BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

INTRODUCTION:-
It is one thing to design a bridge.  It is another thing to build it.  Planning and executing the
construction of a bridge is often very complicated, and in fact may be the most ingenious
(ingénieur - engineer) parts of the entire enterprise.  An incomplete structure is often
subjected to stresses and oscillations that would not arise after completion.  The construction
work is potentially a grave hindrance to existing traffic and to normal life in the area,
especially when large local fabrication works have to be installed.
Even before any actual construction is done, substantial work may needed in the form of
tests.  Boreholes will be made to check the condition of the ground, in conjunction with any
available geological maps.  Records of wind speed and direction will be consulted, and new
measurements made if necessary.  In the case of a river or sea crossing, records of water
levels and velocities will be needed.  Models of the bridge or of parts may be tested
aerodynamically and hydrodynamically, and of course mechanical tests will be made. 
Computer simulations will supplement these tests, enabling a great variety of applied forces
to be investigated
The variation in stresses during construction may be so severe that jacking must be
providedEven after completion, a concrete structure may be subject to creep, and the ground
may settle; jacks are therefore provided for later adjustment when this behaviour is foreseen.
Excavation for foundations may have to be taken to great depths, through unsuitable ground,
often below water level, before solid rock is reached.  Keeping out water and preventing
diggings from collapsing can require major feats of engineering in themselves. Above
ground, until spans are joined, wind can be a great hazard. The pillars of the towers of big
suspension bridges may have to be stabilized by temporary cables until they are completed
and joined at the top. Arches generally need to be supported on falsework until they are
complete

1
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

A. Bridge Construction Methods

i) Precast Concrete Bridges:-

Precast concrete is a form of construction, where concrete is cast in a reusable mould or "form"
which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and lifted into
place. In contrast, standard concrete is poured into site specific forms and cured on site. Precast stone
is distinguished from precast concrete by using a fine aggregate in the mixture so the final product
approaches the appearance of naturally occurring rock or stone. By producing precast concrete in a
controlled environment (typically referred to as a precast plant), the precast concrete is afforded the
opportunity to properly cure and be closely monitored by plant employee.
This invention relates to the construction of road bridges and particularly to bridges
constructed of precast concrete modules of the size that are readily transported to a remote
construction site and assembled into strong rigid interlocking bridge abutments for supporting
precast and pre-stressed roadway slabs

Types

1. I Beams & Super Tee’s

2. Segmental
3. Full Span

a) I Beams & Super Tee’s

Current systems are either costly or time consuming to erect and have limitations. Cast-in-
place slabs have become too expensive and time-consuming due to extensive field formwork.
Precast solid slabs aren't economical for spans longer than 9 meters. I-girders with concrete
deck slab topping can span longer than other systems, but require field formwork and
significantly higher clearance
Standard Beams can be pre & or post tensioned. Beams are • Cast on site or in existing PC
Yard
The most common form of precast concrete bridge construction is with the use of the
conventional precast bridge beams. Different types of precast concrete decks and their
structural advantages have been dealt with other speakers on this course. The construction of
these types does not in general require special techniques. Their construction will therefore
not be considered
The new precast concrete product for short to medium span bridges was developed by the
University of Nebraska. The Nebraska Inverted Tee (IT) can span up to 26 meters with a total
structural depth of 725 mm.

Advantages
• Cheap

2
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

• Simple to erect

Disadvantages
• Limited in length (lat torsion buckling)
• Less efficient
• Logistics (police escort etc)
• Aesthetics – banned in some countries

b) Segmental
As its name implies, a segmental bridge is a bridge built in short sections (called segments), i.e., one
piece at a time, as opposed to traditional methods that build a bridge in very large sections. The bridge
is made of concrete that is either cast-in-place (constructed fully in its final location) or precast
concrete (built at another location and then transported to their final location for placement in the full
structure).
History
The first segmental concrete bridge, built in 1950, was cast-in-place across the Lahn River in
Balduinstein, Germany.[
The first precast segmental concrete bridge, built in 1962, crossed the Seine River in France.[1]
The first U.S. precast segmental concrete bridge, built in 1973, was built in Corpus Christi, Texas.[2]
The first U.S. cast-in-place segmental bridge, built in 1974, was built near San Diego, California.
The first U.S. precast segmental concrete arch bridge is the Natchez Trace Parkway Bridge,
completed in 1993.
Construction
The sequence of construction is similar to traditional concrete bridge building, i.e., build the support
towers (columns), build the temporary falsework, build the deck, perform finish work. The principle
differences are as follows:
The support towers may be built segmentally. Often this is accomplished using "slip-form"
construction, where the falsework moves (slips) upward following sequential concrete "pours." The
falsework uses the newly constructed concrete as the basis for moving upward.

3
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

After the towers are built, a superstructure is built a top the towers. This superstructure serves as the
"launching" point for building the deck. (The deck is often built in both directions away from the
tower, simultaneously.)
The deck is now constructed sequentially, beginning at the tower, one section at a time.
In cast-in-place bridges, the falsework is connected to the previously installed concrete and allowed to
cantilever freely. Next, the permanent reinforcing steel and supports are installed. Finally, the
concrete is placed and cured, freeing the falsework to be moved.
In pre-cast bridges, the concrete segment is constructed on the ground, and then transported and
hoisted into place. As the new segment is suspended in place by the crane, workers install steel
reinforcing that attaches the new segment to preceding segments. Each segment of the bridge
designed to accept connections from both preceding and succeeding segments.
The process in step 3 is repeated until the span is completed.

Segmental bridge under construction, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, USA.

The Pierre Pflimlin bridge being built over the Rhine south of Strasbourg.

Notable examples
Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge in Delaware is a cable-stayed bridge using precast concrete
segments for the approach and center spans
Linn Cove Viaduct in the Blue Ridge Mountains, North Carolina (precast)
Manwel Dimech Bridge in St. Julian's (San Ġiljan), Malta. This bridge connects the two parts of
Regional Road and pass over Għomar Valley.
Seven Mile Bridge in the Florida Keys (precast)
The Interstate H-3 viaducts through the Ko'olau Mountains, Oahu, Hawaii (CIP Segmental)
The new Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76) bridges over the Susquehanna River south of Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania (precast)
The Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge viaduct (precast)

4
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

The Benicia-Martinez Bridge (northbound span) between Benicia and Martinez, CA (CIP Segmental)
The Four Bears Bridge over the Missouri River in North Dakota utilizes precast concrete segments,
erected with the balanced cantilever method (precast)
The High Five Interchange connecting US-75 and I-635 in Dallas, TX (precast)
The AirTrain linking NY's Kennedy International Airport with the Jamaica Transit Center
The ramps leading between the Brooklyn Queens Expressway (NY I-278) and the Williamsburgh
Bridge (connecting to Manhattan)
The elevated sections of the Delhi Metro
The I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge in Minneapolis, MN, USA is notable primarily for the bridge
it replaced: I-35W Mississippi River bridge which collapsed on August 1, 2007.

i) Erection on False work

Falsework consists of temporary structures used in construction to support spanning or arched
structures in order to hold the component in place until its construction is sufficiently advanced to
support itself. Falsework also includes temporary support structures for formwork used to mould
concrete to form a desired shape [1] and scaffolding to give workers access to the structure being
constructed.
BS 5975:1982 (Code of Practice for Falsework) defines falsework as: Any temporary structure used
to support a permanent structure while it is not self-supporting.
History
Until the turn of the 20th century almost all falsework was constructed from timber. To
compensate for timber shortages in different regions and to rationalize labor and material
usage, new systems were developed.[2]
The major developments include the design of connection devices (coupler), transitions to other
spanning beams such as steel pipes or profiles or reusable timber beams, and adjustable steel props. In
1935 W.A. de Vigier designed the an adjustable steel prop which revolutionized many aspects of the
construction industry including to support slab formwork, wall formwork, trench sheeting and
falsework.[3]
During the same period many different scaffolding systems were being developed around the world.
These consisted of welded frames that could be slotted or clipped together to form access or support
towers. The reduction in construction time and complexity led to reduced labor costs and required less
skill in assembly.
Further developments have made scaffolding systems even easier to use. Stronger systems have been
introduced that either, incorporate horizontal restraints (via lacers, ties, or braces) at more levels or by
using stronger tubes or connections. Materials from which falsework systems are manufactured have
also diversified from traditional steel and timber to aluminum components.
In the UK, BS 5975 gives recommendations for the design and use of falsework on construction sites.
It was first introduced by the British Standards Institute in March 1982 and was then revised in March
1996. The code is currently under revision again, a draft copy was released in late 2007, and the new
version of the code is expected in the summer of 2008. The new revisions bring the code up to date
with methodology developed in the new CDM 2007 regulations and also the requirements of the new
European codes BS EN 12811-1:2003 Temporary works equipment - Part 1: Scaffolds, and BS EN
12812:2004, Falsework - Performance requirements and general design.

Construction sequence

5
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Workflow on the Roman Bridge at Limyra: the falsework was moved to another opening as soon as
the lower arch rib had been completed
Where the arches are founded in a stream bed the water is diverted and the gravels excavated to a
good footing. From this the foundation piers are raised to the base of the arches, a point known as the
springing.
Falsework centering is fabricated, typically from timbers and boards. Since each arch of a multi-arch
bridge will impose a thrust upon its neighbors, it is necessary either that all arches of the bridge be
raised at the same time, or that very wide piers are used. The thrust from the end arches is taken into
the earth by footings at the canyon walls, or by large inclined planes forming ramps to the bridge,
which may also be formed of arches.
The several arches are constructed over the centering. Once the basic arch barrel is constructed, the
arches are stabilized with infill masonry between the arches, which may be laid in horizontal running
bond courses. These may form two walls, known as the spandrels, which are then infilled with loose
material and rubble.
The road is paved and parapet walls protectively confine traffic to the bridge.

Ma Wan Viaduct, Hong Kong. End Span Falsework.

ii) Erection by Gantry

This method involves the use of special erection or launching gantry, which may include
means for moving itself forward as portion of bridge are completed.
The launching gantry is typically a steel framed bridge of the cantilever truss or cable stayed
truss type, which spans two bays. While a segment is being erected it is supported on a
central pier, a forward pier and a rear pier. After a span has been erected, the launching
gantry slides itself forwards, cantilevering over one pier, until it reaches the next one. It

6
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

transfers lower legs onto this new pier, establishes a support by jacks and the cycle
commences.
Under this system a p[recast segment is moved forward on rails or trucks riding on the
completed portion of the deck. The segment is then picked up by the launching gantry and
carried forward. To enable it pass through the supporting legs it is usually rotated at right
angles to its final position during movement then turned back and set in its final position.
The individual precast segments are then joined and stressed before the next
Segment is launched.
While the launching gantry has most often been employed to erect precast segments it has
also been employed to erect precast segments it has also been extensively used with cast in
place segments. The launching gantry typically supports the forms for two segments one on
each side of the central pier. Concrete is placed and after gaining strength, the segments are
stressed with post-tensioning tendons running from one new segment to the other, over the
top of the central pier, to resist the negative moment. When enough segments have been
erected in the rear bay to meet the previous cantilever arm, the connection is made and
positive moment continuity tendons are installed. Then the gantry can be launched forward
for the next cycle.
When using a launching gantry to erect pre-stressed I-girders, provisions must be made for
lateral transfer of the girders after they have been moved into their span. Rollers, wheels on
tracks, skidding with jacks, etc., are often employed to accomplish this lateral transfer.
Positive stops must be provided to prevent the girder being moved beyond the end of the cap
through accident.
Others having the same fundamental characteristics. These cranes may be top-running, under-
running, single- or double-girder. Hoist units and trolleys are most commonly electric
powered, but can be air powered or hand chain operated. These cranes may be cab operated,
pulpit operated, floor operated, or remotely operated. Such cranes are grouped together
because all have trolleys and similar travel characteristics.
The proper and safe use of overhead and gantry cranes is governed by the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standards and the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) regulations. This section implements required criteria from
DOE/RL-92-36 and the following standards: ASME B30.2-2005 Overhead and Gantry
Cranes (Top Running Bridge, Single or Multiple Girder, Top Running Trolley Hoist), ASME
B30.17-2006 Overhead and Gantry Cranes (Top Running Bridge, Single Girder, Under hung
Hoist) OSHA 29 CFR 1910.179 - Overhead and Gantry Cranes, and OSHA 29 CFR
1926.550 – Cranes and Derricks.
The responsible engineer may invoke Rules for Construction of Overhead and Gantry Cranes
(Top Running Bridge, Multiple Girder) ASME NOG-1-2004 for crane used at nuclear
facilities. ASME NOG-1 applies to the design, manufacture, testing, inspection, shipment,
storage, and erection of Overhead and Gantry Cranes (Top Running Bridge, Multiple Girder).
The responsible engineer may invoke Rules for Construction of Cranes, Monorails, and
Hoists (with Bridge or Trolley or Hoist of the Under hung Type) ASME NUM-1-2004 for
crane used at nuclear facilities. ASME NUM-1 applies to the design, manufacture, testing,
inspection, shipment, storage, and erection of Monorails, and Hoists (with Bridge or Trolley
or Hoist of the Under hung Type).

7
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

iii) Erection by Crane

Balanced cantilever deck construction was introduced in the early 1950s and since has
provided a spectacular way to build concrete box girder bridges with spans up to 300m using
only minimal falsework and temporary works. With this technique, the balanced cantilevers
are formed by either casting the deck in-situ in short sections using form travellers or from
precast segments lifted into place with cranes or gantries. The technique has also been
extended into cable-stayed and arch bridge construction.
Principles
With balanced cantilever construction, the deck is usually built out simultaneously either side
of a pier in a balanced manner. The technique may also be used witfi asymmetric cantilevers
with a prop or counterweight reducing the outof-balance forces in the pier. Initially, the
substructure, piers and abutments are built ready for the deck construetion to begin. The
section of deck above the pier is completed first, either by casting the concrete in-situ on

8
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

falsework locally around the pier, or by placing a precast pier segment in position. Additional
sections of deck are then cast in-situ or precast and placed in pairs on either end of the
previously completed deck. Each new section of deck is supported by the prestressing
'cantilever tendons' or reinforcement in the deck. The cantilevers are extended out in a
balanced manner until the mid-span is reached. Cantilevers from adjacent piers are then
joined together with an in-situ concrete stitch and prestressing tendons installed to make the
deck continuous. At end spans adjacent to abutments, the end cantilever is extended out using
temporary supports or falsework as indicated Figure 2. Finally, the remaining permanent
prestressing tendons are installed to complete the bridge.
The end spans are usually 60-65% of the length of the adjacent spans to provide a reasonable
distribution of moments and forces along the bridge and to prevent uplift in the abutment
bearings. With a constant-depth deck, the span-to-depth ratio is usually about 20, although on
some projects this has been increased to over 30 for aesthetic or clearance reasons or reduced
to 12 for economic reasons. For spans over 60m, the decks are usually haunched, with a
reduced depth at mid-span to reduce the weight. For haunched decks the span-to-depth ratio
at mid-span is usually about 35 and at the pier about 16.
Construction
In-situ using form travellers
The form travellers are supported off the previously completed length of deck, cantilevering
out to support the formwork for the next section. The deck sections are usually cast in 4-5m
lengths with the complete box section cast in a single pour. After each pour it is usual for a
prestressing tendon to be installed through the top slab and anchored on the end face of the
new segment to support it in place. Alternatively, temporary prestressing bars or the
permanent reinforcement in the box may be used to support several segments before me
permanent cantilever prestressing tendons are installed. These 'cantilever tendons' support the
deck during the construction stages and provide the permanent prestress in the completed
structure.
A typical cycle time for construction of an in-situ section of deck is seven days. This has been
reduced on some projects by precasting parts of the deck or by prefabricating the
reinforcement cages.
Precast segments
For longer bridge lengths, precast segmental construction provides a quicker and more
economic solution. Each segment is precast in purpose-built factories before being delivered
to site and lifted into position. Segments are placed by crane, lifting frame or gantry, with the
segments fixed in position with epoxy glue and prestressing tendons. Segment lengths are
typically up to 3.6m to suit highway transportation restraints and to limit lifting weights.
With precast segmental construction, erection rates of up to six segments a day, three on each
cantilever, have been achieved when matched with a suitable permanent works design. A
typical cycle time for erecting a segment is four hours with a typical 60m span being erected
within seven days.
Stability
Balanced cantilever construction is frequently adopted with integral piers to provide inherent
stability to the deck. Where bearings are used, or with very slender piers, it may be necessary
to support the deck with temporary props or a tie-down arrangement to provide sufficient
stability during construction.
Design
During the construction stages, the design of the deck and substructure are checked to cater
for the temporary works and other construction loads applied. The structure is checked for at
least one segment out-of-balance to match the construction sequence. In addition, it is usual
to consider an out-of-balance dead load, with the concrete 2.5% heavier on one side of the

9
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

balanced cantilever, and wind loading on the deck including 'upward' wind under one of the
cantilevers. Differential horizontal wind loading on the two cantilevers may give rise to
significant twisting of the pier which should also be checked.
Typical construction loadings include:
* construction equipment (typically taken as 1-2 tonnes on the cantilever tip)
* construction live load (typically taken as 0.5kN/m^sup 2^) applied to the deck to give the
most adverse effect
* for in-situ construction, weight of form traveller at the end of the cantilever, typically
between 40 and 120 tonnes for spans between 50m and 200m
* for precast segmental construction, a segment lifting beam of up to 5 tonnes and a stressing
platform of 6 tonnes applied at the ends of the deck
* for precast segments erected with a lifting frame fixed to the deck, typically between 20-50
tonnes depending on the size and weight of the segment being lifted, applied to the end of the
cantilever
* for precast segments erected with a gantry, typically 200-400 tonnes for spans between 50m
and 120m distributed between the piers.
Balanced cantilever construction sequence causes a large redistribution of moments from the
as-built to the long-term condition due to creep of the concrete. This affects both the dead
load and the prestress forces. This is often beneficial as it helps balance the prestress tendon
layout over the piers and in mid-span.
Concluding remarks
Balanced cantilever construction produces economic and elegant structures. The reduction in
temporary works and simplicity of construction frequently makes it the preferred solution for
longer span lengths.
.

10
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

iv) Erection by Lifting Frame

Balanced cantilever deck construction was introduced in the early 1950s and since has
provided a spectacular way to build concrete box girder bridges with spans up to 300m using
only minimal falsework and temporary works. With this technique, the balanced cantilevers
are formed by either casting the deck in-situ in short sections using form travellers or from
precast segments lifted into place with cranes or gantries. The technique has also been
extended into cable-stayed and arch bridge construction.
Principles
With balanced cantilever construction, the deck is usually built out simultaneously either side
of a pier in a balanced manner. The technique may also be used witfi asymmetric cantilevers
with a prop or counterweight reducing the outof-balance forces in the pier. Initially, the
substructure, piers and abutments are built ready for the deck construetion to begin. The
section of deck above the pier is completed first, either by casting the concrete in-situ on
falsework locally around the pier, or by placing a precast pier segment in position. Additional
sections of deck are then cast in-situ or precast and placed in pairs on either end of the
previously completed deck. Each new section of deck is supported by the prestressing
'cantilever tendons' or reinforcement in the deck. The cantilevers are extended out in a
balanced manner until the mid-span is reached. Cantilevers from adjacent piers are then
joined together with an in-situ concrete stitch and prestressing tendons installed to make the
deck continuous. At end spans adjacent to abutments, the end cantilever is extended out using
temporary supports or falsework as indicated Figure 2. Finally, the remaining permanent
prestressing tendons are installed to complete the bridge.
The end spans are usually 60-65% of the length of the adjacent spans to provide a reasonable
distribution of moments and forces along the bridge and to prevent uplift in the abutment
bearings. With a constant-depth deck, the span-to-depth ratio is usually about 20, although on
some projects this has been increased to over 30 for aesthetic or clearance reasons or reduced
to 12 for economic reasons. For spans over 60m, the decks are usually haunched, with a
reduced depth at mid-span to reduce the weight. For haunched decks the span-to-depth ratio
at mid-span is usually about 35 and at the pier about 16.
Construction
Precast segments
For longer bridge lengths, precast segmental construction provides a quicker and more
economic solution. Each segment is precast in purpose-built factories before being delivered
to site and lifted into position. Segments are placed by crane, lifting frame or gantry, with the
segments fixed in position with epoxy glue and prestressing tendons. Segment lengths are
typically up to 3.6m to suit highway transportation restraints and to limit lifting weights.
With precast segmental construction, erection rates of up to six segments a day, three on each
cantilever, have been achieved when matched with a suitable permanent works design. A
typical cycle time for erecting a segment is four hours with a typical 60m span being erected
within seven days.
Stability
Balanced cantilever construction is frequently adopted with integral piers to provide inherent
stability to the deck. Where bearings are used, or with very slender piers, it may be necessary
to support the deck with temporary props or a tie-down arrangement to provide sufficient
stability during construction.
Design
During the construction stages, the design of the deck and substructure are checked to cater
for the temporary works and other construction loads applied. The structure is checked for at

11
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

least one segment out-of-balance to match the construction sequence. In addition, it is usual
to consider an out-of-balance dead load, with the concrete 2.5% heavier on one side of the
balanced cantilever, and wind loading on the deck including 'upward' wind under one of the
cantilevers. Differential horizontal wind loading on the two cantilevers may give rise to
significant twisting of the pier which should also be checked.
Typical construction loadings include:
* construction equipment (typically taken as 1-2 tonnes on the cantilever tip)
* construction live load (typically taken as 0.5kN/m^sup 2^) applied to the deck to give the
most adverse effect
* for in-situ construction, weight of form traveller at the end of the cantilever, typically
between 40 and 120 tonnes for spans between 50m and 200m
* for precast segmental construction, a segment lifting beam of up to 5 tonnes and a stressing
platform of 6 tonnes applied at the ends of the deck
* for precast segments erected with a lifting frame fixed to the deck, typically between 20-50
tonnes depending on the size and weight of the segment being lifted, applied to the end of the
cantilever
* for precast segments erected with a gantry, typically 200-400 tonnes for spans between 50m
and 120m distributed between the piers.
Balanced cantilever construction sequence causes a large redistribution of moments from the
as-built to the long-term condition due to creep of the concrete. This affects both the dead
load and the prestress forces. This is often beneficial as it helps balance the prestress tendon
layout over the piers and in mid-span.

12
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

v) Full Span precast erection;-

C210/C215 High Speed Rail project - Taiwan An unusual full span pre-casting alternative
option to achieve the precast and installation of 563 full span segments of 740 t each.

Cast-in-place and pre-cast segmental structures are well known techniques in Taiwan; FSPC
has been rarely used. It promised the structural advantages of a single monolithic box girder
for the double track (14m wide) plus a speed of erection faster than one bridge span per day.
FSPC technique: a speed of erection faster than one bridge span per day. The Taiwan High
Speed Rail corridor runs on the western side of Taiwan from Taipei in the north to Kaohsiung
in the south with a maximum speed of 300 km/h. In the north, the first two sections (contract
C210 and C215) were awarded to a joint venture of Obayashi and Fu Tsu who let a major
sub-contract to a joint venture between VSL and Rizzani de Eccher. Work commenced on
site in 2001 with the first pre-casting achieved in June 2002 and the first span’s erection one
month later. Both the design of the spans and the casting yard have centered around a target
peak cycle of 2 days per 30m beam per casting bed. The yard is mostly covered by a purpose
built factory consisting of 3 casting lines, each with the ability to operate independently. Each
casting line consists of two reinforcement jigs for the end diaphragms, one full length rebar
jig for the primary steel cage, one casting mould, one storage area for second stage casting of
derailment walls and an outside storage area for completed spans.
Scope of works performed - Full Span Precast & erection including formwork, reinforcing,
concreting, pre-tensioning, post-tensioning, structural bearing & shear key installation for
563 number of box girders. - Balanced cantilever construction of 7 post-tensioned cast in-situ
bridges. - Follow-up work, including production & installation of around 8000 numbers of
precast parapets cast in-situ of cable troughs, derailment walls, OCS poles and guy wire
foundations. - Equipment supply: supply of all necessary plant and equipment. Day and night
shifts

Two 55 tons overhead cranes service each factory’s mould and one pair of 500 tons heavy
lifting gantries moves completed spans into the storage [Link] addition of steam curing and
release of the pre-tension jacks completes the 2 day casting cyclefor the 700 tons, 30m-long
box [Link] transport and erection of such huge box girders is pivotal to the success of
the FSPC method and was executed by one carrier, an overhead beam supported by two
rotating 8 tyredbogies over a 45m span, and a support beam, Carrier deployed with 8
tyredbogies supporting an overhead beamPHOTO
a 72m-long steel box [Link] moves crab-like over the stored box girders in the casting yard,
lifts the unit to be erected and reverses from the casting yard where theThree lines of casting
bedsPHOTObogies are rotated 90°. It is then in a position to travel to the support beam, at a
loaded speed of 4km/hr, along the previously erected viaduct.
On arrival at the new span’s erection location, the carrierdrives into the support beam with
the front bogie straddling the beam and its top chord traveller. Jacks on the traveller raise the
front of the carrier and the assembly of carrier and box girder is pulled out onto the support
beam. At the stage where the box girder is suspended above its final position, the support
beam is launched from underneath so that the box girder can be placed. The support beam is
retracted slightly, the carrier reversed onto the newly place deck and returns for the next
[Link] to 14 spanshave been placedin a weekand up to 3 in a single day.

13
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Havingcompletedthe 7 free-cantilever bridges in situ alongwiththe erectionof 563 full-

spansegments (740 tonnes each), thisinnovativeand challengingprojectwasfinishedover 3
monthsaheadof the requiredand alreadyacceleratedcompletiondate.
The precast beam
Self launching mould
OWNERTaiwan High Speed Rails CorporationENGINEERT.Y. Lin International
TaiwanMAIN CONTRACTORJoint Venture between Obayashi and Fu TsuVSL
EntityJoint venture between VSL Taiwan and Rizzianide Eccher
[Link].

14
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

ii) Cast – in – Situ briges:-

Types:-

[Link] in-situ Post Tensioned

[Link] Cantilever

1 .Cast in-situ Post Tensioned

Post-tensioned concrete started being used in earnest after World War II and its development
in both France and the UK enabled significantly longer span bridges to be built in concrete
than had previously been possible. This book brings together the experiences of the two
countries into a valuable state-of-the-art report, which will be of significant interest to all
involved in concrete bridge design and construction as well as owners and maintenance
managers.
Most of those involved in the concrete bridge industry will know of the increasing worldwide
awareness of the potential problems with post-tensioning. These were brought into focus in
1992 following some bridge collapses and discovery of corrosion and led to a moratorium in
the UK on grouted duct construction. Since then, many other countries have experienced the
same problems and are examining and changing their national standards for this form of
construction. The publication of Concrete Society Technical Report 47 was the catalyst in the
UK and this is just one of the numerous useful references in this book.
Written in both English and French, it is the product of a series of liaison meetings of a study
group set up by the French and UK Highway Authorities and National Laboratories to
exchange and record their respective experiences. The theme revolves around durability and,
after an extensive historical review, gives previously unpublished valuable information of the
results of condition surveys, and details statistical analysis and categorisation of the various
problems found. It is slightly unfortunate that the data from the two countries is not presented
consistently, so it is not possible for the reader to directly compare the durability experience
from each.
There follows an extensive description of the various investigation methods available with
examples of their use together with repair and strengthening methods, including use of
additional prestress and extra reinforcement. The book concludes with practical
recommendations for the future management of post-tensioned concrete bridges and
suggestions for continuous improvement of design and construction guidelines and
regulations.

Bonded post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term for a method of applying compression
after pouring concrete and the curing process (in situ). The concrete is cast around a plastic,
steel or aluminium curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in
the concrete element. A set of tendons are fished through the duct and the concrete is poured.
Once the concrete has hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react
against the concrete member itself. When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according

15
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

to the design specifications (see Hooke's law), they are wedged in position and maintain
tension after the jacks are removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then
grouted to protect the tendons from corrosion. This method is commonly used to create
monolithic slabs for house construction in locations where expansive soils (such as adobe
clay) create problems for the typical perimeter foundation. All stresses from seasonal
expansion and contraction of the underlying soil are taken into the entire tensioned slab,
which supports the building without significant flexure. Post-tensioning is also used in the
construction of various bridges, both after concrete is cured after support by falsework and by
the assembly of prefabricated sections, as in the segmental [Link] advantages of this
system over unbonded post-tensioning are:
Large reduction in traditional reinforcement requirements as tendons cannot destress in
accidents.
Tendons can be easily 'weaved' allowing a more efficient design approach.
Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated between the strand and concrete.
No long term issues with maintaining the integrity of the anchor/dead end.
The Post-Tensioning Institute has a Field Certification Program for Bonded Post-Tensioning.

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete

Unbonded post-tensioned concrete differs from bonded post-tensioning by providing each
individual cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this,
each individual tendon is coated with a grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a
plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion process. The transfer of tension to the concrete is
achieved by the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of the slab.
The main disadvantage over bonded post-tensioning is the fact that a cable can destress itself
and burst out of the slab if damaged (such as during repair on the slab). The advantages of
this system over bonded post-tensioning are:
The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field conditions (For example: shifting
a group of 4 cables around an opening by placing 2 to either side).
The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated.
The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work.
The Post-Tensioning Institute has a Plant Certification Program for Plants Producing
Unbonded Single Strand Tendons and Field Certification Program for Fundamentals,
Inspectors and Superstructure Ironworker.
Picture number one (below) shows rolls of post-tensioning (PT) cables with the holding end
anchors displayed. The holding end anchors are fastened to rebar placed above and below the
cable and buried in the concrete locking that end. Pictures numbered two, three and four
shows a series of black pulling end anchors from the rear along the floor edge form. Rebar is
placed above and below the cable both in front and behind the face of the pulling end anchor.
The above and below placement of the rebar can be seen in picture number three and the
placement of the rebar in front and behind can be seen in picture number four. The blue cable
seen in picture number four is electrical conduit. Picture number five shows the plastic
sheathing stripped from the ends of the post-tensioning cables before placement through the
pulling end anchors. Picture number six shows the post-tensioning cables in place for
concrete pouring. The plastic sheathing has been removed from the end of the cable and the
cable has been pushed through the black pulling end anchor attached to the inside of the
concrete floor side form. The greased cable can be seen protruding from the concrete floor
side form. Pictures seven and eight show the post-tensioning cables protruding from the
poured concrete floor. After the concrete floor has been poured and has set for about a week,
the cable ends will be pulled with a hydraulic jack, shown in picture number nine, until it is

16
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

stretched to achieve the specified tension.

2) Balanced Cantilever
A cantilever bridge is a bridge built using cantilevers, structures that project horizontally
into space, supported on only one end. For small footbridges, the cantilevers may be simple
beams; however, large cantilever bridges designed to handle road or rail traffic use trusses
built from structural steel, or box girders built from prestressed concrete. The steel truss
cantilever bridge was a major engineering breakthrough when first put into practice, as it can
span distances of over 1,500 feet (460 m), and can be more easily constructed at difficult
crossings by virtue of using little or no falsework
Origins
Engineers in the nineteenth century understood that a bridge which was continuous across
multiple supports would distribute the loads among them. This would result in lower stresses
in the girder or truss and meant that longer spans could be built.[1] Several nineteenth century
engineers patented continuous bridges with hinge points mid-span.[2] The use of a hinge in the
multi-span system presented the advantages of a statically determinate system[3] and of a
bridge that could handle differential settlement of the foundations. [1] Engineers could more
easily calculate the forces and stresses with a hinge in the girder.
Heinrich Gerber was one of the engineers to obtain a patent for a hinged girder (1866) and is
recognized as the first to build one.[2] The Hassfurt Bridge over the Main river in Germany
with a central span of 124 feet (38 meters) was completed in 1867 and is recognized as the
first modern cantilever bridge.[3]
The Kentucky River Bridge by C. Shaler Smith (1877), the Niagara Cantilever Bridge by
Charles Conrad Schneider (1883) and the Poughkeepsie Bridge by John Francis O'Rourke
and Pomeroy P. Dickinson (1889) were all important early uses of the cantilever design. [3]
The Kentucky River Bridge spanned a gorge that was 275 feet (84 meters) deep and took full
advantage of the fact that falsework, or temporary support, is not needed for the main span of
a cantilever bridge.[3]

17
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

The most famous early cantilever bridge is the Forth Rail Bridge. This bridge held the record
for longest span in the world for seventeen years. Benjamin Baker illustrated the structural
principles of the suspended span cantilever in the photo on the left. The suspended span,
where Kaichi Watanabe sits, is seen in the center. The need to resist compression of the lower
chord is seen in the use of wooden poles while the tension of the upper chord is shown by the
outstretched arms. The action of the outer foundations as anchors for the cantilever is visible
in the placement of the counterweights. [3]
Function
Cantilever Bridge.—A structure at least one portion of which acts as an anchorage for
sustaining another portion which extends beyond the supporting pier.
– John Alexander Low Waddell, Bridge Engineering[4]
A simple cantilever span is formed by two cantilever arms extending from opposite sides of
the obstacle to be crossed, meeting at the center. In a common variant, the suspended span,
the cantilever arms do not meet in the center; instead, they support a central truss bridge
which rests on the ends of the cantilever arms. The suspended span may be built off-site and
lifted into place, or constructed in place using special traveling supports.

A diagram of the parts of a suspended-span cantilever truss bridge

A common way to construct steel truss and prestressed concrete cantilever spans is to
counterbalance each cantilever arm with another cantilever arm projecting the opposite
direction, forming a balanced cantilever; when they attach to a solid foundation, the
counterbalancing arms are called anchor arms. Thus, in a bridge built on two foundation
piers, there are four cantilever arms: two which span the obstacle, and two anchor arms which
extend away from the obstacle. Because of the need for more strength at the balanced
cantilever's supports, the bridge superstructure often takes the form of towers above the
foundation piers. The Commodore Barry Bridge is an example of this type of cantilever
bridge.
Steel truss cantilevers support loads by tension of the upper members and compression of the
lower ones. Commonly, the structure distributes the tension via the anchor arms to the
outermost supports, while the compression is carried to the foundations beneath the central
towers. Many truss cantilever bridges use pinned joints and are therefore statically
determinate with no members carrying mixed loads.
Prestressed concrete balanced cantilever bridges are often built using segmental construction.
Construction methods
Some steel arch bridges (such as the Navajo Bridge) are built using pure cantilever spans
from each side, with neither falsework below nor temporary supporting towers and cables
above. These are then joined with a pin, usually after forcing the union point apart, and when
jacks are removed and the bridge decking is added the bridge becomes a truss arch bridge.

18
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Such unsupported construction is only possible where appropriate rock is available to support
the tension in the upper chord of the span during construction, usually limiting this method to
the spanning of narrow canyons.
List by length
Main article: List of longest cantilever bridges
World's longest cantilever bridges (by longest span):[5]
Quebec Bridge (Quebec, Canada) 1,800 feet (549 m)
Forth Bridge (Firth of Forth, Scotland) 2 x 1,710 feet (521 m)
Minato Bridge (Osaka, Japan) 1,673 feet (510 m)
Commodore Barry Bridge (Chester, Pennsylvania, USA) 1,644 feet (501 m)
Crescent City Connection (dual spans) (New Orleans, Louisiana, USA) 1,575 feet (480 m)
Howrah Bridge (Kolkata, West Bengal, India) 1,500 feet (457 m)
Veterans Memorial Bridge (Gramercy, Louisiana, USA) 1,460 feet (445 m)
San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge (East Bay Span) (San Francisco, California, USA)
1,400 feet (427 m)
Horace Wilkinson Bridge (Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA) 1,235 feet (376 m)
Tappan Zee Bridge (South Nyack, New York & Tarrytown, New York, USA) 1,212 feet
(369 m)

With the cantilevering method,

the superstructure of bridges is
usually built from one or more
piers by means of formwork
carriers. Normally the structure
advances from a short stub on top
of a pier symmetrically in
segments of about 3 m to 5 m
length to the mid span or to an
abutment, respectively (load
balancing method).
The prestressing tendons are
arranged according to the moment
diagram of a cantilever, with a
high concentration above the pier. Upper Serangoon Road Viaduct – MRT C704, Singapore
Towards the mid span or the
abutment the number of tendons gradually decreases.

The use of the cantilevering construction method, for medium and long span concrete
bridges, is recommended especially where a scaffolding is difficult or impossible to erect as
e.g., over deep valleys, wide rivers, traffic yards or in case of expensive foundation
conditions for scaffolds.

19
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

iii) OTHERS
1) Pier Head Rotation
2) Arch Lowering
3) Skybridge

1) Pier Head Rotation

Named Sosrobaiiu Technology
This is used for building an elevated toll road above the existing road which is already in
full operation. The pierhead that supports the beams, which is 25 meters, is wider than the
existing road, which is 19 meters. Using the conventional method of casting the pierhead
across the existing road would hamper the traffic.
The pier is built in the median between the roads. Then the pierhead is cast parallel with
the existing road and separated with the pier. The innovative equipment is put between
the pier and the pierhead before the reinforcement and concrete of the pierhead are
placed.
A U-shaped cable duct was placed in the pier through which the prestressing cable will
be inserted later, after the concrete of the pierhead is strong enough to hold its own
weight. Then the pierhead is turned by pulling with 800 kg forces until it is perpendicular
to the axis of the existing road. The weight of the pierhead is about 450 tons. In Kuala
Lumpur where we also used the same technology, the weight of the pierhead is 540 ton.
The innovative equipment is left there forever.
After grouting the space between the pier and pierhead, which is 2.50 cm, with grouting
material for prestressing, the prestressing cable is then inserted through the cable duct.
There are 4 cable ducts on each side. In every cable duct, 4 to 6 prestressing wires 0.5"
thick are inserted and given a prestressing forces of 200 ton on each side. After that the
duct is then grouted. The pierhead is then ready for supporting the beams.
During the construction of the pier, the traffic at the existing road was in full operation.

Illustration of the Equipment:

20
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

where M = moment in kg-cm; K = pulling force in kg; L = distance between the central
point of rotation and pulling force K; p = kg / cm2 (oil pressure).
Above the critical oil pressure the torque suddenly becomes so big that rotation becomes
impossible. The critical oil pressure is different for every weight and oil that is used for
the uplift inside the equipment.

21
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

2) Arch Lowering
Concrete arch bridge
Constructing an arch bridge can be tricky, since the structure is completely unstable until the
two spans meet in the middle. The method of construction of precast concrete arches is
similar to the method of construction used during the Roman period. Wedge shaped precast
concrete segments are used as voussoirs and these are built up side by side on temporary
supports. There are two basic methods of providing the temporary support system: the
provision of a supporting system below the bridge and the use of a tower and stay system.
Gladesville Bridge in Sidney, Australia was constructed using hollow precast concrete
segments. They were placed on falsework supported from the ground. The false work was
designed to accommodate a 80-foot 200-foot navigation channel. A diagrammatic
representation of the construction of an arch using a tower and a stay system is shown in the
figure below.

¡¡
In-situ archers are generally cast using shuttering supported the from ground. A notable cast
in-situ reinforced concrete bridge is the Plouggastel Bridge in France. Freyssinet used a
shuttering system which was floated into position and supported off the river bed.
One of the most revolutionary arch bridges in recent years is the Natchez Trace Bridge in
Franklin, Tennessee, which was opened to traffic in 1994. It's the first American arch bridge
to be constructed from segments of pre-cast concrete, a highly economical material. Two
graceful arches support the roadway above. Usually arch bridges employ vertical supports
called "spandrels" to distribute the weight of the roadway to the arch below, but the Natchez
Trace Bridge was designed without spandrels to create a more open and aesthetically pleasing
appearance. As a result, most of the live load is resting on the crowns of the two arches,
which have been slightly flattened to better carry it. Already the winner of many awards, the
bridge is expected to influence bridge design for years to come.

Construction Method Character istics

1. The Use of Melan Mate ial that Occupies 60% of
the Arch Span
The construction of large-span arch bridge
involves an extremely unstable structure until the arch
structure is completed and requires numerous
construction equipments such as diagonal stay cables and ground
anchors. Accordingly, the selection of
the construction method is an extremely
important The Natchez Trace
issue from the viewpoint of safety and bridge
economy. The
arch rib construction method for
Kashirajima Bridge
utilized the Melan element and diagonally supported
Arch construction
cantilever election, taking into consideration the site
using cable supports
location spanning the Seto Inland Sea and the need to
swiftly achieve stability against the influence of wind
and typhoons. Melan element is an arch-shaped steel
reinforcing material used to rapidly create an arch
structure during construction. The Melan element for
Kashirajima Bridge is a 130.4m long, two steel main

22
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

girder structure weighing 383t and is the largest scale

in terms of the proportion of Melan span length to
over all span (=Melan span length/overall span length)
for the combined Melan element. Although there are
various discussions regarding the optimal Melan
length, there is no precedent for using Melan material
in close to 60% of the total span. However, after
various considerations, this long Melan material was
adopted to quickly achieve arch structure stability and
successfully reduce the anchoring strength of the
backstay needed to join the arch significantly.
The overall construction process is
illustrated in Figure 4. The arch rib construction began
in January 2002. First, end posts were constructed
on both sides of the strait and along with diagonal stay
cables, nine 4.5m long blocks were constructed with
moving arch construction equipment (Photo 2, Figure
4-1 Diagonally Supported Cantilever Construction).
In September 2002, Melan material assembled at an
Ehime Prefecture factory was transported by sea using
a 16,000t barge to the construction site. The Melan
element was hoisted with a 1300t floating crane boat
and fixed to the Gelber hinge bearing support installed
Figure 3 General Drawing (Side Drawing)
4
Figure 4 Overall Construction Process
on the tip of the 9 blo cks (Figure 4-2 Melan
Element Construction). Later, the Melan element was wrapped around by fresh concrete and
arch the rib was completed (Photo 3, Figure 4-3 Melan Section Concrete Jacketing). The
Melan element composite section that accounts for 60% of the arch central span was
improved with a new Melan construction method to streamline construction and save labor.
Traditional Melan element was embedded in concrete but in this new construction method,
the Melan element and web concrete is placed in alignment within the box girder enabling the
Melan to have three functions as steel reinforcement, support, and inner framework. As of
December 2003, construction of the vertical member and construction of the upper girder by
the cable crane is completed and the base plate is being constructed. 2. Diagonally Suppor ted
Cantilever Construction Method The general characteristic of the diagonally supported
cantilever construction method used for arch bridge or cable-stayed bridge construction is
that the diagonally supported cantilever equipment interfered with the moving platform and,
the moving of construction platform would have to proceed before pretensioning the diagonal
stay cable. For this reason, even for arch bridges, it involves some cantilever  construction
and several PC steel materials are placed within the arch rib. The Kashirajima Bridge
improved this point and reduced the PC steel materials within the arch rib girders by roughly
34%. This was accomplished by improving the movable construction platform so the
cantilever and propulsion unit do not interfere with each other and by developing a method
that allows all blocks to be diagonally supported by stay cables without cantilevering. As a
result the PC steel material needed for cantilever construction was not only greatly reduced
but it made construction possible with a small external cable system. 3. Simultaneous Constr
uction of Melan Mater ial By lengthening Melan element to 130.4m (60% of the arch central
span), it was feared that a construction error would occur during the simultaneous

23
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

construction of Melan material and the configuration of the Melan element would be different
from the design values. For this reason it was necessary to make the Melan material bearing
support connecting the concrete arch rib structurally absorbable in regards to construction
errors. For this measure, a Gelber hinge bearing support that could adjust the shim plate was
adopted. As a result, hoisting the total Melan element reached the design height
roughly 5 hours after beginning and the mounting was smoothly completed

3) Skybridge
STANDING at 170m and connecting two levels - 41 and 42 - of both towers, the skybridge
symbolizes the gateway to the City Centre, and the doorway to the infinite.
Certainly one wrong step would send many to infinity too and that was why the bridging of
the towers had to be done slowly and carefully.
According to then project engineer for the civil and structural department of KLCCB (Kuala
Lumpur City Centre Berhad), Mohamad A. Jamal, the skybridge had always been in the plans
although the initial design was not what it is now.

24
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

"The bridge was designed to be supported by cables at first. But the engineering consultants,
Ranhill Bersekutu Sdn Bhd and Thornton-Tomasetti Engineers, soon realised that the cable
system was not effective enough accommodate the bridge movements caused by the wind
factor," says Mohamad who is the civil and structural department's design manager today.
It was only after studying numerous designs, the wind tunnel factors and structural options
using state-of-the-art computer simulations that the engineers arrived at the final design of the
bridge.
Says Mohamad: "The final design was simplified to accommodate the movements caused by
the wind. We made a model of the bridge and placed it in a wind tunnel environment that was
supplemented by a 3-D computer simulation before we went ahead with the construction."

Instead of the cables, a two-hinge arch rising from supports at level 29 at 63« propped up a
pair of parallel two-span bridge girders located at level 41.
The two-hinge arch has rotational bearings at the end of each leg that allows the legs to move
300« in strong winds.
The skybridge - 58.4m in length and weighing 750 tonnes - was fabricated in South Korea by
Samsung Heavy Industries and pre-assembled to ensure they fitted before being transported
to Malaysia
Comprising 493 pieces, the skybridge arrived at the KLCC site in the first week of May 1995.
According to Mohamad, there were many discussions as to how to put the bridge in place,
including constructing the bridge piece by piece in mid-air!
"We finally decided on the heavylifting technique which uses hydraulic jets and cables," he
says.

25
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

The day came when the bridge would make history by being lifted to its place - July 6, 1995.
The bridge was assembled at the concourse level into five components - the two legs, two end
blocks and the centre section.
It was fair and sunny weather when Prime Minister Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir Mohamad came
to launch the event by pushing the lever that would start the lifting [Link] went
according to plan and schedule - until the weather changed.
"The storm struck in the evening and we had to stop the lifting right where it was. We waited
quite a few anxious hours before we could resume," recalls Mohamad.
When the hoisting started again, those were some of the longest hours for him and his
colleagues.
Because of the wind factor, it took Samsung over 30 hours to lift the skybridge and put it in
place.
The legs were lifted one at a time and at a certain height, each leg was manoeuvered into a
vertical position. Then control cables lowered the legs to their bearings where they were
secured and held "upright" by a holding frame.
Then the two end blocks of the bridge were lifted individually, supported temporarily by a tie
approximately 100mm above their final position to provide enough space for the midsection
that came last.
The midsection, with the girder box from which leg stubs that would be connected to the two
legs, came last.

Once the midsection was in place, the end blocks were welded at both ends and the legs
lowered until they met the leg stubs attached to the box girder and were secured.
Says a satisfied Arlida, "When it was completed, I felt this sense of achievement. I think we
all did. Any single activity could have collapsed which would have affected the entire
operation and we could have failed.

iv) MILAU BRIDGE FRANCE

Record figures

Length: 2,460 m
Width: 32 m
Maximum height: 343 m, or 19 m higher than the Eiffel Tower
Slope: 3.025 %, going up from north to south in the direction Clermont-Ferrand – Béziers

26
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Curve: 20 km
Height of the tallest pier (P2): 245 m
Height of the pylons: 87 m
Number of piers: 7
Length of the spans: Two end spans of 204 m each and six central spans of 342 m each.
Number of stays: 154 (11 pairs per pylon laid out in one mono-axial layer)
Tension of the stays: from 900 t to 1 200 t for the longest
Weight of the steel deck: 36 000 t, or 5 times that of the Eiffel Tower
Volume of concrete: 85 000 m3, or 206 000 t
Cost of the construction: 400 M€
Contract duration: 78 years – 3 years for construction and 75 years of operations
Structural guarantee: 120 years
Deck
20 months to assemble 36000 tonnes of steel

The steel deck of the Millau viaduct is made up

173 central box beams, the backbone of the

construction, on which were welded the lateral floors
and the side box beams. A 4,20 m height, each one of
these central box beams is long 15 to 22 m and can
weigh up to 90 t. The width of the deck is 32 m, while
its total mass borders the 36000 tons.
.
The technically advanced hydraulic system is designed to push the 27,35 m wide deck (with a
capacity for six lanes plus hard shoulders) from both sides onto the seven concrete piers (see
photo 1, pier P7 to P1). During the launching process, the deck will be supported by seven
temporary metal piers (pier T7 to T1). The first of these temporary piers was raised using cranes,
but all other temporary piers will be raised using a hydraulic telescopic system also designed and
built by Enerpac. Once put in place, the deck will be 245 metres high and 2460 metres long.

Current status of launching process.

The enormous yet at the same time “light” deck is pushed by means of hydraulic launching
devices on each pier, which first lift and then push the deck. An adjustable nose structure at the
end of the deck, allows the deck to land on each pier as it approaches it.

27
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Basically, each system consists of a lifting cylinder, with a capacity of 250 ton, lifting the deck
off the supporting structure of the pier, and two or four skates, each equipped with two 60 tons
cylinders, which retract to launch the deck a maximum of 600 mm. All of this rests on a system
of single-acting lock nut cylinders supporting both the launching device and the deck.

The launching process was started on the western slope (C8) with two launching devices, each
with two 120 ton cylinders. In total, in the last phase of the launch, there will be 5280 tons
pushing capacity from the southern slope (1752m of deck) and 2400 tons from the northern one
(708m of deck, making up a total length of 2460m). Each push-cycle moves the deck 600 mm
and takes 4 minutes, which means that there will be 3280 pushes from the west and 1540 from
the east.

Illustrations on the next page shows the launching process.

As you can see, each launching system rests on a system of cylinders which allows the load of
the skates to be balanced right and left on each pier, to compensate for the rotation of the deck
during the launch phase, and correct or modify the height of the skate and thus of the deck where
necessary.

Manufactured by Enerpac, these cylinders are of different capacities according to the needs of the
deck. The most demanding system having an absolute capacity of 14.400 tons, supporting four
skates and 24 support cylinders of 600 tons each, with a stroke of 500 mm. Other piers use
cylinders of 280 tons with a stroke of 300 mm. Valves are used to make the different groups of
cylinders independent of each other and so control the height and angle of the deck, each system
having an independent control centre for the skates and the jacking cylinders.

The nose of the deck

The weight of the deck means that, as it is pushed along and
gets further from its support, it curves downwards, so that it
approaches the next pier below the proper level. In order to
compensate for this deviation, a nose recovery system is
constructed at the end of the deck. This independent system,
consisting of a hydraulic group of four 270 tons cylinders,
pulls the nose upwards to the level of the skate. Another
hydraulic system allows the nose-end to pivot.
Illustrations on the next page show the nose recovery
process.

PLC-Control system
All hydraulic systems for pushing the deck are operated from the Control Centre on the
bridgehead. This control centre receives data via a PROFI-BUS cable, where it is automatically
handled so that the system can follow the parameters established when programming the cycle.
Although all hydraulic systems installed on each pier are controlled from this centre, each single
hydraulic system has a local control panel, which allows local movement of the skates to be made
from that pier independently, as long as this is allowed by the Control Centre, which in turn must
receive the approval of each local control centre in order to make synchronised pushing
movements from all the pushing cylinders of all the piers. The outer cylinders on each pier have a
positional transducer that indicates the amount of travel, and each hydraulic system has its
independent hydraulic control centre. Movement of the deck can be made in three modes:

28
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

manual, semi-automatic and automatic. The manual mode is used for adjusting the system and, if
necessary, to make instant corrections. In semi-automatic mode, each movement is made step by
step: raise, push, lower, withdraw cylinders. Automatic mode completes the entire cycle.

Hydraulic system integration, of high force hydraulics and advanced control technology,
nowadays play and important role in the controlled movement of large-scale civil engineering
projects, like the launching of the Millau Viaduct.

29
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

B. Pre-casting Techniques
The construction industry is a major generator of waste material. Construction waste should be
minimized at source and if we are to significantly reduce the level of construction waste
designers should consider reducing construction waste during the design process. The majority of
construction waste is generated from the concreting process. In general, any reduction in on-site
concreting leads to waste reduction. Precasting and prefabrication therefore offers significant
opportunities for the reduction of waste. If precasting is adopted there are significant implications
for the design phase of the project. Additional information is needed by design staff and
construction expertise is required as part of the design process. This paper shows how
information modelling and Design Structure Matrix (DSM) techniques enable designers to model
and understand the implications of such decisions within the detailed design process.
Construction methods. Over the past several decades, precast and prestressed concrete
construction methods have produced considerable savings in materials, labor, and construction
time. The reduction in required material quantities due to prestressing produces lighter-weight
building structures. Since gravitational and seismic loading forces are proportional to
structureweight, a lighterweight building will enjoy additional reductions in required structural
sizes for all vertical and lateral force-resisting elements such as columns, beams, slabs, moment
frames, shearwalls, and foundation elements. See DESIGNING FOR AND MITIGATING
EARTH QUAKES. For high-rise buildings, a reduction in concrete sizes will also result in
shallower structural concrete deck framing depths, which in turn will reduce the floor-to-floor
height requirements and the overall height of the building structure. This will in turn reduce
overturning resistance requirements under wind and seismic loading, while simultaneously
lowering the cost of vertical elevator and stair shafts, mechanical and electrical risers, exterior
façade cladding, and other vertical elements of construction. Prestressing usually is performed
with special high-tensile steels that provide maximum strength with a minimum quantity of steel,
resulting in significant savings in steel tonnage and cost. Generally, the prestressing steel strength
is approximately 4.5 times stronger than ordinary reinforcing steel, but costs only twice as much
per unit weight as ordinary reinforcing steel. Prestressing of beams and slabs is most
economically applied in long-line precasting mass-production operations. Because of the inherent
efficiencies of mass-production techniques, large reductions in labor, formwork, and hardware
costs can be realized. The precast prestressed structural and non-structural concrete units are
usually in production prior to and during site and foundation preparation work. This enhances the
speed of construction as upperfloor structural elements can be in production while site and
foundation works are in progress. By its production logistics, precast units usually have had
substantial curing periods and significant time for initial shrinkage of the concrete material
to occur prior to installation. Since the major structural and architectural components are
inherently precured during precasting, the finished structure, composed of integrated precast
structural units with in-situ concrete, will be subjected to less shrinkage forces and consequential
cracking damage in the building frame.
Benefits.
Precast structural units are usually designed to minimize temporary formwork and shoring. As a
result, additional savings in construction time and costs can be realized. The overall savings in
construction materials will have a significant impact on the environment. To manufacture one ton
of cement, the power required involves the emission of approximately one ton of carbon dioxide
(CO2) into the atmosphere, thus compounding the problem of global warming. Savings
in construction materials would then mean a reduction in the total consumption of fossil fuels,
for which the supply is diminishing rapidly. Cement and steel constitute the majority of the

30
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

construction materials used in precast and prestressed concrete construction. Among principal
construction materials, cement production is the third most polluting process, while steel
production ranks higher than cement in terms of fuel consumption and CO2 emission.
The actual material savings can be analyzed by considering two basic structural elements: a
typical floor slab and a typical floor beam sample. In the case of a conventional in-situ floor slab
design, considerable savings in materials can be realized when a composite prestressed and
precast slab system is used. For instance, when prestressed/precast construction is applied to a
slab system spanning 8 m (26 ft) and designed to support a live load of 4 kPa (83.6 lb/ft2),
a savings of 28% in concrete and 45% in steel materials can be realized (Fig. 1). The
environmental and natural-resource impact of this concept is very significant, especially since
many millions of square meters of slab construction are in progress on the planet each day.
In the case of conventionally designed reinforced concrete beams, significant savings in materials
can also be realized by precasting and prestressing techniques. For example, a precast and
prestressed beam spaced at 4 m (13 ft) on centers and spanning 12 m (39 ft) and designed to
support a load of 4 kPa (83.6 lb/ft2) can result in a saving of 60.8% in concrete and 66% in steel
quantities over a conventionally designed un-prestressed beam cast in- situ supporting a similar
span and loading (Fig. 2).

Precast Concrete Products

The following is a sampling of the numerous products that utilize precast/prestressed concrete.
While this is not a complete list, the majority of precast/prestressed products can fall under one or
more of the following categories:
Agricultural Products
Precast concrete products can withstand the most extreme weather conditions and will hold up
for many decades of constant usage. Products include bunker silos, cattle feed bunks, cattle grid,
agricultural fencing, H-bunks, J-bunks, livestock slats, livestock watering troughs, etc...

31
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

Building and Site Amenities

Precast concrete building components and site amenities are used architecturally as cladding, trim
products, accessories and in structural applications such as foundations, beams, floors, walls and
other structural components.

Precast concrete wall veneer formed to replicate brick.

Cemetery Products
Underground vaults or mausoleums - calls for quality watertight structures that withstand the
tests of time and the forces of nature.

A precast concrete hazardous material storage container.

Hazardous Materials Containment
Storage of hazardous material, whether short-term or long-term, is an increasingly important
environmental issue, calling for containers that not only seal in the materials, but are strong
enough to stand up to natural disasters or terrorist attacks.
Marine Products
Floating docks, underwater infrastructure, decking, railings and a host of amenities are among the
uses of precast along the waterfront. When designed with heavy weight in mind, precast products
counteract the buoyant forces of water significantly better than most materials.
Modular Paving
Available in a rainbow of colors, shapes, sizes and textures, these versatile precast concrete
pieces can be designed to mimic brick, stone or wood.
Prestressed/Structural Products
Prestressing is a technique of introducing stresses of a predetermined magnitude into a structural
member to improve its behavior. This technique is usually found in concrete beams, spandrels,
columns, single and double tees, wall panels, segmental bridge units, bulb-tee girders, I-beam
girders, etc...
Retaining Walls

32
 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

An example of a precast concrete retaining wall.

Precast concrete manufacturers located throughout North America [where?] produce a wide range of
engineered earth retaining systems. Products include: commercial retaining wall, residential
retaining walls, sea walls, mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) panels, modular block systems,
segmental retaining walls, etc...
Sanitary and Stormwater
Stormwater management products are structures designed for underground installation that have
been specifically engineered for the treatment and removal of pollutants from stormwater run-off.
These precast concrete products include stormwater detention vaults, catch basins and manholes.
Transportation and traffic related products
Precast concrete transportation products are used in the construction, safety and site protection of
road, airport and railroad transportation systems. Products include: box culverts, 3-sided culverts,
bridge systems, railroad crossings, railroad ties, sound walls/barriers, Jersey barriers, tunnel
segments and other transportation products. Used to make underpasses, surface-passes and
pedestrian subways, so that traffic in cities is disturbed for less amount of time.[2]
Utility Structures
For communications, electrical, gas or steam systems, precast concrete utility structures protect
the vital connections and controls for utility distribution. Precast concrete is nontoxic and
environmentally safe. Products include: hand holes, hollowcore products, light pole bases, meter
boxes, panel vaults, pull boxes, telecommunications structures, transformer pads, transformer
vaults, trenches, utility buildings, utility vaults, utility poles, controlled environment vaults
(CEVs) and other utility structures.
Water and Wastewater Products
Precast water and wastewater products hold or contain water, oil or other liquids for the purpose
of further processing into non-contaminating liquids and soil products. Products include: aeration
systems, distribution boxes, dosing tanks, dry wells, grease interceptors, leaching pits, sand-
oil/oil-water interceptors, septic tanks, water/sewage storage tanks, wetwells, fire cisterns and
other water & wastewater products.

Precast Moulds

33
BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION METHODS

34