Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

I. INTRODUCTION

At the completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Build strong foundation in the basic principles of
magnetic circuits and electromagnetic energy conversion.
2. Acquire and apply fundamental principles of science and
engineering.
3. Identify, formulate and model problems and find
engineering solutions based on a systems approach.
4. Work independently as well as with others in a team.
5. Communicate effectively.

Review of Previous materials:

1. Mechanical energy(movement)
2. Rotational energy(movement about an axis-circular)
3. Electrical energy(electron flow)
4. Work (application of force through a distance)
5. Power(rate of doing work)
6. Efficiency(output / input)

Introduction to Machinery Principles

An electric machine is a device that can convert either mechanical energy to electric energy or vice versa.
A generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
A motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
A transformer is a device that converts ac electrical energy at one voltage level to ac electrical energy at
another voltage level.
Mechanical Energy
MOTOR GENERAOTR
Electrical Electrical
Energy Energy
TRANSFORMER

Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from one form to another through the
action of a magnetic field. Another closely related device is the transformer.
In general, transformers operate on the same principles as generators and motors, and are usually
studied together with generators and motors. These three types of electric devices are inevitable in modern
daily life.
1. Motors find applications in several home appliances.
2. In the work place, motors provide the motive power for almost all tools.
3. Generators are essential to supply the power used by all these motors.
The electromagnetic system is a necessary element of all rotating and static electric machinery and
electromechanical devices. The role of electromagnetic system is to establish and control electromagnetic
fields for carrying out conversion of energy, its processing and transfer. Practically all motors and

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

generators, ranging in size from fractional horsepower units found in domestic appliances to the gigantic
several thousand kW motors employed in heavy industries and several hundred megawatt generators
installed in generating stations, depend upon the magnetic field as the coupling medium allowing
interchange of energy in either direction between electrical and mechanical systems. A transformer
though not an electromechanical conversion device, provides a means of transferring electrical energy
between two electrical ports via the medium of a magnetic field. Further, transformer analysis runs
parallel to rotating machine analysis and greatly aids in understanding the latter. It is, therefore, seen that
all electric machines including transformers use the medium of magnetic field for energy conversion and
transfer.

Coupling
Electrical System Field Mechanical System

τ,ω

e, I

Fig. 1. Block representation of electromechanical energy conversion

II. DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES

Definition of terms used in magnetic circuit
1. Magnet: It is a substance having the properties of attracting iron and its alloys.
2. Magnetic field: It is defined as the region of space around a magnet in which there exists a
magnetic force (either force of attraction or force of repulsion). It forms the energy link between
electrical and mechanical systems.
3. Magnetic lines of force: These are the imaginary lines of force in a magnetic field which start
from the North pole, pass through air or magnetic medium, and end at South pole.
4. Magnetic circuit: It is a continuous path occupied by magnetic lines of force.
5. Magnetic flux: It is the number of lines of magnetic force crossing the space occupied by a
magnetic field(φ). It is the group of magnetic field lines that are emitted outward from the N-pole
of a magnet.
6. Magneto-motive-force (m.m.f): It is the force/strength of a magnetic field in a coil of wire which
drives or tries to drive magnetic flux to flow through magnetic circuit and is the analogy to e.m.f.
in electric circuit. It is dependent on the current flowing through the coil (N × i). Its unit is
Ampere-turn.
7. Ampere-turn (AT) is the unit for mmf and is given by the product of number of turns of magnetic
circuit and the current flowing in the turns.
8. Reluctance: this is the term given to the material characteristics that resist the generation of
magnetic flux inside it. It is the opposition offered by a magnetic path to the establishment of
magnetic flux and is the analogy to resistance in electric circuit. (AT/Wb)
Reluctance  = l = l
µA (µ )A
Resistance R = ρl l
=
A 1
  A
ρ

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

9 Permeability: Permeability is the ability of a material to concentrate magnetic lines of force.

10 Permeance: Permeance is reciprocal to reluctance. It is also the analogy to conductance in
electric circuit. Its unit is Henry.
11 Residual magnetism: It is the magnetism which remains in a material even after the effective
magnetizing force has been reduced to zero.

Magnetic Field
The magnetic field in a machine forms the energy link between the electrical and mechanical
systems. It is produced by currents flowing in coils of wire inside the machine, or by a combination of
coils and permanent magnets. It is defined as the region of space around a magnet in which there exists a
magnetic state associated with forces.
1. A current-carrying wire (conductor) produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire if it passes through that coil. This is
the basis of transformer action.
3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it. This is the basis
of motor action.
4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. This is the basis of the
generator action.

Production of Magnetic Field

The basic law governing the production of a magnetic field by a current is Ampere’s Law:
∫ H • dI = I net [1]
Where H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current Inet. The current I is measured in amperes
and H is measured in ampere-turns per meter. To better understand the meaning of this equation, it is
helpful to apply it to a simple example in figure 2. Figure 2 shows a rectangular core with a winding of N
turns of wire wrapped about one leg of the core. If the core is composed of iron or certain other similar
metals (collectively called ferromagnetic materials), essentially all the magnetic field produced by the
current will remain inside the core, so the path of integration in Ampere’s law is the mean path length of
the core lc. The current passing within the path of integration Inet is then Ni, since the coil of wire cuts the
path of integration N times while carrying current i. Ampere’s law thus becomes
Hlc = Ni [2]
Here H is the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity vector H. Therefore, the magnitude of the
magnetic field intensity in the core due to the applied current is
Ni
H = . [3]
lc

Fig. 2. A simple magnetic core

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core(H) also depends on the material of the core.
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity(H) and the resulting magnetic flux density B
produced within a material is given by
B = µH [4]
where H = magnetic field intensity
µ = magnetic permeability of material
B = resulting magnetic flux density produced.
The units of magnetic field intensity are ampere-turns per meter, the units of permeability are henrys per
meter, and the units of the resulting flux density are webers per square meter, known as teslas (T).
The permeability of free space is called µ 0, and is given by
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m . [5]
Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability of materials. For
example, the steels used in modern machines have relative permeabilities of 2000 to 6000 or more. This
means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000 times more flux is established in a piece of steel
than in a corresponding area of air. (the permeability of the air is essentially the same as the one of free
space). Obviously, the metal in a transformer or a motor core may play an extremely important part in
increasing and concentrating the magnetic flux in the device.
Because the permeability of iron is much higher than that of air, the great majority of the flux in an
iron core like that of figure 2 remains inside the core instead of traveling through the surrounding air,
which has lower permeability. The small leakage flux that does leave the iron core is very important in
determining the flux linkages between coils and the self-inductances of coils in transformer and motors.
In a core such as the one in figure 2, the magnitude of the flux density is given by
µNi
B = µH = [6]
lc
If the flux density vector is perpendicular to a plane of area A, and if the flux density is constant
throughout the area, then the equation for total flux is
φ = BA [7]
Thus, the total flux in the core in figure 2 due to the current I in the winding is
µNiA
φ = BA = [8]
lc
where A is the cross-sectional area of the core .

Magnetic Circuits
It is possible to define a “magnetic circuit” whose behavior is governed by equations analogous to
those for an electric circuit. In a simple electric circuit such as the one in figure 3, the voltage source V
drives a current I around the circuit through a resistance R. The relationship between these quantities is
given by Ohm’s law:
V= IR [9]
In the electric circuit, it is the voltage or electromotive force that drives the current flows. By analogy, the
corresponding quantity in the magnetic circuit is called the magnetomotive force (mmf). The polarity of
the mmf from a coil of wire can be determined as follows:
If the fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of the current flow in a coil of
wire, then thumb will point in the direction of the positive mmf (Fig. 4).
The magnetomotive force of the magnetic circuit is equal to the effective current flow applied to the core,
F= φ ℜ [10]

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

Where F = magnetomotive force of the circuit

φ= flux of the circuit
ℜ= reluctance of the circuit

Fig. 3. (a) A simple electric circuit; (b) The magnetic circuit analog to a transformer core

The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is the counterpart of electrical resistance, and its units are
ampere-turns per weber. There is also magnetic analogy of conductance. Just as the conductance of an
electric circuit is the reciprocal of its resistance, the permeance Ρ of a magnetic circuit is the reciprocal of
its reluctance.
1
P= [11]
ℜ

Fig. 4. Determining the polarity of a magnetomotive force source in a magnetic circuit

We see that the reluctance of the core is

l
ℜ= c [12]
µA
Reluctances in a magnetic circuit obey the same rules as resistances in an electric circuit. The equivalent
reluctance of a number of reluctances in series is just the sum of the individual reluctances:
ℜeq = ℜ1 + ℜ2 + ℜ3 + ℜ4 + ℜ5 + ... [13]
Similarly, reluctances in parallel combine according to the equation
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + ... [14]
ℜeq ℜ1 ℜ2 ℜ3 ℜ4 ℜ5

Leakage Flux
In all practical magnetic circuits, most of the flux is confined to the intended path by use of
magnetic cores but a small amount of flux always leaks through the surrounding air. This stray flux as
already stated is called the leakage flux. Leakage is characteristic of all magnetic circuits and can never be
fully eliminated. Calculations concerning the main magnetic circuit are usually carried out with the effect

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

of leakage flux either ignored or empirically accounted for. Special studies of leakage must be made for
ac machines and transformers since their performance is affected by it.(Fig.5)

iP(t)
+
+
vP(t) ~ vS(t)
-
-

Leakage flux, φLP Mutual flux, φM Leakage flux, φLS

Fig. 5 Leakage flux and Mutual flux

Fringing
At an air-gap in a magnetic core, the flux fringes out into neighboring air paths as shown in Fig. 6,
these being of reluctance comparable to that of the gap. The result is non-uniform flux density in the air-
gap (decreasing outward), enlargement of the effective air-gap area and a decrease in the average gap flux
density. The fringing effect also disturbs the core flux pattern to some depth near the gap. The effect of
fringing increases with the air-gap length. Corrections for fringing in short gaps (as used in machines) are
empirically made by adding one gap length to each of the two dimensions making up its area. For the
example of the core with the air-gap previously presented, the gap reluctance would now be given by
ℜ =
lg [15]
g
µ0 Ag
which will be less than the previous value as Ag > A.
It can be shown theoretically that the magnetic flux leaves and enters the surface of an infinitely
permeable material normally. This will be nearly so in ferromagnetic materials which have high
permeability. In electric machines a small amount of the tangential flux component present at iron
surfaces will be neglected.

Fig. 6. Flux fringing at air gap

III. INDUCTION
Self induction
Self-induction is the phenomenon whereby a change in the current in a conductor induces an emf
in the conductor itself i.e., when a conductor is given a current, flux will be produced, and if the current is
changed the flux also changes, as per Faraday’s Law when there is a change of flux, an emf will be
induced. This is called self induction. The induced emf will be always opposite in direction to the applied
emf. The opposing emf thus produced is called the counter emf of self induction.(Fig.7).

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

Mutual induction
It is the electromagnetic induction produced by one circuit in the nearby second circuit due to the
variable flux of the first circuit cutting the conductor of the second circuit. That means when two coils or
circuits are kept near to each other and if a variable current is given to one circuit, the flux produced due
to that current cuts both the coils, and an emf will be produced in both the circuits. This phenomenon by
which emf is induced in the second coil due to the variation of current in first coil is called mutual
induction. Both the circuits have no electrical contacts with each other but magnetic linkages. This
principle is applied in transformers, induction coils, etc.(Fig.8).
Magnetic lines of force

Current, i
Variable ac supply

Fig.7 Fig.8

IV. MAGNETIC CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Normally, magnetic circuit calculations involve two types of problems. In the first type of
problem, it is required to determine the excitation (mmf) needed to establish a desired flux or flux density
at a given point in a magnetic circuit. This is the normal case in designing electromechanical devices and
is a straightforward problem. In the second category, the flux (or flux density) is unknown and is required
to be determined for a given geometry of the magnetic circuit and specified mmf.

Core with Air-gap

Transformers are wound on closed cores. Rotating machines have a moving element and must
therefore have air-gaps in the cores out of necessity. A typical magnetic circuit with an air-gap is shown
in Fig. 9. It is assumed that the air-gap is narrow and the flux coming out of the core passes straight down

Fig. 9. A typical magnetic circuit with air gap and its equivalent electric circuit

the air-gap such that the flux density in the air-gap is the same as in the core. Actually the flux in the gap
fringes out so that the gap flux density is somewhat less than that of the core.

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

The mmf Ni is now consumed in the core plus the air-gap. From the circuit-model of Figure 9.b or
directly from Figure 9.a
Ni = Hclc + Hglg [16]
Bc Bg
Or Ni = lc + lg [17]
µc µ0

Assuming that all the core flux passes straight down the air-gap (it means no fringing), Bg = Bc
φ = Bc A = B g A [18]
Substituting Eq. (18) in Eq. (17)
 l   lg 
N i = φ  c  + φ  

[19]
 µc A   µ0 A 

Recognizing various quantities in Eq. (19)

(
F = φ ℜ c + ℜ g = φℜ eq ) [20]

lc
where ℜc = = core reluctance
µ0 A
lg
ℜg = = air-gap reluctance
µ0 A

From Eq. (20)

F F / ℜg
φ= = [21]
ℜc + ℜ g 1+ ℜc / ℜ g
ℜc µ l
but = 0 c << 1
ℜ g µclg
because, µ c is 2000 to 6000 times µ 0 in ferromagnetic materials. It then follows from Eq. (21), that
φ ≈ F / ℜg [22]
which means that, in a magnetic circuit with air-gap(s), core reluctance may be neglected with no
significant loss of accuracy. This assumption will be generally made in modeling rotating machines. The
effect of core saturation (reduction of core permeability) will be introduced as a correction wherever
greater accuracy is desired.

V. MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

To illustrate the behavior of magnetic permeability in a ferromagnetic material, apply a direct
current to the core, starting with 0 A and slowly working up to the maximum permissible current. When
the flux produced in the core is plotted versus the magnetomotive force producing it, the resulting plot
looks like figure 10.a. This type of plot is called a saturation curve or a magnetization curve. At first, a
small increase in the magnetomotive force produces a huge increase in the resulting flux. After a certain
point, though, the mmf increases there is a relatively smaller increase in the flux. Finally, an increase in
the magnetomotive force produces almost no change at all. The region of this figure in which the curve
flattens out is called the saturation region, and the core is said to be saturated. In contrast, the region

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

where the flux changes very rapidly is called the unsaturated region of the curve, and the core is said to
be unsaturated. The transition region between the unsaturated region and the saturated region is
sometimes called the knee of the curve. Note that the flux produced in the core is linearly related to the
applied magnetomotive force in the unsaturated region, and approaches a constant value regardless of
magnetomotive force in the saturated region.
Another related plot is shown in figure 10.b. Figure 10.b is a plot of magnetic flux density B
versus magnetizing intensity H. from equation [23].
Ni
H = , φ = BA [23]
lc

Fig. 10. (a) DC magnetization curve for a ferromagnetic core; (b) The magnetizing curve expressed in
terms of flux density and magnetizing intensity.

It is easy to see that magnetizing intensity is directly proportional to magnetomotive force and magnetic
flux density is directly proportional to flux for any given core. Therefore, the relationship between B and
H has the same shape as the relationship between flux and magnetomotive force. The slope of the curve of
flux density versus the magnetizing intensity at any value of H in figure 10.b is by definition the
permeability of the core at that magnetizing intensity. The curve shows that the permeability is large and
relatively constant in the unsaturated region and then gradually drops to a very low value as the core
becomes heavily saturated.

Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

Instead of applying a direct current to the core of figure 9, lets apply an alternating current. This
current is shown in figure 11a. Assume that the flux in the core is initially zero. As the current increases
for the first time, the flux in the core traces out path ab in figure 11.b. This is basically the saturation
curve shown in figure 10. However, when the current falls again, the flux traces out a different path from
the one it followed when the current was increased. As the current decreases, the flux in the core traces
out path bcd, and later when the current increases again, the flux traces out path deb. Notice that the
amount of flux present in the core depends not only on the amount of current applied to the windings of
the core, but also on the previous history of the flux in the core. This dependence on the preceding flux
history and the resulting failure to retrace flux path is called hysterisis. Path bcdeb traced out in figure
11.b is called a hysterisis loop.

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

Fig. 11a. Fig. 11b

Hysterisis Loss
If the magnetizing force applied to a magnetic material is carried through a complete cycle from
+Hmaxto –Hmax and back to +Hmax, the B-H characteristic is described by a hysterisis loop as shown in
figure 12.a. The area of the loop represents the energy loss in a unit cube of the core material during one
cycle.

Fig. 12. (a) Hysterisis loop. (b) energy absorbed. (c) Shaded area shows energy given up by steel.

When H is increased from zero at point 1 in figure 12.b to H max at point 2, the energy absorbed by the
unit cube is
Bmax
W1 = ∫ HdB [24]
− Br
as represented by the area 1-2-4. A subsequent reduction in H from Hmax to 0 is accompanied by a
reduction in the stored energy as represented by the shaded portion 2-3-4 in figure 12.c
Br
W2 = ∫ HdB [25]
Bmax
The energy absorbed by the core during the half-cycle from –Br to Br is represented by the area 1-2-3 of
one-half the hysterisis loop. The same amount of energy is absorbed during the next half-cycle. The

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

hysterisis loss per cycle in a core of volume Vol that has a uniform flux density B throughout its volume
is therefore
W = Vol ∫ HdB [26]
where the line integral represents the area loop.

A cyclic variation of the flux at f hertz results in f hysterisis loops per second and the power is
Ph = fWh = Volf × area of loop
The hysterisis loss is expressed empirically as
n
Ph = ηVolfBmax [27]
Where the value of η and n are determined by the nature of the core material. The exponent may vary
between 1.5 and 2.5 for different materials and is actually a function of Bmax in a given core. However, it
is important to note that the hysterisis loss varies directly as the frequency for a given Bmax,

Eddy Current Loss

The ac flux induces emfs in the core, which in turn produces eddy currents that circulate in the
iron. The iron in the magnetic circuits is laminated to prevent excessive eddy currents. Molded Ferrite is
used in solid form for some high-frequency applications. The eddy current loss can also be expressed in
terms of the applied voltage and the number of turns in the exciting winding when the resistance of the
winding is negligible. The expression is found, upon substitution, to be
π 2τ 2
Pe = Vol [28]
12 ρN 2 A2
For a given winding and core, equation [28] can be abbreviated to
Pe = K eV 2 [29]

VII. PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

The electromagnetic system is a necessary element of all rotating and static electric machinery and
electromechanical devices. The role of electromagnetic system is to establish and control electromagnetic
fields for carrying out conversion of energy, its processing and transfer. Practically all motors and
generators, ranging in size from fractional horsepower units found in domestic appliances to the gigantic
several thousand kW motors employed in heavy industries and several hundred megawatt generators
installed in generating stations, depend upon the magnetic field as the coupling medium allowing
interchange of energy in either direction between electrical and mechanical systems. A transformer
though not an electromechanical conversion device, provides a means of transferring electrical energy
between two electrical ports via the medium of a magnetic field. It is, therefore, seen that all electric
machines including transformers use the medium of magnetic field for energy conversion and transfer.
e, I

Electrical Coupling M echanical

System System System

τ,ω
Figure 13. Block representation of electromechanical energy conversion

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

Since electromechanical energy conversion involves the interchange of energy between an

electrical and a mechanical system, the primary quantities involved in the mechanical system are torque
and speed, while the analogous quantities in the electrical system are current and voltage respectively.
Figure 13 represents the situation diagrammatically. Motor action results when the electrical system
causes a current i to flow through conductors that are placed in a magnetic field. A magnetic force is
produced on each conductor so that if the conductors are located on a structure that is free to rotate, an
electromagnetic torque T results. Moreover, with the development of this motor action the revolving
conductors cut through the magnetic field and thereby undergo an e.m.f. e which is really a reaction
voltage analogous to the induced e.m.f in the primary winding of a transformer.

In the case of generator action, the reverse process takes place. Here, the rotating tool -the rotor- is
driven by a prime mover (steam turbine, gasoline engine,…) causing an induced voltage e to appear
across the armature winding terminals. Upon the application of the electrical load to these terminals, a
current i is made to flow delivering electrical power to the load. Note that the flow of this current through
the armature conductors interacts with the magnetic field to produce a reaction torque opposing the
applied torque originating from the prime mover. It can be concluded that the input to a generator and the
output of a motor are mechanical in nature.

Example-1:
A series-parallel magnetic circuit with its pertinent dimensions in centimeters is given in Fig.E1. If the
flux density in the air-gap is 0.05T and the relative permeability of the magnetic region is 500, calculate
the current in the 1000-turn coil.

a 4 4 e 8
d
I
φ2
φ
φ1 f
0.5
6 g
11.5

4 4

b 4 c φ2 4 h
6

20 24
Fig. E1
Solution
Since the flux density in the air-gap is given, we can calculate the flux in the air-gap. Because the
magnetic sections def and chg are in series with the air-gap, they carry the same flux. Thus, we can
compute the mmf drop for each of these sections as tabulated below.

Section fg def chg

Area (cm2) 4 × 6 = 24 4 × 6 = 24 4 × 6 = 24
B (T) 0.05 (Given) 0.05 (As def is in series with 0.05 (As chg is in series with
fg, they carry the same flux) fg, they carry the same flux)

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

Flux (mWb) φ 2 = B × A = 0.12 φ 2 = B × A = 0.12 φ 2 = B × A = 0.12

H (At/m) H=B H=B H=B
µ µ = 39788.74
0 r µ 0 µ r = 79.58 µ 0 µ r = 79.58
l (cm) 0.5 (Given) (24-2)+(8-2) = 28 (24-2)+((11.5-2) = 31.5
mmf (At) H × l = 198.94 H × l = 22.28 H × l = 25.07

Table-1 : (Total mmf drop for sections fg, def, and chg : 246.29 At)

The mmf drop for the region dc is the same as that for the combined regions fg, def, and chg.
Therefore, we can determine the flux in region dc by working backward. The flux in the region dbc is
the sum of the fluxes in regions dc and fg. With such an understanding we can obtain the mmf drop for
each of these regions as tabulated below.

Section dc ad ab bc

Area 6 × 6 = 36 4 × 6 = 24 4 × 6 = 24 4 × 6 = 24
(cm2)
B (T) φ1 φ φ φ
B= = 0.967 B= = 1 .5 B= = 1 .5 B= = 1 .5
A A A A
Flux mmf ( dc=dehc)
(mWb) φ1 =
ℜ ( dc )
φ = φ1 + φ 2 = 3.6 φ = φ1 + φ 2 = 3.6 φ = φ1 + φ 2 = 3.6
246.29
= = 3.48
(l µ 0 µ r A)
H (At/m) H = B
µ0µr H=B B B
µ 0 µ r = 2387.32 H = µ 0 µ r = 2387.32 H = µ 0 µ r = 3580.99
= 1539 . 31
l (cm) 16 18 16 18
mmf (At) 246.29 (from table-1) H × l = 429.72 H × l = 381.976 H × l = 429.72

Table-2 : (Total mmf for the magnetic circuit : 1487.7 At)

Total mmf drop for the magnetic circuit = mmf (dc + ad + ab + bc) = 1487.7 At
Total mmf
The current in the coil, I = ≈ 1.49 A
N

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Energy Conversion I: EET1016 (2010) Chapter-1

( 201.6 kAt/Wb.) = 604.8 At

604.8 At
1.21 A

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