CHAPTER 1

MUD WEIGHT, MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY AND pH

A. MUD WEIGHT OR DENSITY TEST:

Theory
The density of the drilling fluid must be controlled to provide adequate hydrostatic head to prevent
influx of formation fluids, but not so high as to cause loss of circulation or adversely affect the
drilling rate and damaging the formation.
Normal pressure gradient by water is equal to (0.433 psi/ft) and equal to 433 psi/1000 ft.

Test Equipment
The Mud Balance as shown below is used to determine density of the drilling fluid. The instrument
consists of a constant volume cup with a lever arm and rider calibrated to read directly the density of
the fluid in ppg (water 8.33), pcf (water 62.4), specific gravity (water = 1.0) and pressure gradient in
psi/1000 ft. (water 433 psi/1000 ft.)

Figure 1.1: Typical Mud Balance

Calibration
1. Remove the lid from the cup, and completely fill the cup with water.
2. Replace the lid and wipe dry.
3. Replace the balance arm on the base with knife-edge resting on the fulcrum.
4. The level vial should be centered when the rider is set on 8.33. If not, add to or remove shot
from the well in the end of the bream.
Test Procedure
1. Remove the lid from the cup, and completely fill the cup with the mud to be tested.
2. Replace the lid and rotate until firmly seated, making sure some mud is expelled through the
hole in the cup.
3. Wash or wipe the mud from the outside of the cup.
4. Place the balance arm on the base, with the knife-edge resting on the fulcrum.
5. Move the rider until the graduated arm is level, as indicated by the level vial on the beam.
6. At the left-hand edge of the rider, read the density on either side of the lever in all desired
units without disturbing the rider.
7. Note down mud temperature corresponding to density.
 B. MUD VISCOSITY:
Theory
The viscosity of a fluid is defined as its resistance to flow. The desired viscosity for a particular drilling
operation is influenced by several factors, including mud density, hole size, pumping rate, drilling
rate, pressure system and requirements, and hold problems. The indicated viscosity as obtained by
any instrument is valid only for that rate of shear and will differ to some degree when measured at a
different rate of shear.
For field measurements the marsh funnel has become the standard instrument.
Test Equipment
The Marsh Funnel is a device that is common to every drilling rig. Figure 1.2 shows an image of the
Marsh Funnel and receiving cup. The viscosity is reported in seconds allowed to flow out of the
funnel. API specifications call for 1500 ml and one quart (946) ml out.
For API water at 70 F + 0.5oF = 26 + 0.5 sec. The Marsh Funnel measures the apparent viscosity.

Figure 1.2: Marsh Funnel and One-liter Cup

Calibration
Fill the funnel to the bottom of the screen (1500 ml) with water at 70 F (plus or minus 0.5 F) time of
outflow of the quart (946 ml) should be 26 seconds plus or minus 1/2 second.

Test Procedure
1. With the funnel in an upright position, cover the orifice with a finger and pour the freshly
collected mud sample through the screen into a clean, dry funnel until the fluid level reaches
the bottom of the screen (1500 ml).
2. Immediately remove the finger from the outlet and measure the time required for the mud
to fill the receiving vessel to the 1-quart (946 ml) level.
3. Report the result to the nearest second as Marsh Funnel Viscosity at the temperature of the
measurement in degrees Fahrenheit or Centigrade.
 C. HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION (pH):
Theory

The acidity and the alkalinity of the drilling fluid can be measured by the concentration of the H+ ion
in the fluid. As for instance, if H+ is large (1 x 10-1), then the OH- hydroxyl concentration is very low (1
x 10-13), the solution is strongly acidic. If the (OH-) concentration is (1 x 10-1) very high then (H+)
concentration is very low then the solution is strongly alkaline. The pH of a solution is the logarithm
of the reciprocal of the (H +) concentration in grams moles per liter, expresses as:
1
𝑝𝐻 = 𝑙𝑜 𝑔 { } = − log 𝐻 +
𝐻+

Example: If the solution is neutral then H+ and OH- concentrations are the same equal to 1 x 10-7.
1
𝑝𝐻 = log ( ) = − log[1 𝑥 10−7 ] = − [−7] = 7.00
1 𝑥 10−7
Therefore, if the pH of a mixture drops from 7.0 to 6.0, the number of (H+) increase ten times.

The pH of a mud seldom is below 7 and in most cases fall between 8 and 12.5 depending upon the
type of mud. The pH is important because the pH affects the solubility of the organic thinners and
the dispersion of clays presents in the mud.

Methods of measuring pH in the laboratory

1. The pH Paper: The pH paper strips have dyes absorbed into the paper display certain colors
in certain pH ranges. It is useful, inexpensive method to determine pH in fresh water muds.
The main disadvantage is that high concentrations of salts (10,000 ppm chloride) will alter
the color change and cause inaccuracy.
2. The pH Meter: The pH meter is an electric device utilizing glass electrodes to measure a
potential difference and indicate directly by dial reading the pH of the sample. The pH meter
is the most accurate method of measuring pH.

Figure 1.4: pH Meter

EXPERIMENT
The Laboratory Test:

1. Take 2 samples of drilling mud

2. Stir the samples for 2 minutes and determine:
a. The Mud Weight
b. Marsh Funnel Viscosity in seconds
c. pH value using
i. pH meter
ii. Hydrion papers / pH paper

Tabulate your results in the following format:

o o
Room temperature: F/ C

Sample No. Mud Weight Marsh Funnel pH (hydrogen ion

viscosity concentration)

ppg psi/1000 pp/ft3 seconds pHydrion pH meter

QUESTIONS

Answer the following:

1. List any five (5) very important functions of the drilling fluid?
2. What requirements should a drilling fluid meet?
3. Using the mud weights (ppg) obtained for Samples #1 and 2 of your experiment, calculate,
how much hydrostatic pressure that each sample will exert on a formation at a depth of
10,000 ft.
4. What is the difference between Over-balance and Under-balance?
5. Estimate the mud weight needed to balance a formation pressure equivalent to 10,000 ft.
depth with 0.561 psi/ft. pressure gradient.
 CHAPTER 2
MUD RHEOLOGY TEST
VISCOSITY, GEL STRENGTH AND YIELD POINT
Introduction:

Rheology refers to the deformation and flow behavior of all forms of matter. Certain rheologic
measurements made on fluids, such as viscosity, gel strength, etc. help determine how this fluid will
flow under a variety of different conditions. This information is important in the design of circulating
systems required to accomplish certain desired objectives in drilling operations.

A. VISCOSITY:
Theory

Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a fluid to flow and is measured as the ratio of the shearing
stress to the rate of shearing strain.

Two types of fluid characterizations are:

1. Newtonian (true fluids) where the ratio of shear stress to shear rate or viscosity is constant,
e.g. water, light oils, etc. and
2. Non-Newtonian (plastic fluids) where the viscosity is not constant, e.g. drilling muds,
colloids, etc.

Figure 2.1: Flow Curves of Newtonian and non-Newtonian Fluids

Test Equipment
The Fann (Model 286) Rheometer is a coaxial cylindrical rotational viscometer, used to determine
single or multi-point viscosities. It has fixed speeds of 3 (GEL), 100, 200, 300 and 600 RPM that are
switch selectable with the RPM knob. Additionally, the same switch set to the VAR position enables
speed selection of between 3 and 625 RPM, by manual adjustment of the variable knob.

Figure 2.2: Variable Speed Rheometer

Test Procedure

1. Fill the cup with a recently agitated sample to the scribe line. Tilt back the upper housing of
the rheometer, locate the cup under the sleeve (the pins on the bottom of the cup fit into
the holes in the base plate), and lower the upper housing to its normal position.
2. Turn the knurled knob between the rear support posts to raise or lower the rotor sleeve
until it is immersed in the sample to the scribe line.
3. Stir the sample for about 5 seconds at 600 RPM, then select the RPM desired speed for the
test.
4. Wait for the dial reading to stabilize (the time depends on the sample's characteristics).
5. Record the dial reading and RPM.

Rheological Calculations
Plastic viscosity (in centpoise, cp):

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = µ𝑝 = 600 𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 300 𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

Apparent Viscosity (in centpoise, cp):
600 𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = µ𝑎 =
2

Yield Point (in lb/100ft2):

𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑌. 𝑃. = 300 𝑅𝑃𝑀 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

B. GEL STRENGTH:

Theory
The Fann Rheometer is also used to determine the Gel strength, in lb/100 sq. ft., of a mud. The Gel
strength is a function of the inter-particle forces. An initial 10-second gel and a 10-minute gel
strength measurement give an indication of the amount of gellation that will occur after circulation
ceased and the mud remains static. The more the mud gels during shutdown periods, the more
pump pressure will be required to initiate circulation again.

Most drilling muds are either colloids or emulsions which behave as plastic or non-Newtonian fluids.
The flow characteristics of these differ from those of Newtonian fluids (i.e. water, light oils, etc.) in
that their viscosity is not constant but varied with the rate of shear, as shown in Figure 2.1.
Therefore, the viscosity of plastic fluid will depend on the rate of shear at which the measurements
were taken.
Tets Procedures

1. Stir a sample at 600 RPM for about 15 seconds.

2. Turn the RPM knob to the STOP position.
3. Wait the desired rest time (normally 10 seconds or 10 minutes).
4. Switch the RPM knob to the GEL position.
5. Record the maximum deflection of the dial before the Gel breaks, as the Gel strength in
lb/100 ft2.

NB: (lb/100 ft2 x 5.077 = Gel strength in dynes/cm2).

C. YIELD POINT:

Theory

This is the measure of the electro-chemical or attractive forces in the mud under flow (dynamic)
conditions. These forces depend on :
 surface properties of the mud solids,
 volume concentrations of the solids and
 electrical environment of the solids.
The yield point of the mud reflects its ability to carry drilled cuttings out of the hole.

Calculation:
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 300 𝑅𝑃𝑀 − 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
EXPERIMENT
1. Obtain 2 recently agitated mud
2. Using the Baroid Rheometer, obtain dial readings at 3, 300 and 600 RPM.
3. By means of the rheological calculations procedure, determine the Apparent and Plastic
Viscosities, Yield Point and initial 10 sec. and final 10-minute Gel Strength parameters.

4. Tabulate your results as in the given table below:

MUD RHEOLOGY TEST WATER BASE MUD

Sample Viscosity, cP Gel Strength, lb/100ft2

No.
ɸ600 ɸ300 µp µa Yp Initial 10 sec Final 10 min.
lb/100ft2 gel gel

QUESTIONS

1. (a)What is Plastic Viscosity?

(b) What does it characterize?
(c)What is the difference between the Plastic Viscosity and Apparent viscosity of a drilling
fluid?
2. Which role does Gel Strength play in the drilling process?
3. What type of fluids does drilling fluid belong to?
4. (a) What is the Yield Point?
(b) What does it characterize?
(c)What is the difference between Gel Strength and Yield Point of a drilling mud?

5. Explain what you know about one point and two points curve fluids? Give one example of each
type of fluid.
 CHAPTER 3
FILTRATION, WALL BUILDING, AND RESISTIVITY
A. FILTRATION:
Theory

The loss of liquid from a mud due to filtration is controlled by the filter cake formed of the solid
constituents in the drilling fluid. The test in the laboratory consists of measuring the volume of liquid
forced through the mud cake into the formation drilled in a 30 minute period under given pressure
and temperature using a standard size cell.

It has been found in early work that the volume of fluid lost is roughly proportional to the square
root of the time for filtration, i.e.

𝑉 ∝ √𝑡
The two commonly determined filtration rates are the low-pressure, low-temperature and the high-
pressure high-temperature.

Test Equipment

The low pressure test is made using standard cell under the API condition of 100 ± 5 psi for 30
minutes at room temperature. Another special cell, the HPHT filter press can be used to measure
filtration rate at elevated temperatures and pressure.

The OFITE filter press used for filtration tests consists of six independent filter cells mounted on a
common frame. Each cell has its own valve such that any or all the cells could be operational at the
same time. Toggle valve on the top of each cell could be operated independently for the supply of
air for each individual cell.

Special high pressure and high temperature filtration tests are run in the laboratory simulating
formation temperature and formation back- pressure.

Fig 3.1: Standard API Filter Press

Fig 3.2: High Temperature High Pressure Filter Press
Test Procedure For Filtration Rate At 100 Psi & Room Temperature

1. Assemble the test cell in this order: Base cup, Rubber gasket, Screen, Sheet of filter paper,
Rubber gasket and Cell body
2. Fill the cell with test sample to within 0.5" of the top.
3. Place the rubber gasket in place in the top cup and set it on the cell and mount this unit in
the frame. Secure the cell with T-screw.
4. Place a dry graduated cylinder under the filter tube.
5. Attach a regulated pressure source to the inlet port of the pressure manifold and apply 100
PSI pressure to the filter cell by opening the valve above the cell(s) to be tested. The time of
test begins at that moment.
6. At the end of 1, 4, 7.5, 9, 16, 25, 30, and 36 minutes, measure the volume of filtrate and
record it.
7. After that close the valve of nitrogen cylinder and open the safety bleeder valve. This will
release the pressure of the entire system.

B. WALL BUILD:

Measurement Procedure for Mud Cake Thickness (32nd of an inch or cm)

After the filtration process described above, disassemble the cell and remove the filter paper from
the cup. The mud cake is deposited on filter paper. Wash excess off the mud from the cake gently
with water and measure its thickness.

It should be reported in thirty-second of an inch in whole number. Vernier caliper could be used to
measure the thickness, however, while measuring care should be taken not to press vernier jaw on
mud cake to penetrate through.

Results on mud cake thickness should be reported in whole number.

Example: 0.75/32" should be reported as 1/32. I.e. closest to the whole number.
Likewise 1.75/32" should be reported as 2/32"
 C. MUD RESISTIVITY:
Theory

The resistivity (Wm) of a drilling mud is influenced by the dissolved salts (ppm) or (gpg, grain per
gallon) in the water portion and the insoluble solid material contained in the water portion. The
greater the concentration of dissolved salts, the lower resistivity of the solution. Unlike metals, the
resistivity of a solution decreases as temperature increases. It is necessary to measure resistivity
because the mud, mud cake, mud filtrate resistivity exert a strong effect on the electric logs taken in
that mud. The mud resistivity varies greatly from the actual resistivity values due to the various
factors encountered in the actual operation.

Test Equipment

Equipment used is the OFITE Resistivity Meter (Fig. 3.3).

Figure 3.3: Digital Resistivity Meter

Upon turning on the resistivity meter, the display screen will show the temperature and either
Resistivity or Concentration of NaCl. To change the measurement reading, press the “Menu” button,
then press the “Units” button to toggle between Resistivity and Concentration of NaCl. Press the
“Select” button to save your choice.
To change the units, press the “Units” key repeatedly until you reach the desired units. Press the
“Select” button to save your choice. The “Units” button offers the following options:

a. Degrees C
b. Degrees F
c. Concentration in Parts Per Million (ppm)
d. Concentration in Kilo Parts Per Million (kppm)
e. Concentration in Grains Per Gallon (gr/gal)
Measurement Procedure for Mud Cake Resistivity
1. Remove excess water from filter cake.
2. Fill the slot on top of the cell with mud cake. Be sure the sample fills the area between the
two metal posts in the cell.
3. Connect the cell to the two terminal posts on the meter. Wait for the sample to reach room
temperature.
4. Reading on the meter is the resistivity of mud cake.
5. Record the resistivity of the mud cake and the temperature of the cell.
6. Remove the cell and clean thoroughly with distilled water.

Measurement Procedure For Mud Filtrate Resistivity

1. Use the suction bulb to pull the sample into the lucite cell. Empty and refill the cell several
times to thoroughly wet the cylinder walls.
2. Connect the cell to the two terminal posts on the meter. Be sure the sample fills the area
between the two metal posts in the cell.
3. Wait for the sample to reach room temperature.
The reading on the meter is the resistivity of the mud (when testing mud it may be necessary
to allow 3-5 minutes after putting mud in the cell before taking a reading to allow cell and
the mud filtrate to reach temperature equilibrium).
4. Record the resistivity reading and the temperature of the cell.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe how the filter cake is formed on the walls of a hole during a normal drilling
operation.
2. What are the factors controlling the rate of filtration?
3. What is sloughing of shale and how can it be controlled?
 CHAPTER 4
CONTROL OF MUD WEIGHT
A. EFFECT OF ADDING BENTONITE ON MUD PROPERTIES FOR FRESH AND SALT WATER BASE
MUD:

Procedure

1. Add to every 400 cc batch of fresh water base mud 2, 4, 6 and 8 grams of bentonite and stir
for 10 minutes.
2. Measure the density in lb/gal, viscosity (apparent and plastic) and yield point in lb/100 ft,
using the Rheometer for every batch.
3. Add 20.6 ml of 10% by weight salt water to every batch. Stir for 5 minutes and repeat step
(2).
4. Report all the results (density, viscosities, yield) for every batch in a convenient table. Plot
them versus the amount of bentonite in gram in two plots, one for fresh water and the other
for salt water.

Include the following points in your discussions:

 Discuss the effect of adding bentonite on density.

 Discuss the effect of adding bentonite on the rheological properties.
 Correlate and justify the results obtained for fresh and salt water.
 What is the effect on yield point?

B. EFFECT OF ADDING WEIGHT MATERIAL (BARITE):

Theory

Barite was first used, in California, in a well being re-drilled with cable tools in 1923. According to
that case, density of the mud was raised to 90 lb/ft3 (1.44 g/cm3) to control gas in flow and to stop
caving.

One function of barite has developed - the preparation of a temporary high-density plug formed
from slurry of a barite in water (2.65 S.G). Such slurry contains the maximum concentration of barite
that is used -about 750 lb/bbl (2100 kg/cm3). The minimum concentration of barite might be as low
as 10 lb/bbl (28 kg/m3), although usually it would be substantially higher.

The quantity of barite required to raise the density of a given volume of mud a specific amount can
be readily calculated from the relation, in consistent units:
𝑉𝑜 𝜌𝑜 + 𝑉𝐵 𝜌𝐵 4.3 ∗ 𝑉𝑜 (𝜌𝑓 − 𝜌0 )
𝜌𝑓 = ⇒ 𝑊𝑡𝐵 =
𝑉𝑜 + 𝑉𝐵 𝜌𝐵 − 𝜌𝑓

Where:
𝜌𝑓 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝜌𝑜 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

 𝜌𝐵 = 𝐵𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 35.82 ppg
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝐵 = 𝐵𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑊𝑡𝐵 = 𝐵𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

NB: Specific gravity of Barite = 4.3

Test Procedure

1. Calculate and list the amount of barite required to increase the density of each batch from
8.6 ppg to 9, 10, 11 and 12 ppg.
2. Obtain 400 cc of original base mud (density 8.6)
3. Add the calculated amount of barite to each batch, stir for about 2 minutes and measure the
Apparent and Plastic Viscosities and Yield Point.
4. Repeat step 3 for Salt water-base mud.
5. Tabulate the results and plot the density (ppg ), viscosity (apparent and plastic) and yield
point versus the amount of barite added.

C. WATER-BACK (ADDING WATER TO A CHEMICALLY TREATED MUD):

1. Obtain a 350 c.c. of water base mud of 13.5 ppg weight and 9.5 pH.
2. Add water incrementally and measure the Mud weight every time to reach 10.5 ppg and
same (9.5) pH.
3. Measure the viscosity and gel-strength and check if any change occurred.
4. List your results in an appropriate table.

QUESTIONS

1. List the advantages obtained by adding weighting material to mud.

2. List three (3) names of weighting material.
3. What are the disadvantages of adding solids to the water based mud?
4. Give reasons for adding water to your mud.
 CHAPTER 6
SOLID & LIQUID CONTENT AND EMULSION CHARACTERISTICS OF DRILLING
FLUID

A. SAND CONTENT DETERMINATION:

Theory

Periodic sand content determination of drilling mud is desirable, because excessive sand may result
in the deposition of a thick filter cake on the wall of the hole, or may settle in the hole about the
tools when circulation is stopped, thus interfering with successful operation of drilling tools or
setting of casting. High sand content also may cause excessive abrasion of pump parts and pipe
connections.

Sand content is determined by elutriation, settling, or sieve analysis. Of the three methods, sieve
analysis is preferred because of reliability of test and simplicity of equipment. The volume of sand,
including void spaces between grains, is usually measured and expressed as percentage by volume
of the mud.

Test Equipment:

The Sand Content Set consists of a 200-mesh sieve, funnel, and a glass measuring tube calibrated
from 0 to 20% to read directly the percentage sand by volume.

Figure 6.1: Sand Content Set

Test Procedure
1. Pour mud into the Sand Content Tube until it fills up to the mark labeled "Mud to Here".
Then add water to the mark labeled "Water to Here". Cover mouth of the tube with thumb
and shake vigorously.
2. Pour this mixture through the screen, being careful to wash everything out of the tube with
clear water through the same screen. Wash sand retained on screen with a stream of water
to remove all mud and shale particles.
3. Fit funnel down over top of screen, invert slowly turning tip of funnel into mouth of tube,
and wash sand back into tube with a fine spray of clear water on the back side of the screen.
Allow the sand to settle.
4. Observe the quantity of sand settled in the calibrated tube as the sand content of the mud.

Report the sand content of the mud in percent by volume (% by volume). Take into account coarse
solids obtained on the screen.

NB:

 In step 2 of the procedure, the pouring of the mud and water mixture through the screen
can be facilitated by tapping the side of the screen with a spatula handle.
 Contents retained on the screen in Step 2 of the procedure should not be mashed, stirred, or
mutually forced through the screen with a finger, pencil, or the like, as this will give an
erroneous reading and may pull the screen loose from the side of the container.

B. EMULSION TEST

Theory
Emulsion testers are used to indicate the stability and type of emulsion whether water-in-oil or oil-
in-water. They are used in the evaluation of inverted emulsion drilling fluids, cements, and fracturing
fluids. Time stability and resistance to electrolyte contamination of these systems can be predicted
from a measurement of relative emulsion stability.

Test Equipment

Figure 6.2: Ofite Emulsion stability meter

Test Procedure
1. Pre-heat the oil mud sample to 120°F (48.8°C).
2. Pour the sample through a 12-mesh screen or Marsh Funnel screen into a glass or plastic
container. Do not use a metal container. Record the mud temperature
3. Hand stir the sample with the electrode probe for approximately 10 seconds. This will help
create a uniform composition and temperature. Position the electrode probe so that it does
not touch the bottom or sides of the container. Be sure the electrode surfaces are
completely covered by the sample.
4. Push the button to begin the voltage ramp. Do not move the electrode during the voltage
ramp.
5. At the conclusion of the ramp test, note the ES value displayed on the readout.
6. Repeat the above procedure with the same mud sample. The two ES values should not differ
by more than 5%. If they differ by more than 5%, the meter or electrode should be checked.
7. Record the average of the two ES measurements

C. OIL, WATER, SOLID & CLAY CONTENT DETERMINATION:

Theory

Knowledge of the liquid and solids content of a drilling mud is essential for good control of the mud
properties. Such information will often explain poor performance of the mud and indicate whether
the mud can best be conditioned by the addition of water or whether treatment with chemical
thinner or the removal of the contaminant is required. Similarly, proper control of an oil emulsion
mud depends upon a knowledge of the oil content.

For muds containing only water and solids, the quantity of each can be determined from the mud
density and from the evaporation of a weighed sample of mud. Oil and water content can also be
obtained measuring the liquid fraction. The latter method is only applicable to oil emulsion muds.

Test Equipment

The apparatus required to determine the oil, water and solids content of the mud is included in the
The Ofite Oil and Water Retort Kit

Figure 6.3: Oil/Water Retort Kit

Test Procedure
1. Lift retort assembly, out of insulator block. Using the spatula as a screwdriver, remove the
mud chamber from the retort.
2. Pack the upper chamber with very fine steel wool.
3. Fill mud chamber with mud and replace lid, allowing excess to escape. (This is a point where
error is often introduced. Be sure that no air is trapped in the chamber. An accurate charge
of mud is essential).
4. Wipe off excess mud and screw mud chamber into upper chamber.
5. Replace retort in insulator block and put insulation cover in place.
6. Place a clean, dry liquid receiver under the condenser discharge tube
7. Connect the retort to an electrical outlet to turn it on. Observe the liquid exiting the
condenser. Continue heating for ten minutes beyond the time that no more condensate is
being collected. (If whole mud boils over into the receiver tube, the test must be rerun. Pack
the retort body with a larger amount of steel wool and rerun the test. Allow it to run a
minimum of 45 minutes.) The light on the front of the retort will turn on while the heaters
are engaged.
8. Remove the liquid receiver and allow it to cool. After it has cooled to ambient temperature,
read and record the volumes (or volume percentage) of the following:
a. total liquid volume
b. oil volume
c. water volume

NOTE:

Nearly 100% recovery of refined oil will be obtained with this retort. If the mud is made up with
crude oil, calibration runs should be made on mud containing a known percentage of the crude
used. Recovery on some crudes may be as low as 60%. If the distillation is being carried on for more
than 30 minutes, the retort should be removed occasionally in the uncontrolled units and observed
for temperature. In any case, the retort should never be heated above a DULL RED HEAT. The heater
will burn out is left on too long.
THEORY AND CALCULATIONS OF SOLID CONTENT
The solid phase of a drilling mud units of two components, i.e.

 High specific gravity solids with a specific gravity of 4.3

 Low specific gravity solids with a specific gravity of 2.5.

The total solids phase, in volume %, is found by the Oil and Water Retort.

The information (data) from the retort test can be used to calculate the average specific gravity of
solids, the % of different types of solids, and the % solids by weight in the mud, as shown below:

NOTE: The accuracy of your calculations depends on the retort test data. These care should be taken
while running the equipment to ensure good results.

CALCULATIONS
A ⇒ % oil by volume = ml oil x 10

B ⇒ % water by volume = ml water x 10

C ⇒ % solids by volume = 100 - (ml oil + ml water) x 10

*D ⇒ Grams oil = corrected ml oil x 0.8

E ⇒ Grams water = ml water

F ⇒ Grams mud = lb/gal mud weight x 1.2

G ⇒ Grams solids = F - (D + E)

H ⇒ ml solids = 10 - (ml oil + ml water)

𝐺
I ⇒ Average specific gravity of solids =
𝐻
𝐺
J ⇒ Solids % by weight = 𝑥 100
𝐹

K ⇒ High gravity (4.3) solids % by volume = (I - 2.5) x 55.6

L-Low gravity (2.5) solids % by volume = 100 - K

* Corrected ml of oil = ml of oil

Table 6.1: Specific Gravity and Percent by Weight of Mud Contents

Sp. Gr. of Solids 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.3

% by Weight Barite 0 18 34 48 60 71 81 89 100

% by Weight Clay 100 82 66 52 40 29 19 11 0

Presentation of Experimental Results
1. Using your calculated results of the average specific gravity of solids, determine the solid
content of each of the samples from Table 6.1 (either directly or by interpolation, whichever
is applicable).
2. Present the results of your findings in (1) in an appropriate table.

QUESTIONS

1. From the results of your experiment in part (A), is there a correlation between the mud
weight of the sample and the % sand by volume? Explain.
2. What problems are you likely to encounter during drilling operations if you have a high sand
content in your drilling mud?
3. What is the importance of conducting Emulsion Stability tests on drilling fluids?
4. From the results of your experiment in part (C), which of the samples has the highest clay
content?
 CHAPTER 7
OIL WELL CEMENTING EXPERIMENT

WATER RATIOS FOR PORTLAND CEMENT SLURRY

Objective

To show the effects of varying amounts of mixing water on the physical properties of Portland
cement. These properties are Free Water Separation, Normal and Minimum Water Content and
Thickening Time.

Test Equipment

The Atmospheric Consistometer consists of a Stainless Steel Water bath that houses the slurry
containers. An instrument panel houses components that allow control of the bath at any
temperature from ambient to 93oC, and rotation of the slurry containers at 150 RPM. Units of
consistency of the cement are directly indicated on the top dials of the slurry containers. The
containers are rotated by engaging the pins of the lid in the slots of the rotator. The rotators have
timing sprockets, belt driven by a gear-head motor. The belt also drives an impeller, which agitates
the bath water. The motor should be turned off while engaging or disengaging the containers.
Temperature is indicated and controlled by a Thermocouple actuated Potentiometric Type
Temperature Controller. The Controller actuates a relay, controlling a 1,500- watt heater. Switches
and Pilot Lights are provided as required by the operation. A dial thermometer indicates bath
temperature when the temperature controller indicator is off the scale. The entire instrument has
overall dimensions of 15" (39 cm) wide x 15" (38 cm) deep x 19" (48 cm) high.

Fig. 7.1: Atmospheric Consistometer Fig. 7.2 Pressurized Consistometer

 A. FREE WATER SEPARATION
Test Procedure

1. Weight out 400 grams of cement into each of three quart jars. The dry cement sample
should be passed through the sieve in order to remove lumps and foreign materials. The
cement temperature should be about 80oF.
2. Prepare 170 cc, 190 cc and 210 cc of sweet water into three 250 graduate cylinders. This
amount of water will produce cement slurries with water to cement ratio of 0.425, 0.574,
and 0.525 by weight.
3. Add the cement samples to the three water volumes in a metal quarts while the mixer was
on low speed. When all cement has been added, turn the blender to high speed, and mix the
slurry for 35 seconds.
4. Pour 225 c.c. of slurry into 250 c.c. graduated cylinder. Tightly cover them with aluminium
foil. Allow to stand for two hours.
5. Carefully decant the free water and measure in a 10 c.c. graduated cylinder. Do this for each
slurry. Calculate the per cent (%) free water upon settling.

B. NORMAL & MINIMUM WATER CONTENT OF CEMENT SLURRY:

Test Procedure

1. Prepare 4 slurry samples of varying water to cement ratios, as described in part (A) 1 & 2.
2. Pour the samples immediately into an Atmospheric Consistometer and stir for a period of 20
minutes, under ambient conditions.
3. Record the Consistency immediately after 20 minutes of stirring has elapsed.
4. Determine the Normal and Minimum Water Content.

Definitions

Normal Water Content: This is the water content of slurry yielding a consistency of 11 Bc.
Minimum Water Content:This is the water content of slurry yielding a consistency of 30 Bc.

C. THICKENING TIME TEST:

Definition
This is the amount of time necessary for the cement slurry to reach a consistency of 100 Bc or
poises, at different well temperature, depth and pressure conditions. It also represents the length of
time the slurry is pumpable.

Test Procedure

1. After the cement slurry (Sample 1 Part (B)) is prepared, pour it immediately into the
Atmospheric Consistometer and begin stirring.
2. Record the consistency after every 4 minutes. Tabulate the results in the appropriate table.
3. Plot the Consistency in Bc versus time on a log-log paper and extrapolate the straight time
to 100 Bc, to determine the thickening time.