lOMoARcPSD|8212141

THE BEST AP Psychology CRAM Sheet

Introductory Psychology (Baylor University)

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])
 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

● Confound:​ error/ flaw in study ▪ Median:​ Middle # (use in skewed

History and Approaches 
distribution)
(2-4%)  ● Random Assignment:​ assigns ▪ Mode:​ occurs most often
● Psychology is derived from physiology participants to either control or
(biology) and philosophy experimental group at random – ● INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:
● EARLY APPROACHES minimizes bias, increase chance of equal establishes significance (meaningfulness)
o Structuralism​ – used ​INTROSPECTION representation Significant results = ​NOT​ due to chance
(act of looking inward to examine ● Random Sample:​ method for choosing ● ETHICAL GUIDELINES (APA)
mental experience) to determine the participants – minimizes bias o Confidentiality
underlying STRUCTURES of the mind ● Validity:​ accurate results o Informed Consent
o Functionalism​ – need to analyze the ● Reliability:​ same results every time o Debriefing
PURPOSE of behavior ● NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: o Deception must be warranted
● APPROACHES KEY WORDS Adv: real world validity (observe people
Biological Basis  
o Evolutionary​ – Genes in their own setting) Disadv: No cause
o Humanistic​ – free will, choice, ideal, and effect (8-10%) 
actualization ● CORRELATION​:​ Adv: identify ● NEURON:​ ​Basic cell of the NS
o Biological ​– Brain, NTs relationship between two variables o Dendrites: ​Receive incoming signal
o Cognitive​ – Perceptions, thoughts Disadv: No cause and effect o Soma: ​Cell body (includes nucleus)
o Behavioral​ – learned, reinforced (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL o Axon: ​AP travels down this
o Psychoanalytic/dynamic ​– unconscious, CAUSATION) o Myelin Sheath:​ speeds up signal
childhood o Positive Correlation – ​Variables vary down axon
o Sociocultural​ – society in the same direction o Terminals:​ release NTs – send signal
o Biopsychosocial​ – combo of above o Negative Correlation –​ variables vary
● PEOPLE: in opposite directions
o Mary Calkins:​ First Fem. Pres. of APA o The stronger the # the stronger the
o Charles Darwin:​ Natural selection & relationship REGARDLESS of the
evolution pos/neg sign
o Dorothea Dix:​ Reformed mental ● CASE STUDY​:​ Adv. Studies ONE
institutions in U.S. person (usually) in great detail – lots of
o Stanley Hall:​ 1​st​ pres. of APA1​st​ journal info Disadv: No cause and effect
o William James:​ Father of ​American ● DESCRIPTIVE STATS:​shape of the data
Psychology – functionalist o Measures of Central Tendency:
o Wilhem Wundt:​ Father of Modern ▪ Mean: ​Average (use in normal onto next neuron
Psychology – structuralist distribution) o Synapse:​ gap b/w neurons
o Margaret Floy Washburn​–1st fem. PhD ● Action Potential​: movement of sodium
o Christine Ladd Franklin ​– 1​st​ fem. and potassium ions across a membrane
Research Methods   sends an electrical charge down the axon
o All or none law​: stimulus must trigger
(8-10%) 
the AP past its threshold, but does not
● EXPERIMENT​ :​ Adv: researcher increase the intensity of the response
controls variables to establish ​cause and (flush the toilet)
effect ​Disadv: difficult to generalize o Refractory period​: neuron must rest
o Independent Variable​: manipulated and reset before it can send another
by the researcher AP (toilet resets)
▪ Experimental Group:​ received the
treatment (part of the IV) ● S​ensory neurons – receive signals
▪ Control Group:​ placebo, baseline ● Af​ ferent neurons – ​A​ccept signals
(part of the IV)
▪ Placebo Effect:​ show behaviors ● M​otor neurons – send signals
associated with the exp. group ● Ef​ ferent neurons – signal ​Ex​ its
when having received placebo
● CENTRAL NS:​ ​Brain and spinal cord
▪ Double-Blind:​ Exp. where neither
● PERIPHERAL NS:​ ​Rest of the NS
the participant or the experimenter
o Somatic NS:​ Voluntary movement
are aware of which condition
o Autonomic NS:​ Involuntary (heart,
people are assigned to
lungs, etc)
o Dependent Variable: ​measured
▪ Sympathetic NS:​ Arouses the body
variable (is DEPENDENT on the
for fight/flight (generally activates)
independent variable)
▪ Parasympathetic NS: ​established
● Operational Definition:​ clear, precise,
homeostasis after a sympathetic
typically quantifiable definition of your
response (generally inhibits)
variables – allows ​replication

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

● NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NTS): ▪ Lateralization: ​the brain has some ● Inattentional Blindness: ​failure to notice
Chemicals released in synaptic gap, specialized features – language is something b/c you’re so focused on
received by neurons processed in the L Hemisphere another task (gorilla video)
o GABA: ​Major inhibitory NT ▪ Split-brain experiments: ​done by ● Cocktail party effect​: ​notice your name
o GlutamatE ​ ​: ​Major E
​ ​xcitatory NT Sperry & Gazzanaga. across the room when its spoken, when
o Dopamine: ​Reward & movement ▪ Images you weren’t previously paying attention
o Serotonin: ​Moods and emotion shown to the ● VISUAL SYSTEM:
o Acetylcholine (ACh): ​Memory right hemisphere o Pathway of vision: light ​→​ cornea
o Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: will be processed →​pupil/iris ​→​ lens ​→​ retina ​→
sympathetic NS arousal in the left (& vice rods/cones ​→​ bipolar cells ​→​ ganglion
o Endorphins: ​pain control, happiness versa), patient cells ​→​ optic nerve ​→​ optic chiasm ​→
o Oxytocin:​ love and bonding can verbally occipital lobe
● Agonist: ​drug that mimics a NT identify what o Cornea – ​protects the eye
● Antagonist:​ drug that blocks a NT they saw o Pupil/iris –​ controls amount of light
● Reuptake:​ Unused NTs are taken back up ● BRAIN PLASTICITY: ​Brain can “heal” entering eye
into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective itself o Lens –​ focuses light on retina
serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block ● NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER o Fovea–​area of best vision(cones here)
reuptake – treatment for depression IS BOTH o Rods –​ black/white, dim light
● AREAS OF THE BRAIN: o Twin Studies: o Cones –​ color, bright light
● Hindbrain: ​oldest part of the brain ▪ Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ) o Bipolar cells –​ connect rods/cones and
o Cere​bell​um – ​movement (what does it ▪ Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ) ganglion cells
take to ring a ​bell​) o Genetics:​ MZ twins will have a higher o Ganglion cells –​ opponent-processing
o Medulla – ​vital organs (HR, BP) percentage of also developing a disease occurs here
o Pon​s​ – ​sleep/arousal (Pon​zzzzzz​) o Environment:​ ​MZ twins raised in o Blind spot –​ occurs where the optic
● Midbrain different environments show differences nerve leaves the eye
o R​eticular ​f​ormation: ​attention (if you ● ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:​ ​sends o Feature detectors –​ specialized cells
can’t pay attention, ​You R F’d​) hormones throughout the body that see motion, shapes, lines, etc.
● Forebrain: ​higher thought processes o Pituitary Gland: ​Controlled by (experiments by Hubel & Weisel)
o Limbic System hypothalamus. release growth hormones ● THEORIES OF COLOR VISION:
▪ Amygdala: ​emotions, fear (Amy, da! o Adrenal Glands:​ ​related to sympathetic o Trichromatic – ​three cones for
You’re so emotional!) NS: releases adrenaline receiving color (blue, red, green)
▪ Hippocampus: ​memory (if you saw a ▪ Explains color blindness - they are
Sensation & Perception 
hippo on campus you’d remember it!) missing a cone type
o Thalamus: ​relay center (6 – 8%)  o Opponent Process – ​complementary
o Hypothalamus​: Reward/pleasure center, ● ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: ​detection of colors are processed in ganglion cells –
eating behaviors signal 50% of time (is it there) explains why we see an after image
o Broca’s Area: ​Inability to produce ● DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (also ● Visual Capture:​ ​Visual system
speech (Broca – Broken speech) called a just noticeable difference (JND) overwhelms all others (nauseous in an
o Wernicke’s Area: ​Inability to and follows WEBER’S LAW:​ ​two IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular)
comprehend speech (Wernicke’s what?) stimuli must differ by a constant ● Constancies:​ ​recognize that objects do
o Cerebral Cortex: ​outer portion of the minimum proportion. (Can you tell a not physically change despite changes in
brain – higher order thought processes sensory input (size, shape, brightness)
▪ Occipital Lobe: ​located in the back of ● Phi Phenomenon:​ adjacent lights blink
the head - vision on/off in succession – looks like
▪ Frontal Lobe: ​decision making, movement (traffic signs with arrows)
planning, judgment, movement, ● Stroboscopic movement:​ ​motion
personality produced by a rapid succession of slightly
▪ Parietal Lobe:​ located on the top of the varying images (animations)
head - sensations ● MONOCULAR CUES​ (​how we form a
▪ Temporal Lobe: ​located on the sides 3D image from a 2D image)
of the head (temples) – hearing and change?) o Interposition: ​overlapping images appear
face recognition ● SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY closer
▪ Somatosensory Cortex: ​map of our ● Sensory Adaptation: ​diminished o Relative Size:​ ​2 objects that are usually
sensory receptors –in parietal lobe sensitivity as a result of constant similar in size, the smaller one is further
▪ Motor Cortex: ​map of our motor stimulation (can you feel your away
receptors – located in frontal lobe underwear?) o Relative Clarity:​ ​hazy objects appear
o Corpus Callosum: ​bundle of nerves that ● Perceptual Set:​ tendency to see further away
connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes something as part of a group – speeds up o Texture Gradient:​ ​coarser objects are
severed in patients with severe seizures – signal processing closer
leads to “split-brain patients” o Relative Height:​ ​things higher in our
field of vision look further away

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

o Linear Perspective: ​parallel lines ▪ Proximity​: tendency to group things o Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic
converge with distance (think railroad together that appear near each other nucleus (SCN) in the brain
tracks) ▪ Similarity​: tendency to group things o Explains jet lag
● BINOCULAR CUES​: (how both eyes together based off of looks ● SLEEP DISORDERS
make up a 3D image) ▪ Continuity:​ tendency to mentally form o Insomnia:​ ​Inability to fall asleep (due
Retinal Disparity: ​Image is cast slightly a continuous line to stress/anxiety)
different on each retinal, location of o Sleep walking:​ (due to fatigue, drugs,
image helps us determine depth alcohol)
Convergence:​ ​Eyes strain more (looking o Night terrors:​ extreme nightmares –
inward) as objects draw nearer NOT in REM sleep – typical in
● TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: ​Whole ​→ children
smaller parts o Narcolepsy:​ fall asleep out of nowhere
● BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: ​Smaller (due to deficiency in orexin)
Parts ​→​ Whole o Sleep Apnea:​ stop breathing suddenly
● AUDITORY SYSTEM: while asleep (due to obesity usually)
o Pathway of sound: sound ​→​ pinna ​→ ● DREAM THEORIES:
auditory canal ​→​ear drum (tympanic o Freud’s Unconscious Wish
membrane) ​→​ hammer, anvil, stirrup ● Fulfillment:​ Dreaming is gratification
(HAS) ​→​ oval window ​→​ cochlea ​→ of unconscious desires and needs
auditory nerve ​→​ temporal lobes ▪ Latent Content: ​hidden meaning of
o Outer Ear: ​pinna (ear), auditory canal dreams
o Middle Ear: ​ear drum , HAS (bones States of Consciousness 
▪ Manifest Content: ​obvious storyline
vibrate to send signal) of dream
o Inner Ear:​ ​cochlea – like COCHELLA (2 – 4%)  ● Activation Synthesis:​ Brain produces
(sounds 1​st​ processed here) ● STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS: random bursts of energy – stimulating
● THEORIES OF HEARING:​ ​both occur o Higher-Level: ​controlled processes – lodged memories. Dreams start random
in the cochlea totally aware then develop meaning
o Place theory – ​location where hair cells o Lower-Level: ​automatic processing ● HYPNOSIS
bends determines sound (high pitches) (daydreaming, phone numbers) o It Can: ​Reduce pain, help you relax
o Frequency theory –​ ​rate at which action o Altered States:​ produced through drugs, o It CANNOT:​ give you superhuman
potentials are sent determines sound fatigue, hypnosis strength, make you regress, make you
(low pitches) o Subconscious:​ Sleeping and dreaming do things against your will
● OTHER SENSES: o No awareness:​ Knocked out ● PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS:
o Touch: Mechanoreceptors ​→​ spinal cord ● METACOGNITION: ​Thinking about o Triggers dopamine release in the brain
→​ thalamus ​→​ somatosensory cortex thinking o Depressants: ​Alcohol, barbiturates,
o Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a ● SLEEP: tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics)
“gate” to control how much pain ix Beta Waves: ​awake ▪ Decrease sympathetic NS activation,
experienced Alpha Waves: ​high amp., drowsy highly addictive
o Kinesthetic: Sense of body position Stage 1:​ light sleep o Stimulants: ​Amphetamines, Cocaine,
o Vestibular: Sense of balance Stage 2:​ bursts of sleep spindles MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine
(semicircular canals in the inner ear Stage 3 (delta waves:​ Deep sleep ▪ Increase sympathetic NS activation,
effect this) Stage 4:​ extremely deep sleep highly addictive
o Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: Rapid Eye Movement (REM): o Hallucinogens: ​LSD, Marijuana
bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory) dreaming ▪ Causes hallucinations, not very
o Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs addictive
NOT route through the thalamus 1st. inb/w each cycle. REM lasts longer o Tolerance: ​Needing more of a drug to
Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala throughout the night achieve the same effects
● GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY:​ ​Whole is o Dependence:​ ​Become addicted to the
greater than the sum of its parts drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal
Gestalt Principles: symptoms
▪ Figure/ground​: organize information o Withdrawal:​ Psychological and
into figures objects (figures) that stand physiological symptoms associated
apart from surrounds (back ground) with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant – can
▪ kill you.
Learning  

● CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: ​24 hour (7-9 %) 

biological clock ● CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
o Body temp and awareness change due PAVLOV!
▪ Closure:​ tendency to mentally fill in to this
gaps

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

o Unconditioned Stimulus (US): ​brings O Primary Reinforcers: ​innately ▪ Cognitive maps –​ mental
about response w/o needing to be satisfying (food and water) representation of an area, allows
learned (food) O Secondary Reinforcers: ​everything else navigation if blocked
o Unconditioned Response (UR): (stickers, high-fives) O I​nsight learning (Kohler!) – ​some
response that naturally occurs w/o ▪ Token Reinforcer: ​type of secondary- learning is through simple intuition
training (salivate) can be exchanged for other stuff (chimps with crates to get bananas)
o Neutral Response (NS):​ stimulus that (game tokens or money) O L​earned Helplessness (Seligman!) ​– no
normally doesn’t evoke a response O Generalization: ​respond to similar matter what you do you never get a
(bell) stimulus for reward positive outcome so you just give up
o Conditioned Stimulus (CS):​ once O Discrimination:​ stimulus signals when (word scrambles)
C​ognition 
neutral stimulus that now brings about a behavior will or will not be reinforced
response (bell) (light on means response are accepted)
o Conditioned Response (CR):​ response O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: (8 – 10%) 
that, after conditioning, follows a CS same as classical conditioning ENCODING: Getting info into memory
(salivate) O Premack Principle: ​high probability ● Automatic encoding​ – requires no effort
o Contiguity:​ Timing of the pairing, activities reinforce low probability (what did you have for breakfast?)
NS/CS must be presented immediately activities (get extra min at recess if you ● Effortful encoding​ – requires attention
BEFORE the US everyone turns in their HW) (school work)
o Acquisition:​ process of learning the O Overjustification Effect:​ ​reinforcing ● Shallow, intermediate, deep processing:
response pairing behaviors that are intrinsically the more emphasis on MEANING the
o Extinction:​ previously conditioned motivating causes you to stop doing deeper the processing, and the better
response dies out over time them (give a child 5$ for reading when remembered
o Spontaneous Recovery:​ After a period they already like to read – they stop ● Imagery ​– attaching images to information
of time the CR comes back out of reading) makes it easier to remember (shoe w/
nowhere O Shaping: ​use ​successive approximations spaghetti laces)
o Generalization:​ CR to like stimuli to train behavior (reward desired ● Self-referent encoding – ​we better
(similar sounding bell) behaviors to teach a response – rat remember what we’re interested in (you’d
o Discrimination:​ CR to ONLY the CS basketball) remember someone’s phone number who
● CONTINGENCY MODEL: R​escorla & O Chaining: ​tie together several behaviors you found extremely attractive)
Wagner – ​classical conditioning involves ● Dual encoding –​ combining different
cognitive processes types of encoding aids in memory
● CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION O Continuous Reinforcement schedule: ● Chunking –​ break info into smaller units
(ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): J​ohn Receive reward for every response to aid in memory (like a phone #)
Garcia – ​Innate predispositions can allow O Fixed Ratio schedule:​ Reward every X ● Mnemonics – ​shortcuts to help us
classical conditioning to occur in one trial number of response (every 10 envelopes remember info easier
(food poisoning) stuffed get $$) o Acronyms – using letter to remember
● COUNTERCONDITIONING: Little O Fixed Interval schedule:​ Reward every something (PEMDAS)
Albert and John Watson (father of X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks o Method of loci – using locations to
behaviorism) – ​conditioned a fear in a get a paycheck) remember a list of items in order
baby (only to countercondition – remove O Variable Ratio schedule:​ Rewarded ● Context dependent memory – ​where
it- later on) after a random number of responses (slot you learn the info you best remember
● OPERANT CONDITIONING: machine the info (scuba divers testing)
SKINNER! O Variable Interval schedule:​ Rewarded ● State dependent memory –​ the
O LAW OF EFFECT (T​horndike): after a random amount of time has physical state you were in when
Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes passed (fishing) learning is the way you should be when
are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken O Variable schedules are most resistant to testing (study high, test high)
a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) extinction​ (​how long will keep playing a STORAGE​: ​Retaining info over time
● PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: slot machine before you think its ● Information Processing Model –
O Pos. Reinforcement: ​Add​ something broken?) Sensory memory, short term memory,
nice​ to ​increase​ a behavior (gold star for ● SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL) long term memory model
turning in HW) LEARNING: ​BANDURA! ● Sensory Memory – ​stores all incoming
O Neg. Reinforcement: ​Take away ● Modeling Behaviors: ​Children model stimuli that you receive (first you have
something ​bad/annoying​ to ​increase ​a (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo to a pay attention)
behavior (put on seatbelt to take away dolls to demonstrate the following o Iconic Memory –​ visual memory,
annoying car signal) O Prosocial –​ helping behaviors lasts 0.3 seconds
O Pos. Punishment: ​Add​ something ​bad​ to O Antisocial –​ mean behaviors o Echoic Memory –​ auditory memory,
decrease​ a behavior (spanking) ● MISC LEARNING TYPES lasts 2-3 seconds
O Neg. Punishment: ​Take away O Latent learning (​Tolman!)​ – ​learning is ● Short Term Memory – ​info passes
something ​good​ to ​decrease​ a behavior hidden until useful (rats in maze get from sensory memory to STM – lasts
(take away car keys) reinforced half way through, 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items
performance improved

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

o Rehearsal ​(repeating the info)​ resets ● Forgetting curve:​ recall decreases rapidly thus cannot easily think about the past)
the clock at first, then reaches a plateau after which developed by ​WHORF
● Working Memory Model​ splits STM little more is forgotten ​(EBBINGHAUS) THINKING
into 2 – visual spatial memory (from ● Concepts: ​mental categories used to group
iconic mem) and phonological loop objects, events, characteristics
(from echoic mem). A “central ● Prototypes:​ ​all instances of a concept are
executive” puts it together before compared to an ideal example (what you
passing it to LTM first think of)
● Long term memory​ – ​lasts a life time ● Algorithms:​ ​step by step strategies that
o Explicit (Declarative): ​Conscious guarantee a solution (formula)
recollection ● Heuristics: ​short cut strategy (rule of
▪ Episodic: ​events ● Proactive interference: ​old info blocks thumb)
▪ Semantic:​ facts new o Representative Heuristic:​ ​make
o Implicit (Nondeclarative): ● Retroactive interference:​ ​new info blocks inferences based on your experience
unconscious recollection old (like a stereotype) – assume someone
▪ Classical conditioning ● Misinformation effect: ​distortion of must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet
▪ Priming: ​info that is seen earlier memory by suggestion or misinformation o Availability heuristic:​ ​relying on
“primes” you to remember (​Loftus – ​lost in the mall, Disney land) availability to judge the frequency of
something later on (octopus, ● Anterograde amnesia:​ ​amnesia moves something (over estimating death due to
assassin, climate, bogeyman) forward (forget new info – 50 first dates) plane crashes due to recent events)
▪ Procedural:​ skills ● Retrograde amnesia:​ ​amnesia moves ● Functional Fixedness:​ ​keep using one
● Memory organization backwards (forget old info) strategy – cannot think outside of the box
o Hierarchies: ​memory is stored ● ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE​:​ ​caused by ● Belief bias: ​tendency of one’s preexisting
according to a hierarchy destruction of acetylcholine in beliefs to distort logical reasoning by
o Semantic networks: ​linked hippocampus making invalid conclusions
memories are stored together LANGUAGE ● Belief perseverance:​ ​tendency to cling to
o Schemas:​ preexisting mental concept ● Phonemes: ​smallest unit of sound (ch our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence
of how something should look (like a sound in chat) ● Inductive reasoning:​ ​data driven
restaurant) ● Morpheme:​ smallest unit that caries decisions, general ​→​ specific
● Memory storage meaning (syllable) ● Deductive reasoning:​ ​driven by logic,
o Acetylcholine neurons in the ● Grammar:​ rules in a language that enable specific ​→​ general
hippocampus for most memories us to communicate ● Divergent thinking:​ ​ability to think about
o Cerebellum for procedural ● Semantics: ​set of rules by which we many different things at once
memories derive meaning (adding –ed makes
something past tense)
o Long-term potentiation: ​neural basis of ● Syntax:​ rules for combining words into
memory – connections are strengthened sentences (white house vs casa blanca)
over time with repeated stimulation (more ● Babbling stage:​ infants babble 1​st​ stage of
firing of neurons) speech
RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage ● One-word stage: ​duh Motivation & Emotion 
● Serial Position Effect: ​tendency to ● Two-word stage: ​duh duh
remember the beginning and the end of the ● Theories of language development: (6-8%) 
list best o Imitation: ​Kids repeat what they hear – THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
● Recall: ​remember what you’ve been told but they don’t do it perfectly ● INSTINCT: ​complex behaviors have fixed
w/o cues (essays) ▪ Overregularization:​ ​grammar patterns and are not learned (explains
● Recognition:​ remember what you’ve been mistake where children over use animal motivation)
told w/ cues (MC) certain morphemes (I go-ed to the ● DRIVE REDUCTION: ​physiological need
● Flashbulb memories:​ particularly vivid park) creates aroused tension (drive) that
memories for highly important events o Operant conditioning: ​reinforced for motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by
(9/11 attacks) language use homeostasis: ​ equilibrium)
● Repressed memories:​ unconsciously o Inborn universal grammar: ​theory o Primary drive:​ unlearned drive based
buried memories – are unreliable comes from ​NOAM CHOMSKY​ – on survival (hunger, thirst)
● Encoding failure:​ forget info b/c you says that language is innate and we are o Secondary drive:​ learned drive (wealth
never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the predisposed to learn it or success)
first place (which is the real penny) o Critical period:​ ​period of time where ● OPTIMUM AROUSAL: ​humans aim to
● Encoding specificity principle:​ the more something must be learned or else it seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks
closely retrieval cues match the way we cannot ever happen (language must be requires more arousal, harder tasks need less
learned the info, the better we remember learned young – Genie the Wild Child)
the info (like state dependent memory) o Linguistic determinism:​ ​language
influences the way we think (Hopi
people do not have words for the past,

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

o Bulimia: ​usually normal body weight, go o Exhaustion:​ body/you cannot take any
through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat more, give up
massive amounts, then throw up)
▪ Causes:​ same as anorexia ● Type A Personality: ​rigid, stressful person,
SEXUALITY perfectionist. At risk for heart disease
● Biology of sex: ● Type B Personality:​ laid back, nonstressed.
o Hypothalamus:​ stimulation increases INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL
sexual behavior, destruction leads to PSYCH
sexual inhibition ● Industrial / Organizational Psych:
o Pituitary gland: ​monitors, initiates, and psychological of the workplace – focuses on
● HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: ​theory derived restricts hormones employee recruitment, placement, training,
by ​MASLOW​ – needs lower in the pyramid ▪ Males –​ testosterone satisfaction, productivity
have priority over needs higher in the ▪ Females -​ estrogen ● Ergonomics / Human Factors: ​intersection
pyramid o Sexual Response Pattern: ​Excitement of engineering and psych – focuses on
phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period safety and efficiency of human-machine
● Intrinsic motivation: i​ nner motivation – (resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again interactions
you do it b/c you like it until you reset, guys only) ● Hawthorne effect:​ productivity increases
● Extrinsic motivation: ​motivation to obtain o Alfred Kinsey:​ 1​st​ researcher to conduct when workers are made to feel important
a reward (trophy) studies in sex, suggested that people were ● Theory X management:​ manager controls
very promiscuous. Studies lacked a employees, enforces rules. Good for lower
representative sample, created scale of level jobs
homosexuality ● Theory Y management:​ manger gives
o Homosexuality:​ biological roots: employees responsibility, looks for input.
differences in the brain, identical twins Good for high level jobs
more likely to both be gay, later sons
more likely to be (hormones from mom)
● Employee Commitment:
o Affective: emotional attachment (best
HUNGER type)
● Signals of hunger: o Continuance: stay due to costs of leaving
o Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry THORIES OF EMOTIONS o Normative: stay due to obligation (they
o Glucose​ ​(sugar) level is maintained by ● JAMES-LANGE: ​stimulus paid for your school)
the ​pancreas (endocrine system)​. →​physiological arousal ​→​ emotion ● Meaning of Work:
o Insulin​ decreases glucose. Too little ● CANNON-BARD: ​stimulus ​→ o Job – no training, just do it for $$. No
glucose makes us hungry. physiological arousal & emotion happiness
o Orexin​ ​is released by the ​hypothalamus simultaneously o Career – work for advancement. Some
– telling us to eat. ● SCHACTER TWO FACTOR:​ adds in happiness
o Other chemicals include ​ghrelin, cognitive labeling (bridge experiment) o Calling – work because you love it. Lotsa
obestatin, and PPY stimulus ​→​ arousal ​→​interpret external happiness
o Lateral hypothalamus: ​when stimulated
makes you hungry, when lesioned you
cues ​→​ label emotion
Development 
will never eat again.​ (​I’m​ LATE ​for
lunch. I’m hungry. The​ LATEral
● Some stimuli are routed directly to the
amygdala​ bypassing the frontal cortex (gut (7-9%) 
reaction to a cockroach) ● Prenatal Development​:
hypothalamus ​makes you hungry​.) ● Behavioral factors: ​there are ​SIX ​universal o Zygote: ​0 – 14 days, cells are dividing
o Ventromedial hypothalamus:​ when emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, o Embryo:​ until about 9 weeks, vital
stimulated you feel full, when destroyed surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL organs being formed
you eat eat eat eat (fat woman and cake) cultures o Fetus:​ 9 wks to birth, overall
o Leptin: ​leptin signals the brain to reduce ● Non-verbal cues: ​gestures, duchenne smile development
appetite (you can tell a real smile from a fake one) o Teratogens:​ external agents that can
● Obesity: ● Facial feedback hypothesis:​ being forced cause abnormal prenatal development
o Increased risk of ​heart attack, to smile will make you happier (facial (alcohol, drugs, etc)
hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes expressions influence emotion) ▪ Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large
o Can be genetic – adopted children STRESS AND HEALTH amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes
resemble their biological parents ● GENERAL ADAPTATION deformities, mental retardation, death
o Set point: ​there is a control system that SYNDROME (GAS): ​three phases of a ● Physical Development:
dictates how much fat you should carry – stress response (​SELYE ​came up w/ this) o Maturation: ​natural course of
every person is different o Alarm:​ body/you freak out in response to development, occurs no matter what
● Eating Disorders: stress (walking)
o Anorexia: ​weight loss of at least 15% o Resistance:​ body/you are dealing with o Reflexes:​ innate responses we’re born
ideal weight, distorted body image stress with
▪ Causes: ​overly critical parents,
perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals
Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])
 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

▪ Rooting, sucking, swallowing, happens during a ​critical period​ (from o Intimacy vs isolation​: (​20s—40s): ​form
grasping, stepping LORENZ) close relationships and gain capacity for
o Habituation:​ after continual exposure ● HARRY HARLOW: ​discovered that love
you pay less attention – used to test contact comfort is more important than o Generativity vs stagnation​: ​(40s-60s):
babies feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth discover sense of contributing to the
o Eyes have the most limited mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation world, thru family & work
development, takes till 1 year couldn’t socialize o Integrity vs despair​: (​60s and up):
▪ Visual cliff: ​babies have to learn depth ● MARY AINSWORTH: ​developed the reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or
perception, so they will cross a “cliff” strange situation paradigm ​(children left failure
o Other senses are fairly developed alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited ● PUBERTY! (​rapid skeletal and sexual
o Brain development continues for a few w/ mom – determines your attachment style maturation)
years o Secure attachment (60% of infants): o Primary sex characteristics: ​necessary
● JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV. upset when mom leaves, easily calmed structures for reproduction (ovaries,
● Schemas – ​concepts or frameworks that on return. Tend to be more stable adults testicles, vagina, penis)
organize info o Avoidant attachment (20% infants): o Secondary sex characteristics:
● Assimilation:​ incorporate new info into actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when nonreproductive characteristics that dev
existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff) she leaves during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening
● Accommodation:​ adjust existing schemas o Ambivalent attachment(10% infants): of voice, body hair)
to incorporate new information actively avoids mom, freaks out when o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully
(ACcommodation - All Change) she leaves developed till 25)
● Sensorimotor Stage: ​Birth to 2 years: o Disorganized attachment (5%): ● GENDER DEVELOPMENT: ​sex =
focused on exploring the world around confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse chromosomes, gender = what you identify
them ● BAUMRIND: ​parenting styles yourself as
o Lack ​Object Permanence:​ Objects when o Authoritarian:​ rules & obedience, “my o Gender roles: ​expected behaviors
removed from field of view are thought to way or the highway” – kids lack (norms) for men/women
disappear (peek-a-boo) initiative in college o Social learning theory:​ we learn gender
o Dev.​ ​Sense of Self: ​by 2 yrs can o Permissive:​ kids do whatever – no rules roles and identity from those around us
recognize themselves in the mirror – kids lack initiative in college ● AGING:
o Authoritative:​ give and take w/ kids – o Cellular clock theory: ​cells have a
● Pre-operational Stage: ​2 – 7 years:​ use kids become socially competent and maximum # of divisions before they
pretend play, developing language, using reliable can’t divide anymore
intuitive reasoning ● KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV o Free-radical theory: ​unstable oxygen
o Lack ​Conservation: ​recognize that o Preconventional morality: ​Children: molecules w/in cells damage DNA
substances remain the same despite they follow rules to avoid punishment o Over time​ ​skills decrease ​(reaction
changes in shape, length, or position (girls o Conventional morality:​ adolescents: time, memory)
with juice in glasses) follow rules b/c rules exist to keep order ● CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY​: ​studies
o Lack ​Reversibility: ​cannot do reverse o Postconventional morality:​ adults: they ppl of different ages at the same point in
operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4) do what they believe is right (even if it time
o Are ​egocentric: ​inability to distinguish goes against society) o Adv:​ inexpensive & quick
one’s own perspective from another’s – ● Carol Gilligan: ​said moral reasoning and o Disadv:​ can be differences due to
think everyone sees what they see moral behaviors are two different things generational gap
● Concrete Operational Stage: ​7-11 yrs:​ ​use (what you say isn’t always what you do) ● LONGITUDINAL STUDY:​ ​studies same
operational thinking, classification, and ● ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV.​ : ppl over time
can think logical in concrete context 8 stages, each stage represents a crisis that o Adv:​ eliminates groups differences, lots
● Formal Operational Stage:​ ​11-15 yrs: ​use must be resolved, results in competence or of detail
abstract and idealist thoughts, weakness o Disadv:​ expensive, time consuming, high
hypothetical-deductive reasoning o Trust vs Mistrust​ ​(birth – 18 months)​: if drop out rates
● Problems with Piaget’s theory​: ​stages to needs are dependably met infants dev ● Stages of Grief (​crap btw)
discrete, dev. differs b/w kids basic trust o Denial: ​“this can’t be happening”
● VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: ​cognitive o Autonomy vs shame&doubt ​(​1 -3 yrs): o Anger:​ “why me?”
development is a social process too, need to toddlers learn to exercise their will and o Bargaining:​ “just let me live to see my
interact w/ others think for themselves kids graduate”
o Zone of Proximal Development: ​gap o Initiative vs guilt ​(3-6 yrs): learn to o Depression:​ “why bother”
b/w what a child can do on their own and initiate tasks and carry out plans o Acceptance:​ “its going to okay”
w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) o Industry vs inferiority ​(6 yrs to ● Problem-focused coping: ​solving or doing
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT puberty)​: learn the pleasure of applying something to alter the course of stress
● Temperament: ​patterns of emotional themselves to tasks (planning, acceptance)
reactions and babies (precursor to o Identity vs role confusion​: ​(adolescence ● Emotion-focused coping: ​reducing the
personality) thru 20s​): refine a sense of self by testing emotional distress (denial, disengagement)
● Imprinting:​ baby geese believe the first
thing they see after hatching is their mom –
roles and forming an identity
Personality 
Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])
 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

(5-7%)  o Electra complex: ​young girls learn to

identify w/ their mother b/c they cannot
o C​onscientiousness: organized, careful,
disciplined
PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION
with their father (​penis envy) o E​xtraversion: sociable, fun-loving,
SIGMUND FREUD ​said personality was
● Latency stage (​6 yrs to puberty)​: ​psychic affectionate (opoosite it ​introversion:
largely unconscious. Came up w/ the
time out – personality is set shy, timid, reserved)
following:
● Genital State (​adulthood)​: ​sexual o A​greeableness: soft hearted, trusting,
● Conscious​: ​immediate awareness of current
reawakening – oedipal and electra helpful
environment
“feelings” are repressed, turn sexual wants o N​euroticism​ ​(emotional stability): calm,
● Preconscious:​ available to awareness
onto an appropriate person secure
(phone #s)
● FIXATION:​ can become “stuck” in an What’s wrong with trait theory? – ​ignores
● Unconscious:​ unavailable to awareness
earlier stage – influences personality (oral the role of the situation in behavior
● id:​ our hidden true animalistic wants and
stage smokes/drinks, anal is “anal What’s good about it? ​ - identifying traits
desires – operates on the pleasure principle,
retentive”, phallic is promiscuous) gives us perspectives about careers,
all about rewards and avoiding pain ​(devil
What’s wrong w/ Freud theory?​ – relationships, health
on your shoulder – entirely unconscious)​
unverifiable, descriptive not predictive How do we test this approach?
● superego:​ ​our moral conscious (​angel on
What’s good about it?​ – 1​st​ theory about ● MMPI – ​helpful for mental health and job
your shoulder, all 3 consciousness​)
personality, sparked psychoanalysis placement
● ego:​ reality principle, has to deal w/ society,
How do we test this approach? ● Myer’s Briggs –​ gave you 4 letter combo
stuck mediating b/w the id and superego ​(its
● Psychoanalysis: ​analyze a person’s What’s wrong w/ these tests?
you! – conscious and preconscious​)
unconscious motives thru the use of: ● They’re long, social desirability can be an
When ego cannot mediate b/w the id and
o Free Association:​ say aloud everythying influence, and they’re too broad
superego, we use ​defense mechanisms
that comes to mind w/o hesitation HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
● Repression: ​push memories back into the
o Transference: ​looks for feelings to ● Emphasized personal growth and free will.
unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too
transferred to psychoanalyst You don’t like yourself? So change!
traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it)
o Dream interpretation:​ analyze the ● CARL ROGERS: ​talked about our
● Projection:​ attribute personal shortcomings
manifest (seen message) and latent self-concept (idea of who we are).​ Your
& faults on to others (man who wants to
(hidden messages) content self-concept is the center of your personality
have an affair accuses his wife of having
o Projective Tests:​ ambiguous stimuli o Actual (social) self:​ what others see
one)
shown to look at your unconscious o Ideal (true) self:​ who you WANT to be
● Denial:​ refuse to acknowledge reality
motives (​THESE SUCK B/C THEY o A​ positive​ self-concept makes us perceive
(refuse to believe you have cancer)
ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE) the world positively (optimist)
Displacement;​ shift feelings from an
▪ Thematic apperception test (TAT)​ : o A ​negative ​self-concept makes us feel
unacceptable object to a more acceptable
tell a story about a picture (when dissatisfied and unhappy
one (can’t tell at teacher, go home and yell
someone has a tattoo (tatt) you ask What wrong with humanistic theory? ​ -
at the dog)
what it means too optimistic about human nature, abstract
▪ Rorschach inkblot: show an inkblot concepts are difficult to test
What’s good about it? – ​emphasizes
● Reaction formation:​ transform
conscious experiences and change
unacceptable motive into his opposite
NEO-FREUDIANS
(woman who fears sexual urges becomes a
● CARL JUNG: ​believed in the ​collective ● Individualistic Cultures: ​give priorities to
religious zealot)
unconconcious ​(shared inherited reservoir own goals over group goals. Define your
● Regression:​ transform into an earlier
of memory – explains common myths identify in terms of you (American society)
development period in the face of stress
across civilizations & time) ● Collectivistic Cultures:​ give priority to the
(during exam week you start to suck your
● KAREN HORNEY: ​said personality goals of the group, your identity is part of
thumb)
develops in context of social relationships, that group (China)
● Rationalization:​ replace a less acceptable
NOT sexual urges (security not sex is SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
reasoning with a more acceptable one (don’t
motivation, men get womb envy) ● Behavior is a complex interaction of inner
get into your college – justify it was a sucky
TRAIT PERSPECTIVE process and environmental influence –
college anyway)
● Traits ​are enduring personality which influences personality
● Sublimination:​ replace unacceptable
characteristics, people can be described by ● Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs,
impulse w/ a socially acceptable one (man
these – have strong or weak tendencies. expectations, and goals
w/ strong sexual urges paints nudes. Dexter)
They are stable, genetic, and predict other ● BANDURA! ​Talked about ​RECIPROCAL
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
attributes. DETERMINISM: ​interaction of behavior,
● Oral stage (​0-18 months​)​: ​pleasure focuses
● Use ​factor analysis​ to find these: statistical cognitions,
on the mouth (id)
procedure used to identify similar and
● Anal stage (​18 – 36 months)​:​ pleasure
components environment
involves eliminative functions (ego forms)
● TRAIT THEORIES: make up ​you.
● Phallic stage (​3 – 6 yrs)​:​ pleasure focuses
● Big Five: (​by Costa & McCrae) (acronym ●
on genitals (superego forms)
OCEAN) You vary on each of these m outgoing
o Oedipal complex:​ young boys learn to
o O​penness : imaginative, independent, like (​behavior​), I
identify w/ their father out of fear of
variety choose to
retribution (​castration anxiety​)
Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])
 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

teach b/c it lets me be outgoing o 100 is average ● Standard deviation​ measures how much
(​environment​), and I have thought this ● WECHSLER: ​developed the WAIS and the scores vary from the mean. The
through which is why I teach despite WISC – most commonly used today percentages stay the same in every curve
making less money (​cognitive)} ● FLYNN effect:​ IQ has steadily risen over
● Self-efficacy:​ ​belief that one can succeed, the past 80 years – probably due to
Abnormal Behavior 
so you ensure you do education standards and better IQ tests
● Internal locus of control:​ ​you control your ● Extremes of Intelligence:​ high IQ = above (7 – 9%) 
own fate 135; mentally retarded = below 70 ● Defining abnormal behavior:
● External locus of control:​ ​chance / outside ● Causes of mild retardation: o Must be deviant, distressful, and
forces control your fate o PKU – liver fails to produce an ezyme dysfunctional
What’s wrong with social-cognitive? – ​Too needed to breakdown chemicals – leads ● Historical causes: ​biology, psychological
specific, cannot generalize to brain damage issues, supernatural issues (demons)
What’s good about it? – ​Highlights o Down syndrome – extra copy of 21​st ● Medical model:​ emphasizes treatment of
situations, and cognitive explanations of chromosome disorders, as they have a biological origin.
personality o Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to Came through the reformation of
How do we test it? – ​Observations & ONE X chromosome institutions in U.S. (​DORTHEA DIX​)
interviews (time consuming) ● Influence on IQ: ● Biopsychosocial model:​ currently used
o Genetics: ​MZ twins have similar IQ, model – stress biological, psychological,
Testing &  
adopted kids more similar to biological and social causes
Individual Differences   parents ● Diagnosing abnormal behavior:
(5-7%)  o Environment:​ early neglect leads to o DSM:​ ​manual listing all currently
Individual Theories about Intelligence lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ accepted psychological disorders.
● GALTON: ​1st​​ to suggest intelligence was ● Types of Tests: Classifies them based on criteria –
inherited. Intelligence based on muscle o Aptitude: ​predicts your abilities to learn provides no explanation of causes or
strength, size of head, reaction time, etc. a new skill (ASVAB) treatments
● CATTELL: ​2 clusters of mental abilities o Achievement:​ tests what you know(SAT) ANXIETY DISORDERS
o Crystalized intelligence: ​reasoning and ● TEST CREATION: Most common disorders in the U.S.
verbal skills - what you learn in school – o Standardization: ​administer a test to a ● Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD):
the cold hard (like crystals!) facts representative sample of future test takers person is generally anxious, all the time, for
o Fluid intelligence:​ spatial abilities, rote to establish a basis for meaningful NO REASON
memory, things that come natural to you comparison (test it out 1​st​) ● Panic Disorder:​ person is prone to frequent
– can’t learn in school. Also decrease o Should be ​reliable: ​same results over panic attacks (feeling like you’re having a
over time time heart attack). Can come w/ ​agoraphobia:
● SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR: ​said a ▪ Split-half reliability: compare two anxiety about being in places you cannot
general intelligence (g) underlies all mental halves of the test escape (fear of public spaces / people)
abilities (typical IQ of today) ▪ Test-retest reliability: use the same ● Phobias:​ irrational fear that disrupts your
● GARDNER:​ multiple intelligences (8): test on 2 different occasions life
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, o Should be ​valid: ​test is accurate – ● Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD):
spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal measures what it is intended to person if overwhelmed with both:
(self), interpersonal (social), naturalist ▪ Content validity: test measures what o Obsessions: ​persistent unwanted thoughts
you want it to (an IQ test actually (did I leave the stove on?)
measures IQ) o Compulsions:​ senseless rituals (hand
● STERNBERG:​ ​TRIARCHIC THEORY ▪ Predictive validity: test is able to washing)
o Analytical: ​mental components to solve accurately predict a trait (high math ● Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD):
problems, what IQ tests assess (book scores predicts good engineer) characterized by flashbacks, problems w/
smarts) ● Standardized tests establish a normal concentration, and anxiety following a
o Practical:​ ability to size up new distribution traumatic event (war, natural disasters)
situations and adapt to real-life demands ● Standard deviations are used to compare CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS:
(street smarts) scores. ● Psychodynamic:​ repressed thoughts &
o Creative:​ intellectual and motivational feelings manifest in anxiety and rituals
processes that lead to novel solutions, ● Behaviorist: ​fear conditioning leads to
idea, products anxiety, which is then reinforced.
● BINET​: ​developed 1​st​ intelligence test, Phobias might be learned through
combined with ​TERMAN​ – developed the observational learning
STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST ● Biological: ​natural selection favored
those with certain phobias (heights).
Twins ​often share disorders. Often see
less GABA​ in the brain
o Chronological age = actual age SOMATOFORM DISORDERS
o Mental age = tested age compared to ● Psychological disorders w/ no apparent
other of that age physical cause

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

o Conversion disorder: ​loss of feeling or ▪ Disorganized thinking ● COGNITIVE APPROACH:

usage of a limb or body part (sight) – ▪ Disorganized speech o Rational-emotive therapy: ​(developed
absolutely no physiological cause though o Negative Symptoms (​something taken by ELLIS) techniques include analyzing
o Hypochondriasis:​ person interprets away) self-defeating behaviors to change
normal symptoms as a major disease – ▪ Flat affect: ​lack ability to show thought patterns​ – and then change
must disrupt their life emotions behaviors associated w/ said patterns
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS ▪ Impaired decision making, inability ▪ Best for anxiety disorders
● Dissociative Identity Disorder: ​formerly to pay attention ▪ Very confrontational
multiple personalities – person fractures into o Catatonia: ​become frozen over periods o Cognitive therapy: ​(developed by
several distinct personalities who normally of time (exhibit ​waxy flexibility: ​can BECK) illogical thoughts ​→
have no awareness of each other. ​NOT move them into new positions) psychological problems, challenges
SCHIZOPHRENIA! ● CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA those thoughts
o Usually caused by traumatic childhood o Brain abnormalities: ​enlarged ventricles ▪ Best for depression
abuse (atrophy), smaller frontal cortex ▪ Self-directed – you figure out your
o Legitimacy is doubted by some, more o Genetics:​ runs in families, MZ twins at errors
common in those w/ good health higher risk ● BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (typically
insurance o Dopamine hypothesis:​ too much used for anxiety disorders / phobias)
o Treatment involves integration of the dopamine in the brain o Classical Conditioning:
personalities o Diathesis – Stress: ​individual has a ▪ Counterconditioning ​Little Albert &
● Dissociative Fugue: ​following a traumatic genetic predisposition, disease must be Watson
event a person leaves, taking on a whole “turned-on” by environmental stimuli ● Aversive conditioning: ​associate an
new life & personality w/ no memory of the (like stress) – explains why it is most unpleasant experience (e.g. nausea)
previous one commonly developed during college w/ an unwanted behavior (e.g.
MOOD DISORDERS years drinking alcohol)
● Major depressive disorder: ​extreme PERSONALITY DISORDERS ▪ Exposure therapy: ​slowly expose
sadness and despair, apathy towards life, w/ ● Marked by ​disruptive, inflexible, enduring people to whatever it is that makes
no known cause behavior patterns – ​makes this very them anxious
● Dysthymia:​ milder form of depression, difficult to treat! ● Systematic desensitization:
lasts for ​years​ (Eeyore!) o Antisocial: ​NOT “avoidant of associate a pleasant relaxed state w/
● Bipolar disorder: ​bouts of severe socialization” – more like “anti-society” – gradually increasing anxiety
depression & manic episodes disregard for others, manipulative, breaks triggering stimuli (create a
o Mania:​ heightened mood, characterized laws desensitization hierarchy – ex. List of
by risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of o Borderline:​ instable interpersonal things about flying that makes you
ideas relationships & self-image, “I hate you, nervous – step through each one till
● Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): ​form don’t leave me” you can do it)
of depression that occurs typically winter – o Histrionic:​ excessive emotionality & ● Intensive exposure therapy
found mostly in Northern areas (Alaska, attention seeking (slut disorder) (Flooding):​ force someone to
Ireland) ​UNIQUE TREATMENT = o Narcissistic:​ need for admiration & lack experience the fear (afraid of
LIGHT THERAPY of empathy (who cares about everyone drowning, throw you in a pool)
CAUSES OF MOOD DISORDERS else – look at me!) o Operant Conditioning: ​use behavior
● Biology: ​lower levels of serotonin & modification (reward good behaviors w/
norepinephrine linked to depression, higher token reinforcers ). Used in schools, w/
levels of norepinephrine linked to mania. autistic children, etc.
Runs in families suggesting ​GENES. Twin ● OTHER THERPAIES:
studies​ also support this. o Family therapy: ​treats the family as a
● Cognitive: ​negative thought patterns leads system, individual behaviors are
to depression influenced by family dynamics
o Group therapy:​ therapy through a group
– lets patients see “they’re not alone”
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Treatment of 
NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES! THEY
HAVE ONE PERSONALITY! Psychological Disorders  ● BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: ​CALLED
● SYMPTOMS (5-7%)  BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES
o Positive Symptoms (​not good – means ● PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH: ​SEE o Drug therapies (psychopharmacology):
something added)) PERSONALITY SECTION ▪ Anti-psychotics:​ ​decrease dopamine​:
▪ Hallucinations: ​sensory experiences ● HUMANISTIC APPROACH: treats schizophrenia
w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or o Client-centered therapy: ​(developed by ● Side effects:​ ​TARDIVE DYSKINESIA:
hearing things) CARL ROGERS) techniques include hand tremors (similar to Parkinson’s-
▪ Delusions:​ fixed, false beliefs (people active listening, accepting environment, due to lack of dopamine), worsening
are out to get them, grandiose thoughts focuses ​on patient growth​ (you figure of negative symptoms, extreme
(I am God) out what needs to change and do it) sedation

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

● Drug names:​ ​thorazine, clozapine prisoners. w/in days they took on their ​roles ​AGGRESION
▪ Anti-depressants:​ ​increase serotonin and went too far. Highly unethical ● Genetic influence: ​runs in families, can
through ​REUPTAKE inhibition ● Cognitive dissonance (FESTINGER): ​two breed for in animals
● Side effects: ​drowsiness, anxiety, can opposing thoughts conflict w/ each other, ● Lower serotonin, higher testosterone
increase suicide risk in teens causing discomfort (dissonance), which ● Environmental influence: ​social
● Drug names: ​SSRIs (selective makes us find ways to justify the situation learning theory (BANDURA) – observing
serotonin reuptake inhibitors) like (cult that was going to be abducted by violence in others makes us more violent
Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil.​ SNRIs (selective aliens, smokers) for a time
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) SOCIAL INFLUENCE o Also: ​pollution, crowding, heat, humidity
Cymbalta, Effexor ● Conformity: ​classic experiment done by ● Frustration-aggression hypothesis:
▪ Mood stabilizers:​ ​used in the treatment ASCH ​– showed lines of different lengths, frustration creates anger, which leads to
of BIPOLAR disorder : ​LITHIUM confederates gave wrong answers to see if aggression
▪ Anti-anxiety drugs: ​depress the central others would go along w/ it ​ATTRACTION
nervous system (dangerous in combo o Normative social influence:​ we ● Mere exposure effect: ​repeated exposure
w/ alcohol) ​Xanax, Ativan conform to gain approval or to not stand to novel stimuli increases liking of them
o Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): ​send out from the group (be part of the ​norm (the more time you spend around
electricity into the brain to induce minor o Informational social influence: ​we something the more you like it)
seizures. Used (​rarely) ​to treat depression conform to others b/c we think their ● Physical attractiveness: ​pretty ppl are
(​when nothing else works)​. Thought to opinions must be right thought to be more credible, less likely to
“reboot” the brain ● Obedience: ​classic experiment done by do bad things
o Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomy): MILGRAM​: participants were to “teach” ● Similarity:​ we prefer ppl similar to us
frontal lobe is surgically destroyed. Used another individual using shocks. 60% of ​ALTRUISM
to treat depression or violent individuals – participants would administer lethal shocks ● Altruism: ​unselfish regard for the
almost never used anymore to another person simply b/c they were told welfare of others
Social  to ● Bystander effect:​ the more ppl around

(8-10%)  GROUP INFLUENCE

● Social facilitation: ​perform better on
the less likely we are to help someone in
need
SOCIAL THINKING simple or well learned tasks in the presence ● Social exchange theory:​ social behavior
● Attribution theory: ​we explain others of others (helping) is an exchange process – aim is
behaviors by crediting the situation or the ● Social loafing:​ tendency for ppl in a group to maximize benefits and minimize cost
person’s disposition (they only passed b/c to exert less effort when pooling their effort ● Reciprocity norm:​ we give so we can get
they cheated) together (tug of war) ​ CONFLICT
● Fundamental attribution error (very ● Deindividuation:​ loss of self-awareness ● Social trap: ​conflicting parties pursue
similar to Actor-observer bias): and self-restraint occurring in group their own best interests, which can result
tendency for observers to underestimate situations that foster arousal and anonymity in destructive results (prisoner’s dilemma
the importance of the situation and (mob mentality) – game theory)
overestimate the impact of personal ● Group polarization:​ the more time spent
disposition (that guy cut me off b/c he’s a w/ a group the more similar (polarized) their
jerk – not that his wife could be in labor) thoughts / opinions will become
ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS ● Groupthink:​ desire for harmony w/in a
● Central route to persuasion: ​change group leads to everyone going along w/ the
people’s attitudes through logical same thinking, ignoring other possibilities
arguments and explanations. Leads to or bad ideas
long term behavior change ● Risky shift:​ groups make riskier decisions
● Peripheral route to persuasion:​ change together rather than alone
people’s attitudes through incidental cues PREJUDICE
(like a speaker’s attractiveness). Leads to ● Ingroup: ​“US” – ppl w/ whom we share a
temporary behavior changes common identity
● Foot in the door phenomenon: ● Outgroup:​ “them” – ppl perceived as
complying w/ a small request then leads different or not part of the group
to going along w/ a larger request (can I ● Ingroup bias:​ tendency to favor our own
●
have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?) group
●
● Door in the face phenomenon:​ a large ● Scapegoat theory:​ prejudice offers an
● Approach approach conflict:​ win – win
request is turned down, when then leads you outlet for anger by providing someone
situation; conflict is which win you have
to be more likely to comply w/ a small else to blame
to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your
request (can I have $100? Heck no! How ● Ethnocentrism:​ tendency to see your
two favorite restaurants – you can only
about $20? Okay) own group as more important than others
choose one though)
● STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT ● Just-world phenomenon: ​tendency for
● Approach avoidance conflict:​ win – lose
(ZIMBARDO):​ classic “experiment” where ppl to believe that the world is just and
situation; outcome has positive and
individuals were assigned to be guards / therefore ppl get what they deserve
negative aspects (marriage)
(homeless ppl)

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])

 lOMoARcPSD|8212141

● Avoidance avoidance conflict :​ lose –

lose; both outcomes are bad but you have
to choose one (clean your room or do
your homework)
● Multiple approach avoidance conflict:
two (or more) win-lose situations; conflict
is which to choose (College A is good for
your major but no scholarship, College B
is bad for your major but has a
scholarship)
​SOCIAL SELF
● Self-concept bias: ​what we consider
important in ourselves is what we
consider important in others
● False-consensus effect: ​we overestimate
the degree to which everyone else thinks /
acts the way we do
● Self-fulfilling prophecy: ​a belief that
leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you
all to pass, you know this, you study –
fulfilling my prophecy)
● Self-serving bias: ​readiness to perceive
ourselves as favorably
● Spotlight effect (self-objectification) :
tendency of an individual to overestimate
the extent to which others are paying
attention to them

MULTIPLE CHOICE STRATEGIES

● Bubble as you go – you don’t want to run

out of time!
● Answer EVERY QUESTION – you don’t
lose points for guessing
o If you run out of time pick either B, C,
or D and bubble straight down.
● If you don’t recognize an answer choice –
it probably IS​ NOT​ THE ANSWER

ESSAY WRITING STRATEGIES

ANSWER THE STUPID QUESTION!

● Don’t write in bullet points!
o No Fluff – no transitions – no topic /
thesis statements
● Be specific and apply the answer to the
prompt

Created by ​Imbesi

if you wanna write on this, make a copy and

use that!

[Link]
2q-1Cv1kJRlAPT9tIg​ and subscribe <3

GOOD LUCK EVERYONE!

Downloaded by Student Carolina VargasSerna (123596@[Link])