Individual iAssignment

for
Course iName: iDistributed iComputing iSystem
Course iCode: iBIT6M044 i

By
BASHIR IBNE ZAFOR
i i

BIT19016156

1
 Table of Contents
i i

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 3
Ans ito ithe iQ. iNo-1 ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Database iModel:.......................................................................................................................................... 3
Five iavailable imodels iare: .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 iHierarchical imodel................................................................................................................................ 3
Advantages........................................................................................................................................... 4
Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 iRelational imodel ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Advantages........................................................................................................................................... 5
Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3 iNetwork imodel........................................................................................................................................ 6
Advantages........................................................................................................................................... 6
Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 iObject-oriented idatabase imodel .............................................................................................................. 7
Advantages........................................................................................................................................... 8
Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................................... 8
1.5 iEntity-relationship imodel ........................................................................................................................ 8
Advantages........................................................................................................................................... 9
Disadvantages ...................................................................................................................................... 9
Ans ito ithe iQ. iNo-2 ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Network iProtocol ...................................................................................................................................... 10
How idoes iit iwork........................................................................................................................................ 10
List iof iNetwork iProtocols ........................................................................................................................... 11
Communication ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Network iManagement ................................................................................................................................. 12
Security ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Network iProtocol iExample ...................................................................................................................... 12
The iimportance iof iNetwork iProtocol ito iestablished iinternet ............................................................... 13
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 14
References .................................................................................................................................................. 15

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Introduction
This iis ian iassignment ipaper ifor ithe isubject iDistributed iComputer iSystem iin iBachelor idegree. iIn
ithis ipaper iwe iare igoing ito ibe idiscuss iabout isome itopics ibased ion iour iquestion iprovided iby iour

iinstructor iof ithe isubject. iEnd iof ithe ipaper iwe imay iable ito ilearn ithe isignificance iof idatabase iand iits

imodel iwith iexample. iNot ionly ithat ibut ialso iwe iwill ilearn inetwork iprotocol iand iits iimportance ifor

ithe iinternet. i

Ans to the Q. No-1

i i i i

Database iModel: i
A idatabase imodel ishows ithe ilogical istructure iof ia idatabase, iincluding ithe irelationships iand
iconstraints ithat idetermine ihow idata ican ibe istored iand iaccessed. iIndividual idatabase imodels iare

idesigned ibased ion ithe irules iand iconcepts iof iwhichever ibroader idata imodel ithe idesigners iadopt.

iMost idata imodels ican ibe irepresented iby ian iaccompanying idatabase idiagram.

Five iavailable imodels iare:

• Hierarchical idatabase imodel

• Relational imodel

• Network imodel

• Object-oriented idatabase imodel

• Entity-relationship imode

1.1 iHierarchical imodel

The ihierarchical imodel iorganizes idata iinto ia itree-like istructure, iwhere ieach irecord ihas ia isingle
iparent ior iroot. iSibling irecords iare isorted iin ia iparticular iorder. iThat iorder iis iused ias ithe iphysical

iorder ifor istoring ithe idatabase. iThis imodel iis igood ifor idescribing imany ireal-world irelationships.

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 Hierarchical imodel iExample
This imodel iwas iprimarily iused iby iIBM’s iInformation iManagement iSystems iin ithe i60s iand i70s,
ibut ithey iare irarely iseen itoday idue ito icertain ioperational iinefficiencies.

Advantages

• Have imany idifferent istructures iand iforms.

• Structures idata iin ian iupside-down itree. i(Simplifies idata ioverview)
• Manages ilarge iamounts iof idata.
• Express ithe irelationships ibetween iinformation.
• Many ichildren iper iparent.
• Distribute idata iin iterms iof irelationships.
• Improve idata isharing.

Disadvantages

• One iparent iper ichild.

• Complex i(users irequire iphysical irepresentation iof idatabase)
• Navigation isystem iis icomplex.
• Data imust ibe iorganized iin ia ihierarchical iway iwithout icompromising ithe iinformation.
• Lack istructural iindependence.
• Many itoo imany irelationships inot isupported.
• Data iindependence.

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1.2 iRelational imodel
The imost icommon imodel, ithe irelational imodel isorts idata iinto itables, ialso iknown ias irelations, ieach
iof iwhich iconsists iof icolumns iand irows. iEach icolumn ilists ian iattribute iof ithe ientity iin iquestion,

isuch ias iprice, izip icode, ior ibirth idate. iTogether, ithe iattributes iin ia irelation iare icalled ia idomain. iA

iparticular iattribute ior icombination iof iattributes iis ichosen ias ia iprimary ikey ithat ican ibe ireferred ito

iin iother itables, iwhen iit’s icalled ia iforeign ikey.

Each irow, ialso icalled ia ituple, iincludes idata iabout ia ispecific iinstance iof ithe ientity iin iquestion, isuch
ias ia iparticular iemployee.

The imodel ialso iaccounts ifor ithe itypes iof irelationships ibetween ithose itables, iincluding ione-to-one,
ione-to-many, iand imany-to-many irelationships. iHere’s ian iexample:

Example iof iRelational imodel

Advantages

• Structured iindependence iis ipromoted.

• Users ido inot ihave ito iknow ithe iphysical irepresentation iof ithe idatabase.
• Use iof iSQL ilanguage ito iaccess idata.
• Easier idatabase idesign.
• Tabular iview iimproves isimplicity.
• Support ilarge iamounts iof idata.
• Data iindependence.
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 • Multi-level irelationships ibetween idata isets
• No ineed ito ipredefined idata irelationships.

Disadvantages

• Data ianomalies.
• People ineed itraining iif ithey iwant ito iuse ithe isystem ieffectively iand iefficiently.

1.3 iNetwork imodel

The inetwork imodel ibuilds ion ithe ihierarchical imodel iby iallowing imany-to-many irelationships
ibetween ilinked irecords, iimplying imultiple iparent irecords. iBased ion imathematical iset itheory, ithe

imodel iis iconstructed iwith isets iof irelated irecords. iEach iset iconsists iof ione iowner ior iparent irecord

iand ione ior imore imember ior ichild irecords. iA irecord ican ibe ia imember ior ichild iin imultiple isets,

iallowing ithis imodel ito iconvey icomplex irelationships.

It iwas imost ipopular iin ithe i70s iafter iit iwas iformally idefined iby ithe iConference ion iData iSystems
iLanguages i(CODASYL).

Example iof iNetwork iModel

Advantages

• Multi-parent isupport.
• Somewhat isame isimplicity ias ithe ihierarchical imodel.
• More iuseful ithan ithe ihierarchical idata imodel.
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 • Deals iwith ieven ilarger iamounts iof iinformation ithan ithe ihierarchical imodel.
• Promotes idata iintegrity.
• Many itoo imany irelationships isupport.
• Data iindependence.
• Improved idata iaccess.

Disadvantages

• Data irelationships imust ibe ipredefined.

• Much imore icomplex ithan ithe ihierarchical idate imodel.
• Users iare istill irequire ito iknow ithe iphysical irepresentation iof ithe idatabase
• Information ican ibe irelated iin ivarious iand icomplicated iways.
• Lack istructural iindependence.

1.4 iObject-oriented idatabase imodel

This imodel idefines ia idatabase ias ia icollection iof iobjects, ior ireusable isoftware ielements, iwith
iassociated ifeatures iand imethods. iThere iare iseveral ikinds iof iobject-oriented idatabases:

A imultimedia idatabase iincorporates imedia, isuch ias iimages, ithat icould inot ibe istored iin ia
irelational idatabase.

A ihypertext idatabase iallows iany iobject ito ilink ito iany iother iobject. iIt’s iuseful ifor iorganizing ilots
iof idisparate idata, ibut iit’s inot iideal ifor inumerical ianalysis.

The iobject-oriented idatabase imodel iis ithe ibest iknown ipost-relational idatabase imodel, isince iit
iincorporates itables, ibut iisn’t ilimited ito itables. iSuch imodels iare ialso iknown ias ihybrid idatabase

imodels.

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 Example iof iObject-oriented idatabase imodel

Advantages

• Complex idata isets ican ibe isaved iand iretrieved iquickly iand ieasily.
• Object iIDs iare iassigned iautomatically.
• Works iwell iwith iobject-oriented iprogramming ilanguages.
Disadvantages

• Object idatabases iare inot iwidely iadopted.

• In isome isituations, ithe ihigh icomplexity ican icause iperformance iproblems

1.5 iEntity-relationship imodel

This imodel icaptures ithe irelationships ibetween ireal-world ientities imuch ilike ithe inetwork imodel,
ibut iit iisn’t ias idirectly itied ito ithe iphysical istructure iof ithe idatabase. iInstead, iit’s ioften iused ifor

idesigning ia idatabase iconceptually.

Here, ithe ipeople, iplaces, iand ithings iabout iwhich idata ipoints iare istored iare ireferred ito ias ientities,
ieach iof iwhich ihas icertain iattributes ithat itogether imake iup itheir idomain. iThe icardinality, ior

irelationships ibetween ientities, iare imapped ias iwell.

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 Example ifor iEntity-relationship imodel
Advantages

• A ivery iimportant idata imodeling itool.

• An iextended iEntity-Relationship idiagram iallows imore idetails.
• Multi-valued iattributes.
• Structured iindependence.
• Organize ithe idata iinto icategories idefining ientities i& ithe irelationships ibetween ithem.
• Visual irepresentation.
• Data iindependence.

Disadvantages

• Limited irelationship irepresentation.

• Loss iof iinformation i(when iattributes iare iremoved ifrom ientities).
• No idata imanipulation ilanguage.
• Limited iconstraint irepresentation.

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Ans to the Q. No-2
i i i i

Network iProtocol
A inetwork iprotocol iis ian iestablished iset iof irules ithat idetermine ihow idata iis itransmitted ibetween
i different idevices iin ithe isame inetwork. iEssentially, iit iallows iconnected idevices ito icommunicate
i with ieach iother, iregardless iof iany idifferences iin itheir iinternal iprocesses, istructure ior idesign.
i Network iprotocols iare ithe ireason iyou ican ieasily icommunicate iwith ipeople iall iover ithe iworld, iand
i thus iplay ia icritical irole iin imodern idigital icommunications.

Similar ito ithe iway ithat ispeaking ithe isame ilanguage isimplifies icommunication ibetween itwo
i people, inetwork iprotocols imake iit ipossible ifor idevices ito iinteract iwith ieach iother ibecause iof
i predetermined irules ibuilt iinto idevices’ isoftware iand ihardware. iNeither ilocal iarea inetworks
i (LAN) inor iwide iarea inetworks i(WAN) icould ifunction ithe iway ithey ido itoday iwithout ithe iuse iof
i network iprotocols.

How idoes iit iwork

Network iprotocols itake ilarge-scale iprocesses iand ibreak ithem idown iinto ismall, ispecific itasks ior
i functions. iThis ioccurs iat ievery ilevel iof ithe inetwork, iand ieach ifunction imust icooperate iat ieach
i level ito icomplete ithe ilarger itask iat ihand. iThe iterm iprotocol isuite irefers ito ia iset iof ismaller inetwork
i protocols iworking iin iconjunction iwith ieach iother.

Network iprotocols iare itypically icreated iaccording ito iindustry istandard iby ivarious inetworking ior
i information itechnology iorganizations.

The ifollowing igroups ihave idefined iand ipublished idifferent inetwork iprotocols:

• The iInstitute iof iElectrical iand iElectronics iEngineers i(IEEE)

• The iInternet iEngineering iTask iForce i(IETF)
• The iInternational iOrganization ifor iStandardization i(ISO)
• The iInternational iTelecommunications iUnion i(ITU)
• The iWorld iWide iWeb iConsortium i(W3C)

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While inetwork iprotocol imodels igenerally iwork iin isimilar iways, ieach iprotocol iis iunique iand
i operates iin ithe ispecific iway idetailed iby ithe iorganization ithat icreated iit.

List iof iNetwork iProtocols

There iare ithousands iof idifferent inetwork iprotocols, ibut ithey iall iperform ione iof ithree iprimary
i actions:

• Communication
• Network imanagement
• Security

Each itype iis inecessary ito iuse inetwork idevices iswiftly iand isafely, iand ithey iwork itogether ito
i facilitate ithat iusage.

Communication
Communication iprotocols iallow idifferent inetwork idevices ito icommunicate iwith ieach iother. iThey
i are iused iin iboth ianalog iand idigital icommunications iand ican ibe iused ifor iimportant iprocesses,
i ranging ifrom itransferring ifiles ibetween idevices ito iaccessing ithe iinternet.

Common itypes iof icommunication iprotocols iinclude ithe ifollowing:

• Automation: iThese iprotocols iare iused ito iautomate idifferent iprocesses iin iboth
icommercial iand ipersonal isettings, isuch ias iin ismart ibuildings, icloud itechnology ior

iself-driving ivehicles.

• Instant imessaging: iInstantaneous, itext-based icommunications ion ismartphones iand

icomputers ioccur ibecause iof ia inumber iof idifferent iinstant imessaging inetwork

iprotocols.

• Routing: iRouting iprotocols ipermit icommunication ibetween irouters iand iother

inetwork idevices. iThere iare ialso irouting iprotocols ispecifically ifor iad ihoc inetworks.

• Bluetooth: iEver-popular iBluetooth idevices i— iincluding iheadsets, ismartphones iand

icomputers i— iwork idue ito ia ivariety iof idifferent iBluetooth iprotocols.

• File itransfer: iIf iyou ihave iever imoved ifiles ifrom ione idevice ito ianother, ieither ivia ia
iphysical ior idigital imedium, iyou’ve iused ifile itransfer iprotocols i(FTP).

• Internet iProtocol: iInternet iProtocol i(IP) iallows idata ito ibe isent ibetween idevices ivia
ithe iinternet. iThe iinternet icould inot ioperate ias iit icurrently idoes iwithout iIP.

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Network iManagement
Network imanagement iprotocols idefine iand idescribe ithe ivarious iprocedures ineeded ito ieffectively
i operate ia icomputer inetwork. iThese iprotocols iaffect ivarious idevices ion ia isingle inetwork i—
i including icomputers, irouters iand iservers i— ito iensure ieach ione, iand ithe inetwork ias ia iwhole,
i perform ioptimally.

The ifunctions iof inetwork imanagement iprotocols iinclude ithe ifollowing:

• Connection: iThese iprotocols iestablish iand imaintain istable iconnections ibetween

idifferent idevices ion ithe isame inetwork.

• Link iaggregation: iLink iaggregation iprotocols iallow iyou ito icombine imultiple
inetwork iconnections iinto ione ilink ibetween itwo idevices. iThis iworks ito iincrease ithe

istrength iof ithe iconnection iand ihelps isustain ithe iconnection ishould ione iof ithe ilinks

ifail.

• Troubleshooting: iTroubleshooting iprotocols iallow inetwork iadministrators ito

iidentify ierrors iaffecting ithe inetwork, ievaluate ithe iquality iof ithe inetwork

iconnection, iand idetermine ihow iadministrators ican ifix iany iissues.

Security
Security iprotocols, ialso icalled icryptographic iprotocols, iwork ito iensure ithat ithe inetwork iand ithe
i data isent iover iit iare iprotected ifrom iunauthorized iusers.

Common ifunctions iof isecurity inetwork iprotocols iinclude ithe ifollowing:

• Encryption: iEncryption iprotocols iprotect idata iand isecure iareas iby irequiring iusers
ito iinput ia isecret ikey ior ipassword iin iorder ito iaccess ithat iinformation.

• Entity iAuthentication: iEntity iauthentication iprotocols icreate ia isystem ithat irequires

idifferent idevices ior iusers ion ia inetwork ito iverify itheir iidentity ibefore iaccessing

isecure iareas.

• Transportation: iTransportation isecurity iprotocols iprotect idata iwhile iit iis

itransported ifrom ione inetwork idevice ito ianother.

Network iProtocol iExample

Whether iyou iknow iit ior inot, iyou’ve iabsolutely iencountered inetwork iprotocols iwhen iusing
i electronic idevices i– iand isome iof ithem iare ireadily iidentifiable.

Here iare ia ifew iexamples iof ithe imost icommonly iused inetwork iprotocols:

• Hypertext iTransfer iProtocol i(HTTP): iThis iInternet iProtocol idefines ihow idata iis
itransmitted iover ithe iinternet iand idetermines ihow iweb iservers iand ibrowsers ishould

irespond ito icommands. iThis iprotocol i(or iits isecure icounterpart, iHTTPS) iappears iat

ithe ibeginning iof ivarious iURLs ior iweb iaddresses ionline.

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 • Secure iSocket iShell i(SSH): iThis iprotocol iprovides isecure iaccess ito ia icomputer,
ieven iif iit’s ion ian iunsecured inetwork. iSSH iis iparticularly iuseful ifor inetwork

iadministrators iwho ineed ito imanage idifferent isystems iremotely.

• Short iMessage iService i(SMS): iThis icommunications iprotocol iwas icreated ito isend
iand ireceive itext imessages iover icellular inetworks. iSMS irefers iexclusively ito itext-

based imessages. iPictures, ivideos ior iother imedia irequire iMultimedia iMessaging
iService i(MMS), ian iextension iof ithe iSMS iprotocol.

Network iprotocols ido inot isimply idefine ihow idevices iand iprocesses iwork; ithey idefine ihow
i devices iand iprocesses iwork itogether. iWithout ithese ipredetermined iconventions iand irules, ithe
i internet iwould ilack ithe inecessary iinfrastructure iit ineeds ito ibe ifunctional iand iuseable. iNetwork
i protocols iare ithe ifoundation iof imodern icommunications, iwithout iwhich ithe idigital iworld icould
i not istand.

The iimportance iof iNetwork iProtocol ito iestablished iinternet i

Setting istandards, irules ithat iall imanufacturers iof ihardware iand isoftware iwill ifollow, iare iimportant
ifor ia inumber iof ireasons:

o Standards idescribe iaccurately iand iunambiguously ihow iinformation iis

itransmitted.

o A imanufacturer’s iproducts iwill iwork isuccessfully iwith iother

imanufacturer’s iproducts iif ithey iall ifollow ithe

o same istandards.
o By idefining ia iset iof istandards, iyou iare iproviding ia iframework iwithin iw
ihich iall imanufacturers ican idesign

o new, isuccessful iproducts.

o Standards ibreak idown icomplex iideas iinto ismaller, imethodical, ieasier-to-
understand icomponents.
Because icommunications iprotocols iare iso iimportant, ia ispecial iorganisation iknown ias ithe iITU, ior
i International iTelecommunications iUnion, iexists ito ilay idown ithe iexact idetail iin ithe istandards ithat
i everyone iwill iuse. iThey idefine ithe iprotocols. iThe itwo ibasic iprotocols iused ion ithe iInternet iare iIP
i (Internet iProtocol) iand iTCP i(Transmission iControl iProtocol). iTogether, ithey iare ireferred ito ias ithe
i TCP/IP. iTCP/IP icontrols ihow iinformation iis isuccessfully itransferred ibetween icomputers ion ithe
i Internet. iWhen iweb ipages iare irequested iand ithen isent iover ithe iInternet, ianother iprotocol iused iin
i addition ito iTCP/IP iis ithe ihttp iprotocol, ior iHyper iText iTransfer iProtocol. iWhen ifiles iare
i transferred iover ithe iInternet, ithe iFTP iprotocol, ior iFile iTransfer iProtocol, iis iused. iSending iemail
i can ibe idone iusing ithe iSMTP, ior iSimple iMail iTransfer iProtocol.

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Conclusion
Computers iare iuseless iunless ithey iperform isome iservice. iOne iof ithe ivital iservice ifor iour idevice iis
i to ibe iconnected iwith iinternet. iNetwork iProtocol iis imainly iensure iinternet ikeep iworking iproperly
i and isome imore ivital irule. iSo iknowing ithe iNetwork iProtocol iwe imay ilearn ihow iis iit iimportant ifor
i the iInternet. iIn ithis ipaper iwe ihave ilearn iso imany ithing iabout iit. i

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References
• [Link]
• [Link]
• [Link]
[Link]/t_object_oriented_approach.htm#:~:text=Object%2Doriented%20databases%
20make%20the,and%20improved%20reliability%20and%20flexibility.&text=The%20ob
ject%2Doriented%20approach%20does,and%20development%20of%20programming%2
0code.
• [Link]
• [Link]

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