starting each sentence on a new line helps students identify it as a new sentence
Including an example with each type of question, showing how to mark answers

8.11 Constructing and Assembling The Test

 Before beginning to construct your own test, you may want to compare your
table of specifications with test items provided by the publisher or other sources
to see what, if anything, from those sources can be incorporated into your
assessment.
 Begin with simpler item types, then proceed to more complex, from easy to
difficult, from concrete to abstract. Usually this means going from selection to
supply-type items. Selection-type items would usually begin with the most
limited selection type (true-false) and progress to multiple choice or matching in
which options can be used more than once. The objective is to determine what
the student knows. If more difficult items appear early in the test, the student
may spend too much time on them and not get to the simpler ones that he/she
can answer. For the test, we were planning in example 1d of this module, we
would begin with true-false, followed in order by short answer, multiple choice,
and the performance tasks
 Group items of the same type (true-false, multiple choice, etc.) together so that
you only write directions for that item type once. Once you have a good set of
directions for a particular type of item, save them so you can use them again the
next time you use that same type of item.
 Check to see that directions for marking/scoring (point values, etc.) are included
with each type of item.
 Provide directions for recording responses, and have students circle or underline
correct responses when possible rather than writing them to avoid problems
arising from poor handwriting.
 If a group of items of the same type (multiple choice, etc.) carry over from one
page to another, repeat the directions at the top of the second page.
 All parts of an item should be on the same page.
 If graphs, tables, charts, or illustrations are used, put them near the questions
based on them (on the same page, if at all possible).
 Check to see that items are independent (one item does not supply the answer or
a clue to the answer of another question).
 Make sure the reading level is appropriate for your students. (This may be a
problem with tests supplied by textbook publishers).
 Space the items for easy reading.
 Leave appropriate space for writing answers if completion/short answer, listing,
or essay questions are used. (Younger children need larger spaces than older
students because their print/handwriting is larger.)
 When possible, have answers recorded in a column down either the left or right
side of the paper to facilitate scoring.
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 Decide if students are to mark answers on the test, use a separate answer sheet,
or use a blank sheet of paper. Usually separate answer sheets are not
recommended for students in primary or early elementary grades.
 Include on the answer sheet (or on the test if students put answers on the test
itself) a place for the student's name and the date.
 Make an answer key. (This is easy to do as you write the questions.)
 Check the answer key for a response pattern. If necessary, rearrange the order of
questions within a question type so the correct answers appear to be in a random
order.
 Set the test aside for awhile.
 Re-read the questions; proofread the test one last time before duplication. If
possible, have someone else read the test as well.
 Prepare a copy of the test for each student (plus 2 or 3 extra copies). Questions
written on the board may cause difficulties for students with visual problems.
Reading the test questions to the students (except in the case of spelling tests)
can be problematic for students with deficiencies in attention, hearing,
comprehension, or short-term memory.
 Plan accommodations for individual students when appropriate.

8.12 Test Administration

A teacher's test administration procedures can have great impact on student test
performance. As you will see in the guidelines below, test administration involves more
than simply handling out and collecting the test.

Before the test:

 Avoid instilling anxiety
 Give as many of the necessary oral directions as possible before distributing the
tests, but keep them to a minimum.
 Tell students purpose of the test.
 Give test-taking hints about guessing, skipping and coming back, etc.
 Tell students the amount of time allowed for the test. You may want to put the
length of time remaining for the test on the board. This can be changed
periodically to help students monitor their progress. If a clock is prominently
available, an alternative would be to write the time at which they must be
finished.
 Tell the students how to signal you if they have a question.
 Tell the students what to do with their papers when they are finished (how
papers are to be collected).
 Tell the students what they are to do when they are finished, particularly if they
are to go on to another activity (also write these directions on the chalkboard so
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 they can refer back to them).
 Rotate the method of distributing papers so you don't always start from the left
or the front row.
 Make sure the room is well lighted and has a comfortable temperature.
 If a student is absent, write his/her name on a blank copy of the test as a
reminder that it needs to be made up.

After Distributing Test Papers

 Remind students to put their names on their papers (and where to do so).
 If the test has more than one page, have each student check to see that all pages
are there.

During the Test

 Minimize interruptions and distractions.
 Avoid giving hints.
 Monitor to check student progress and discourage cheating.
 Give time warnings if students are not pacing their work appropriately.
 Make a note of any questions students ask during the test so that items can be
revised for future use.

After the Test

 Grade the papers (and add comments if you can); do test analysis (see the
module on test analysis) after scoring and before returning papers to students if
at all possible. If it is impossible to do your test analysis before returning the
papers, be sure to do it at another time. It is important to both evaluation of your
students and improvement of your tests.
 If you are recording grades, record them in pencil in your grade book before
returning papers. If there are errors/adjustments in grading, they (grades) are
easier to change when recorded in pencil.
 Return papers in a timely manner.
 Discuss test items with the students. If students have questions, agree to look
over their papers again, as well as the papers of others who have the same
question. It is usually better not to agree to make changes in grades on the spur
of the moment while discussing the tests with the students but to give yourself
time to consider what action you want to take. The test analysis may have
already alerted you to a problem with a particular question that is common to
several students, and you may already have made a decision regarding that
question (to disregard the question and reduce the highest possible score
accordingly, to give all students credit for that question, etc.).

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8.13 Self Assessment Questions
1. The control group scored 47.26 on the pretest. Does this score represent nominal,
ordinal, or interval scale data?
2. The control group's score of 47.26 on the pretest put it at the 26th percentile.
Does this percentile score represent nominal, ordinal, or interval scale data?
3. The control group had a standard deviation of 7.78 on the pretest. Does this
standard deviation represent nominal, ordinal, or interval scale data?
4. Construct a frequency distribution with suitable class interval size of marks
obtained by 50 students of a class are given below:
23, 50, 38, 42, 63, 75, 12, 33, 26, 39, 35, 47, 43, 52, 56, 59, 64, 77, 15, 21, 51,
54, 72, 68, 36, 65, 52, 60, 27, 34, 47, 48, 55, 58, 59, 62, 51, 48, 50, 41, 57, 65,
54, 43, 56, 44, 30, 46, 67, 53
5. The Lakers scored the following numbers of goals in their last twenty matches:
3, 0, 1, 5, 4, 3, 2, 6, 4, 2, 3, 3, 0, 7, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 3
6. Which number had the highest frequency?
7. Which letter occurs the most frequently in the following sentence?

THE SUN ALWAYS SETS IN THE WEST.

8. Pi is a special number that is used to find the area of a circle. The following
number gives the first 100 digits of the number pi:
141 592 653 589 793 238 462 643 383 279 502 884 197 169 399 375 105 820
974 944 592 307 816 406 286 208 998 628 034 825 342 117 067
Which of the digits 0 to 9 occurs most frequently in this number?
9. Identify by correctly labeling the following graphic illustrations of results of a
five point quiz taken by ten students.

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1. In each data set given, find the mean of the group
a) Times were recorded when learners played a game
Time in
36 - 45 46 - 55 56 - 65 66 - 75 76 - 85 86 - 95 96 - 105
seconds
Frequency 5 11 15 26 19 13 6
b) The following data were collected from a group of learners
Time in
41 - 45 46 - 50 51 - 55 56 - 60 61 - 65 66 - 70 71 - 75 76 - 80
seconds
Frequency 3 5 8 12 14 9 7 2
11. Following are the wages of 8 workers of a factory. Find the range and the
coefficient of range. Wages in (Rs) 14000, 14500, 15200, 13800, 14850, 14950,
15750, 14400.
12. The following distribution gives the numbers of houses and the number of
persons per house.
Number of Persons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of Houses 26 113 120 95 60 42 21 14 5 4
Calculate the range and coefficient of range.

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8.14 References Suggested Readings
Huff, D. (1954). How to lie with statistics. New York: Norton.
Bertrand, A., & Cehula, J. P. (1980). Tests, measurement, and evaluation: A
developmental approach. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Chapter 7 provides an
innovative presentation of most of the topics covered in the present chapter.
Ebel, R. L., & Frisbie, D. A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement (5th ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapters 7 through 12 are especially useful
for helping teachers develop classroom achievement tests. Chapter 14 discusses
observation and informal data collection techniques. Chapters 16 through 18
provide useful information on using standardized tests.
Hills, J. R. (1986). All of Hills' handy hints. Columbus, OH: Merrill. This is a collection
of articles originally published inEducational measurement: Issues and
practice. The articles offer practical and interesting insights into fallacies in the
interpretation of test scores. (Incidentally, the original journal provides
theoretically sound guidelines that are easy to understand.)
Kubiszyn, T., & Borich, G. (1987). Educational tests and measurement: Classroom
application and practice. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company. The
chapter on data presentation provides useful and practical guidelines for
communicating data effectively through graphs and diagrams.
Lyman, H. B. (1986). Test scores and what they mean (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall. This book provides a detailed discussion of the interpretation of
test scores.
Tufte, E. R. (1983). The visual display of quantitative information. Cheshire, CT: Graphic
Press. This book offers interesting examples of how to display information and
discusses strategies for presenting data graphically.
Wainer, H. (1992). Understanding graphs and tables. Educational Researcher, 21, 14-23.
This article presents strategies for employing and interpreting sophisticated yet
understandable graphs to display quantitative data.
Worthen, B. R., Borg, W. R., & White, K. R. (1993). Measurement and evaluation in the
schools. New York: Longman. Chapter 5 presents a practical discussion of the
meaning of test scores.
Gellman, E. (1995). School testing: What parents and educators need to know. Westport,
CT:
Praeger. Hamill, D. (1987) Assessing the abilities and instructional needs of
students. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Salvia, J. & Ysseldyke, J. (1992)Assessment in
special and remedial education, 5th edition. Boston:
Houghton-Mifflin.

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