CULTURAL ETHNOCENTRISM

A World of Diversity Ethnocentric derived from the Greek words of Ethnos, meaning race,
people or cultural group, and Kentrikos, meaning concentrated about or directed to a center is a
word that greatly describes many cultures on this planet we call Earth. The official definition of
Ethnocentric is “characterized or based on the attitude that one’s own group is superior” or
“having race as a central interest”(Khan 2012).

Ethnocentrism is the term anthropologists use to describe the opinion that one’s own way of life
is natural or correct. Some would simply call it cultural ignorance. Ethnocentrism means that one
may see his/her own culture as the correct way of living. For those who have not experienced
other cultures in depth can be said to be ethnocentric if they feel that their lives are the most
natural way of living. Some cultures may be similar or overlap in ideas or concepts, however,
some people are in a sense, shocked to experience differences they may encounter with
individuals culturally different than themselves. In extreme cases, a group of individuals may see
another cultures way of life and consider it wrong, because of this, the group may try to convert
the other group to their own ways of living. Fearful war and genocide could be the devastating
result if a group is unwilling to change their ways of living.

People from other cultures often do things that annoy, frustrate, and offend us, which is also true
in reverse. This is a fact of life—and one which is not confined to cross-cultural interactions;
people from our own culture can also annoy and offend us. While we do not feel bad if we are
upset when someone from our own culture irks us, when the perpetrator is from another culture,
we wonder if we have the right to be upset. Is it really fair to be angry with that person?

Needless to say, when someone violates one of our cultural norms and does something that is
unnatural, this behavior is going to provoke strong responses because abnormal behavior
undermines our norms and thereby threatens what makes interaction possible and holds our
culture together. In short, when we react to or judge the behavior of someone else, we are
performing an essential function for the survival of our culture and society.

Thus, being ethnocentric is human nature. It is only when you are dealing with people who come
from other ethnos that ethnocentrism does not always work so well. If you happen to be in their
culture, for example, then the burden is on you to figure out their ethnos. But if you are in your
own ethnos, then it is appropriate—and a very good idea—to be ethnocentric.

If that is true, then where does this idea of trying to be culturally sensitive fit in? It does not
mean not judging the behavior of others but being open to the possibility that the “abnormal”
behavior someone has done may not seem abnormal to them. It is still wrong for you, and it
probably would not hurt to let that person know, even as you would appreciate knowing when
you violated another culture’s norm.

Being culturally sensitive has very little to do with liking or accepting the strange behaviors of
people from other cultures; it means acknowledging that we are all strange depending on the
context. Cultural differences and the judgments they provoke are not the problem; the problem is
to deny culture, which is just what you do when you ask people not to judge.

This is, admittedly, a rather extreme definition. The usual dictionary definition of ethnocentrism
is "the tendency to regard one’s own group and culture as intrinsically superior to all others"
(Webster’s Dictionary).

Superiority of the own group and culture, however, (psycho) logically implies inferiority of other
groups and cultures. And viewing other groups/cultures as inferior empirically appears to imply
some degree (however small) of contempt, stereotyping, discrimination and dehumanization of,
and at least a modicum of hostility toward, members of those other groups/cultures.

Ethnocentrism: Brief History of the Concept

'Ethnocentrism' is a major theme in both biological and cultural theories of the causes of
primitive war.

Darwin (1871) had noticed that early humans and contemporary primitive peoples, as a rule,
confined their sympathy to the own tribe and generally did not regard violence against other
tribes as a crime. He clearly saw the correlation between intergroup competition and intra-group
cooperation, which is the core of the ethnocentrism syndrome, in human evolution.

Thus Tylor viewed ethnocentrism (as well as the obligations of the blood feud) as making sense
within a framework of primitive concepts of law and justice. Furthermore, it is a relatively old
one. Though the term 'ethnocentrism' was to be coined a few decades later, the concept was by
no means unknown among 19th-century anthropologists such as Tylor (1871).

Comte: In his Course de la philosophie positive (1830-42) Comte dismissed the notion of a
peaceful golden age at the dawn of history. On the contrary, perennial and savage warfare forced,
according to his rather gloomy view, social solidarity as a defense against enemy groups.
 Spencer (1850): He thought that war had fostered ’social cohesion’ in ’conquering races’. In
1892-1893, after half a century of work, Spencer completed his vast system of philosophy with
two volumes on The Principles of Ethics. In his studies of evolution, he had hoped to find a code
that placed human conduct on a scientific footing. Instead, he discovered that evolution, as seen
to work in human communities, spoke with two voices, each enunciating a separate code.

AllamaIbn-e-Khuldoon’s theory of Alasabiya (Social solidarity) contains more or less the

same meanings.

Definition
In simple words, ethnocentrism means considering one’s own culture superior to all other
cultures. Ethnocentrism makes our culture into a gauge with which to measure all other cultures
as good or bad, high or low in the proportion as they resemble ours.

Sociology. The belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or culture.
Overriding concern with ethnicity.

Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture.
Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or culture,
especially with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions
and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity. Ethnocentrism may be
overt or subtle, and while it is considered a natural proclivity of human psychology, it has
developed a generally negative connotation.

A tendency is to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own traditional,
deferred or adoptive ethnic culture.

SOME EXAMPLES OF ETHNOCENTRISM

i. Nazi Germany: This is one of the worst, most extreme and most tragic examples of
ethnocentrism. Hitler believed that Jews, as well as people belonging to some other
communities, were inferior to his ethnicity, and did not deserve to live. He had thousands and
thousands of innocent people slaughtered in concentration camps, all because they were not
of his 'pure' race, which was, according to him, superior among all. Though ethnocentrism is
not always this extreme, history does tell us stories about how the concept and prejudice that
rose from it took such a turn for the worse and had horrible consequences.

ii. Imperialism: Imperialism is defined as a policy or practice by which a country increases its
power by gaining control over other areas of the world (Merriam-Webster). The most famous
example of it would be European imperialism, where European countries believed that the
other areas of the world, such as Africa, America, India, etc. needed to be controlled by them
owing to their supposed underdeveloped natures. European countries establishing their
 colonies in other parts of the world is an example of ethnocentrism: they believed that they
were superior, civilized, and developed than other countries, which is why they 'needed' to
establish control in order to help these countries come up to their standards, too. 

iii. Terrorism and Hate Crimes: This is again a negative example of ethnocentrism. Terrorism
and hate crimes take place when one religion or community believes that it is superior and
better than any other religion or community. Ethnocentrism tends to blind people from seeing
things from another perspective― just because another community does something that
yours doesn't― like a particular style of worship, for instance, does not make it inferior to
yours, and nor does it make the other community's style of worshiping incorrectly. However,
ethnocentrism can make individuals feel as if the other community is bad, or wrong, and can
make them take action in the form of terrorist attacks or hate crimes.

iv. In Movies: In movies and other sources of entertainment, ethnocentrism is often, but not
always, portrayed in a humorous, light-hearted manner. One example of ethnocentrism
portrayed in a light manner would be the movie, 'The Big Fat Greek Wedding', where a
Greek family believes that being Greek is the one and only acceptable way of living.
However, the makers of the movie took great care to make sure that the Greek culture was
never shown in a negative or pushy manner, and that the audiences took it in the way it was
supposed to be taken.

v. In Business: Though it is easy to assume that ethnocentrism affects only the lesser-educated,
less aware people in the world, it is not really true. Ethnocentrism can be seen on a large
scale in business, and at the workplace. For instance, an employee may refer to his client as a
'moron' if the client needed some time to understand whatever the employee was trying to tell
him. A business owner might yell at his foreign employees and call them stupid because of
their different races, cultures, or values that are different from the boss. Another business
owner based in a developed country may refuse to merge with a company that is originally
based in a developing country because he believes that the developing country is inferior to
his own. Ethnocentrism thus is a part of the business and is experienced at the workplace, but
if it is not controlled, it has the capability to even destroy a company.

vi. In Schools: Ethnocentrism can be witnessed in schools across the world. Many experts agree
that focusing a curriculum, say a world history curriculum, only on the history of the major
developed countries and ignoring the developing and underdeveloped countries altogether, is
an example of ethnocentrism in schools. Children are taught only the greatness of one
country, which might lead them to develop prejudices against other countries. Sometimes,
teachers and teaching patterns can also be slightly discriminatory, which leads to
ethnocentrism. The students belonging to minority communities can feel sidelined, targeted,
or ignored.

vii. Consumer Ethnocentrism: Consumer ethnocentrism is observed in those consumers who

judge others buying imported goods instead of nationally or locally― produced goods.
Choosing to buy a good is actually an individual choice, and judging someone on the basis of
their taste or preference is not a good idea. Consumer ethnocentrism has become much more
obvious since globalization and consumers affected by ethnocentrism believe that purchasing
 foreign goods is unpatriotic, as it does not support the domestic economy but helps foreign
economies instead.

viii. In American Society: The popular belief among American ethnocentric people is that their
country, culture, values, development and everything else is superior to every other nation in
the world, and that every other nation is inferior to the United States. This belief has led to
political meddling among the matters of other countries, leading to misunderstandings and
miscommunication between different countries in the world. The present-day politics are a
good example of the same. Here, the country as a whole can be considered as one group or
the in-group.

ix. Ethnocentrism and Culture: Every culture on earth tends to impart ethnocentrism, albeit
unintentionally. Various aspects of culture such as mythological tales, folktales, legends,
religion, songs, proverbs, language, rituals, etc. promote the superiority of that one culture
over others. Though this is an unintentional kind of promotion of ethnocentrism, it instills the
belief that 'my race/my culture' is really better than the rest, in so many ways in most of us,
especially during childhood or teenage.

x. In Daily Life: As I said earlier, most of us tend to vehemently deny this. However, it is true
that we are all ethnocentric sometime or the other in our lives, without even realizing it. For
instance, if we see someone dressed according to a style we do not follow, we immediately
develop a biased judgment against him. “What is he/she wearing? It's clear he/she has no
sense of fashion." In an instance as small as this, we tend to immediately conclude that the
person we are judging has a bad fashion taste, and we are much better than him/her. 

Few Examples from Political view point

 Movement for creation of Hazara province
 Movement for creation of Saraiki province
 Movement for creation of Bahawalpur province
 Issues and controversy between religious groups specially in Sunni and Shia
 Abomination between the people of different provinces for example: Punjabi and Sindhi
 Punjabi, Pashtun and Baloch want their own power and rules in their tribes.
 Muhajir (MQM) in Karachi has started movements for their protection.

Positive Effects of Ethnocentrism:

 Devotion to Society. National solidarity and devotion to one’s society can only be
possible if its members maintain ethnocentrism, i.e., to think that they are right. Patriotic
spirit can be changed by creating and maintaining the spirit of ethnocentrism.

 Solidarity within Society Enhanced through Ethnocentrism. If ethnocentrism is

taught on uniform lines within a society it enhances solidarity within society and
 decreases minor or major sectarian, class, or racial frictions or conflicts. Thus, planned
ethnocentrism saves society from disintegration to a large extent. It helps in bringing
progress to a nation.

 It creates high levels of self-esteem: For someone to extrapolate their own culture onto
someone else, there must be a love for that culture in the first place. Ethnocentrism
occurs when there are high levels of self-esteem, which can be beneficial in specific
circumstances. It creates common ground by emphasizing patriotism, national pride, or
the desire to practice one’s preferred religion with others in a similar way. When we find
common ground with people, it makes us feel connected – like we belong.

 Ethnocentrism creates like-minded togetherness: For most people, they are

comfortable around other people who are a lot like themselves. We feel like we can be
ourselves when we’re around people that think, or act, like we do. That desire for
togetherness is then placed on other people from other cultures or ethnicities with the
assumption that the same results will happen. At the end of the day, someone generally
feels pretty satisfied with where they are in life when their networks reinforce the benefits
of their perspective.

 It allows a society to remember past traditions: One of the most unique aspects of
ethnocentrism is that it places a heavy emphasis on past traditions and practices. In some
ways, it is a perspective which allows us to see what it was like to live in the past. By
showing new generations what can be accomplished through developed best practices,
there are opportunities to keep a culture alive for centuries – if not longer.

 Ethnocentrism created the world we have today: To be honest, life for most of us is
pretty good. Sure – we have good days and we have bad days. The fact that we can have
these days in the first place is due, in part, to the benefits which come from
ethnocentrism.

 Ethnocentrism encourages Patriotism and loyalty to one’s own society and culture.
Without ethnocentrism, a vigor national consciousness is probably impossible.

 Ethnocentric group seems to survive better than tolerant groups.

 It justifies sacrifice and sanctifies martyrdom and soldier.

 It reinforces nationalism and patriotism.

 It encourages social solidarity in societies.

 Forces of cooperation become stronger.

 It helps to keep the nations tied to the concept of national sovereignty.

Negative Effects of Ethnocentrism
 It creates rifts within societies: Think about someone who is different than you right
now. There’s a good chance that the first thing you thought about was something you
dislike about that person. When we embrace ethnocentrism, we’re embracing negativity.
We look at what another person or culture offers and attempt to rip it apart. This is done
because we want our own experiences and perspectives to be superior when compared to
others. Because of this process, societal conflicts begin between various cultural groups
because everyone sees themselves as “right” and everyone else as “wrong.”
 It drives people away from a culture.
 Since no culture is static, every culture must change if it is to survive, but ethnocentrism
do not support change in culture.
 It creates tight boundaries among various groups.
 It creates Prejudice is created.
 Process of social relations get slower.
 Conflict is created among various groups.
 It limits a person to a particular group, to which he belongs.
 Ethnocentric people are not influenced by social changes taking place around them.
 It discourages cultural change and due to this, it creates backwardness.
 National development is hampered due to ethnocentrism.

CULTURAL XENOCENTRISM

In psychological terms, Xenocentrism is considered a type of deviant behavior because it sways

from the norms of society. It is unexpected that an individual would value the goods, services,
styles, ideas, and other cultural elements of another nation. However, in some limited,
circumstances, it has been noted that Xenocentrism can help to shed light on cultural
deficiencies, whether it be ideas or products, and offers the opportunity to fix that which may
legitimately inferior to another country or culture(Hassan 2017).

It is also noted that self-perception and self-esteem can contribute to Xenocentrism. In certain
circumstances, some individuals may attempt to elevate their perception among others by
eschewing domestic products for foreign ones. By doing so, the individual believes she is
painting herself in a better light as a more educated, worldly, and savvy consumer.

The opposite of Xenocentrism is ethnocentrism, which is the tendency to overvalue one's own
native cultural beliefs and values and therefore devalues the worth of the elements of other
cultures.
Definition
In literary sense, Xenocentrism means a preference for the foreign, broadly speaking,
Xenocentrism is the term used that the people have been convinced that any products developed
in their own countries are inferior to those that are produced in more industrialized nations.

Xenocentrism is the opposite of ethnocentrism, which means preferring ideas and things from
other cultures over ideas and things from your own culture or more precisely in sociological
terms we can define it as:  It is the belief by the people that the products, styles, or ideas of their
own society is inferior to those that originate elsewhere in any other developed society.

Xenocentrism might lead to cultural diffusion; cultural diffusion is spreading of a culture from
one society to another whether it is material culture or non-material culture.

Some Examples of Xenocentrism

 Americans' belief that European's produce superior automotive vehicles.
 European Renaissance artists desire to emulate ancient Greek artwork.
 Coveting the culture of another country such as in Central America where the workday is
set up far differently than in the United States.
 The belief that the way of the dress by another culture is significantly superior and that
those within one's native country should adopt that same dress.
 The belief that other countries produce better children's toys.
 The concept that a quality product can't be purchased in one's native country.

Causes of Xenocentrism in Pakistan

a)    Educational institutions

It is the very duty of educational institutions to develop pride among the members of the nations
that they belong to a respectable and honorable culture. If this feeling is developed, then nobody
will feel inferior about his/her own culture. But unfortunately, our educational institutions did
not perform their duty well. Our education policy is not such that we realize our own cultural
superiority among the masses but it is more towards Xenocentrism.

Might be it is one of the reasons for our colonial masters who gave us British and Western
culture. We are neither proper Muslim nor proper Western civilized. We are hanging in between
our own Muslim, Indian, or Hindu and Western cultures. All this is what we are teaching our
children and what we are learning in our educational institutions.
Some people of Pakistan are from foreign educational institutions. These institutions inject in
their delicate mind that your own culture is inferior to ours. So if you want to learn civilization,
then salute our culture and hate your own culture.

b)    Media, a cause of Xenocentrism:

Media plays an important role in order to develop the minds of a nation. Western media is
promoting their own culture, values, and norms and shows other cultures as deviance. A
common example of this is the French media making propaganda against American media. But
in the case of Pakistan or other colonial cultures, the things are totally opposite our media is
showing which should not be there on the screen. They are playing with our culture, changing
the mind of the nation, and taken to the masses away from our own norms and values.

c)    Wrong picture of society by media

Sometimes, advertisements promote what actually lacks in the society, but promoted in a way as
if it is penetrated deep in their roots. This is why we say media / advertisements are used for
propaganda purposes too. The advertisements that have special messages in terms of glamour
elevate temptation to cause to switch. The degree of acceptance may vary from individual to
individual. It may have ‘macro effects’ and not ‘micro’ ones on the society and sometimes the
change comes so gradually that before we realize it, we are practically into it. Cultural and social
norms are such issues that are at a stake almost in every society, especially in the developing
ones, like Pakistan.

d)   Influence of western culture

It is very common in our society when one wants to impress his/her fellows he says,” oh I bought
this from Europe or I went to England and was amazed to see their lifestyle and if I get a chance
I will go there as I am wasting time in Pakistan”.

Sad but it is a fact that our people prefer imported things to our products although they are much
better. It is just not a matter of products but every aspect of our life unconsciously influenced by
xenocentrism. Whether it may be a matter of dress, we prefer theirs and feel confident and
fashionable. We talk in their language and imitate their accent, which we think can help us in
making our status high. Even if we want to astound others, we speak in English.

Once our dramas, talk shows, and other programs were famous all over the world and other
countries used to copy our ideas but now the situation has totally changed. All programs have
fallen victim to xenocentrism. It is just not the media world but our living style, our politics,
education, culture, and even our religion have become an amalgamation of western and eastern.
e)    Feudalism
Pakistan is hardly in the metaphysical stage. It is among developing countries with a very low
development rate. This is particularly so with regard to clichés such as ‘Pakistan is an agrarian
economy’, and the view, that ‘Pakistan is largely rural’ this causes disappointment in Pakistanis.

f)     Illiteracy
Pakistan is considered as an illiterate country. Foreigners take it as a less civilized and ill-
mannered nation-state. Pakistanis are considered to be less motivated towards education and
those who get education having poor standards, do not know its practical implementation.
Therefore, in practical life, they really failed in society.

Effects of Xenocentrism on Pakistani Society

 Devaluing of Culture: This is the very effect of Xenocentrism in a society. A
Xenocentric person always hates all the features of his culture not rather all the features
are bad. But once he has developed Xenocentrism, he always dislikes his cultural
characteristics.

 Conflicts among individuals / society / groups/ nations and Civilizations:

Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism cause conflicts among civilizations. For example,
cultural conflicts of eastern and western culture are one of the reasons for Xenocentrism
among society.

 Product Choices: Xenocentrism has made Pakistanis more brand conscious “Be
Pakistani & Buy Pakistani” concept failed to be adopted. People take Pakistani home
product as substandard cheap and go to buy imported ones.

 Change of Styles, Architecture, Dresses, and Foods: Our eastern and subcontinent way
of construction and architecture are now transferred toward western style. Our dresses are
no more National dresses. We usually use the western style of wearing. We are more
towards fast foods from continental foods.

 Destruction of Family System: Xenocentrism has destroyed our family structure. Earlier
we had pride in our joint family system. Now we do not like the joint family system.
Now Pakistanis are more towards the nuclear family system.

 Destruction of National Language: Our national language is Urdu. But we feel shy to
speak in Urdu. It is because of Xenocentrism. We feel proud to talk in English. No one
 can be successful in life if he is not an expert in English. We have destroyed our national
valuable heritage only because of this Xenocentrism. 

 Loss of businesses in the home country

 Loss of jobs in the home country

 Degraded economic situation

 Overall reduction of morale within the nation

 A loss of population to emigration

 Negative impact on the identity of others in relation to culture

 colonial mentality a cause of Xenocentrism

advantage of Xenocentrism

 brain drain,
 cultural development,
 communicate internationally,
 cultural diffusion,
 communication,
 recreation,
 learning new things,
 global partnership,
 social control,
 occupation,
 diversification,
 Social cohesion,
 globalized,
 business and economic solidarity,
 social cohesion,
 neighborhood,
 Technology transfer,
 transportation and ease in communication,
 cultural sharing ,
 tolerance of opinion, ,
 lesser Extreme nationalism,
 Aware about different culture,
 no extremism,
  adjustment,
 social mobility,
 social control and
 inter faith harmony

How to reduce Xenocentrism in Pakistan

1. Institutional Role: Our Institutions must be strong; our social institutions are polluted
with Xenocentrism and are suffering from an inferiority complex. So first, we need to
strengthen our social institutions.

2. Ideological education: Ideology of Pakistan should be properly defined and propagated.

3. The concept of being Pakistani: The concept of being Pakistani, buy Pakistani should
be strengthened. We should be proud of being Pakistani.

4. Role of Media: Media should portray a real and positive picture of Pakistan rather than
copying the western media. It is the responsibility of the media to promote our own
cultures, values rather than others.

5. To develop national cultural policy: We have to develop a certain cultural policy so

that the common people are made aware of our true culture. The common person does not
know what the true national culture of Pakistan is. We are stagnant with our ethical
culture. However, we did not think about what the whole culture of Pakistan is. Even,
nowadays we do not have a truly ethical culture. We are lacking behind in proper
promotion of our culture, the need of the hour is that Pakistani culture at the international
level will be promoted.

Conclusion
In our fast-changing world, the rapid transformations in communication and technology are
bound to influence our culture. If confidence and pride are not restored to our cultural values, it
could result in the adoption of only superficial symbols of these new changes. Such adoption
would lead neither to any meaningful change in our socio-economic development nor to
meaningful integration of our social consciousness. It is essential that our cultural structure is
receptive to new ideas to comprehend the technological simulation of consciousness.
If globalization finds us in cultural confusion and chaos, we are bound to suffer from externally
imposed cultural patterns. Our cultural heritage is one of the oldest in the world and our people
have always shown resilience to new ideas. We need to rehabilitate our cultural pride and to
anticipate its future manifestations so that we emerge as a nation living in the modern world with
a unique, distinct, and proud heritage.

Factors of Cultural Development

Cultural diffusion
Both material artifacts and ideas from one culture to another culture. Sociologists estimate that
about 90% of the contents of every culture are borrowed from other cultures.  Some scientists
and anthropologists consider diffusion as the main source of cultural and social change. 
Sociologists define cultural diffusion as “the borrowing of cultural elements from another
society". Diffusion takes place in every society. The most outstanding contemporary social
change- the spread of the modernization process around the world- represents the diffusion of
industrialism from the advanced to the less developed societies. Material artifacts that prove
useful are more readily of the society into which they diffuse. For the reasons, the less developed
societies always accept the normative orders of advanced societies.

Invention
Invention refers to "new combination of or new use of existing knowledge"- Horton and Hunt.
"An invention is the combination or new use of existing knowledge to produce something that
did not exist before"- Ian Robertson.  "An invention is any re-combination of existing cultural
elements in such a fashion as to produce something new"- Lorman and Gorman. The invention
may be either material (Bow and arrow, gun, spacecraft, computer, etc.). Social or non-Social
material (Constitutional government, corporations, alphabet, dance, drama, and literature, etc.). 
The nature and rate of the cultural invention also vary from culture to culture and depend upon
the existing store of knowledge.

For cave dweller, their knowledge was much limited and therefore, bows and arrow were just big
achievements. Modern people are clever than primitive people due to the repository of
knowledge. A number of inventions have been witnessed by human societies such as:

Machines,
Plans for many machines that were workable in principle
Helicopters
Submarines
Machine guns
Air conditions
Areal bombs
Hydraulic pumps etc.
Discovery
Discovery can also be defined as a third source of socio-cultural change. According to Horton
and Hunt, "A discovery is a shared human perception of an aspect of reality which already
exists". A new continent, the composition of the atmosphere, the power of steam, the circulation
of the blood, etc. were already there but a new discovery becomes a source of addition.

Important Terminologies to Understand Culture

Sub-Culture
"A cultural group within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those
of the larger culture. (Oxford dictionary). A subculture is a culture within broader mainstream
culture, with its own separate values, practices, and beliefs. In sociology, the concept of
subculture explains the behavior of some social groups; sociologists study subcultures as one
way of studying culture.)

A subculture is a cultural group within a culture that differs in one or more ways from the
culture. This would include differences in interest, behaviors, or beliefs, like religion, ethnicity,
and social or economic status. Capital" as the cultural knowledge and commodities acquired by
members of a subculture, raising their status and helping differentiate themselves from members
of other groups (Sarah Thornton). Sociologists Gary Alan Fine argued that their 1979 research
showed that a subculture is a group that serves to motivate a potential member to adopt the
artifacts, behaviors, norms, and values characteristic of the group.  Subcultures exist within
Pakistan, India, Japan and The United States. Ethnic and racial groups share the language, food,
and customs of their heritage. Other subcultures are united by shared experiences.

Example
Pakistani society has various sub cultures in dining, drinking, dressing and other social walks of
life.
For example, Biker culture revolves around a dedication to motorcycles.
Ex-Chinatown has American traits like public schools/TV Centers/radio but their own foods,
clothing, customs, celebrations.
Ex. Soldiers on a military base have special traits like a rigid ranking system, regulation, dorms.
Social networking websites are quickly becoming the most used form of communication and
means to distribute information and news. They offer a way for people with similar backgrounds,
lifestyles, professions or hobbies to connect.
Such as tattoos, piercings, and certain forms of plastic surgery.
 Counter Culture
A counterculture (also written counter-culture) is a subculture whose values and norms of
behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream
cultural mores. A countercultural movement expresses the ethos and aspirations of a specific
population during a well-defined era.

A counterculture is a subculture that rejects and opposes significant elements of the dominant
culture. Countercultures can take many forms, from religious cults to communes to political
parties. A counterculture is a group of people whose values, norms, and behavior clash with
those of the prevalent culture
A counterculture is a kind of subculture, a culture within a culture; however, not all subcultures
are countercultures.
Sociologists use the concept of counterculture to identify cultures that are antagonistic to a
dominant culture. Today, members of anti-government militia groups exemplify a counterculture
because such groups favor much weaker governments than mainstream culture does. A
countercultures sometimes meet active or even violent resistance from the dominant culture.

Example
Hippie Moments: Hippies were traditionally groups of people who started their own
communities where recreational drugs and free sex practices were embraced. Hippies opposed
nuclear weapons, the Vietnam war, and established institutions. They were eco-friendly, and
supported sexual liberation
SDS (Students For Democratic Society-USA): Began in the early 60’s. Advocated non-
violent civil disobedience. Student activists. Wanted radical change in the government. Broke up
in 1969 at their last convention. Criticized racial discrimination, economic equality, big business,
trade unions and political parties. Promoted better representation of the citizens, additional
welfare to deal with poverty, and more involvement of workers in business management. SDS
melt down created several individual groups led by various members of the original organization.
One group kept the ideas of SDS, non-violent civil disobedience. The other wanted direct action
against the government
The Weather Underground: Created a bomb factory in New York and led bombings against
police stations, government buildings, and businesses. Led by William Ayers. Currently a
professor. Led bombings against the Chicago and New York police departments and the
Pentagon
Thousands of teens and young adults left school, jobs, and traditional home life.
Freedoms often led to problems with drug addiction
Such as Americans became more casual in the way they dressed and more open-minded about
lifestyles and social behavior.
Attitudes about sexual behavior loosened.
New style called pop art emerged.
Aimed to appeal to popular tastes
Andy Warhol led the movement.
Film broadened its subject matter as censorship rules relaxed.
Film industry adopted a rating system.
He Beatles brought new techniques and ideas to rock and roll.
Bob Dylan wrote political songs and became the spokesperson for his generation.
Woodstock Music and Art Fair was the celebration of an era.
Several websites appeared that posted user-created short stories dealing with sex, drugs and
violence.
Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism: refers to the belief that we should not judge any culture as superior or
inferior to another culture. In this view, all cultures have their benefits and disadvantages, and we
should not automatically assume that our own culture is better and “their” culture is worse.

Different cultures have different moral codes. Therefore, there is no objective truth in morality.
Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture. Cultural
relativism is the anthropological principle stating that a person’s beliefs and activities must be
understood in the local context of that person’s own culture.

The actions rightness or wrongness depends entirely on the attitudes of the culture a person finds
him or herself to be in. Different societies share many general principles and virtues e.g.
prohibitions on killing, lying, theft. Endorse care of the weak and courage. Different ethical
practices reflect different conditions, not different principles. Aristotle: we all aim to achieve the
best life. We all live in some society, and will need similar virtues for this. Some societies
endorse traits that do not help people flourish. There is no one ‘best’ life for people – the idea is
culturally relative. Not all societies believe everyone is equal, so do not agree that everyone
should be assisted to achieve the best life.

Cultural Lag
Within this century, life has been transformed by the invention of the radio, TV, automobiles,
airplanes, rockets, transistors, and computers, and so on. While this has been happening in
material culture, change in government, economic system, family life, education, and religion
seems to have been much slower. This difference in rates of cultural change led Ogburn to
formulate the concept of culture lag.

Cultural lag is a term to describe what happens in a social system when the cultural ideas used to
regulate social life do not keep pace with other social changes. Cultural lag is not only a concept,
as it also relates to a theory and explanation in sociology. It helps identify and explain social
problems and also predict future problems.

According to Ogburn, cultural lag is a common societal phenomenon due to the tendency
of material culture to evolve and change rapidly and voluminously while non-material
culture tends to resist change and remain fixed for a far longer period of time. Due to the
opposing nature of these two aspects of culture, an adaptation of new technology becomes rather
difficult.
Examples
Medical technology is being used to keep people’s bodies functioning long after they would
otherwise have been considered dead. This raises cultural questions about when life ends, who
has the right to end artificial life support, etc.
Technological advancements or changes in society occur faster than the changes in the rules and
norms of the culture that go along with those advancements or changes. This can lead to moral
and ethical dilemmas for individuals as the new social norms are developed.
Cultural Lags Today
Cancer Vaccine - A new vaccine became available against cervical cancer. Many aspects of
society were not ready to approve the vaccine for their teenage children since they felt it
condoned sexual activity by young adults.
Stem Cells -Research has shown that stem cells can be very effective in the treatment and cure
of several diseases. However, society often still sees the use of stem cells, particularly those from
an unborn fetus, to be an ethical issue.
Virtual Medical Appointment - Another case of cultural lag in the medical community
involves situations in which technology is used as a means of checking up on a patient. For
instance, in one situation, a child had surgery far away from his home. After returning home, his
parents sent pictures of his healing wound to his surgeon to ensure that he was healing as he
should be. While, on the one hand, this can be a valuable tool, on the other hand the
consequences of using technology in that way have not been determined:

High Culture
Sociologists use the term high culture to describe the pattern of cultural experiences and
attitudes that exist in the highest-class segments of society.  People often associate high culture
with intellectualism, political power, and prestige. In America, high culture also tends to be
associated with wealth. Events considered high culture can be expensive and formal – attending
a ballet, seeing a play, or listening to a live symphony performance. 

Popular Culture
The term popular culture refers to the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in
mainstream society. Popular culture events might include a parade, a baseball game, or the
season finale of a TV show. Rock and pop music – “pop” short for “popular” – are part of
popular culture.

In modern times, popular culture is often expressed and spread via commercial media such as
radio, television, movies, the music industry, publishers, and corporate-run websites. Unlike
high culture, popular culture is known and accessible to most people. You can share a discussion
of favorite football teams with a new coworker, or comment on “American Idol” when making
small talk in line at the grocery store. But if you tried to launch into a deep discussion on the
classical Greek play Antigone, few members of American society today would be familiar with
it.

Multiculturalism
In sociology, multiculturalism is the view that cultural differences should be respected or even
encouraged. Sociologists use the concept of multiculturalism to describe one way of
approaching cultural diversity within a society. Underlying multiculturalism is the belief that
members of different cultures can live peacefully alongside each other; assimilation is not
necessary, nor perhaps even desirable.

Contrasted with multiculturalism is the "melting pot" perspective, according to which cultural
differences — such as differences in religion, language, and other customs — blend into another
to form a new whole. Proponents of multiculturalism favor people keeping at least some features
of their traditional culture.

The United States has often been described as a multicultural nation. Critics claim that
multiculturalism threatens social unity and the dominant culture.

Multiculturalism is a system of beliefs and behaviors that recognizes and respects the presence of
all diverse groups in an organization or society, acknowledges and values their socio-cultural
differences, and encourages and enables their continued contribution within an inclusive cultural
context, which empowers all within the organization or society.

"Multiculturalism" is the co-existence of diverse cultures, where culture includes racial,

religious, or cultural groups, and is manifested in customary behaviours, cultural assumptions
and values, patterns of thinking, and communicative styles.

Assimilation. The term 'assimilation' again is in general use, being applied most often to the
process whereby large numbers of migrants from Europe were absorbed into the American
population during the 19th and the early part of the 20th century. The assimilation of
immigrants was a dramatic and highly visible set of events and illustrates the process well.
According to Young and Mack, Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two previously
distinct groups into one. For Bogardus Assimilation is the social process whereby attitudes of
many persons are united and thus develop into a united group. The term 'assimilation' again
is in general use, being applied most often to the process whereby large numbers of migrants
from Europe were absorbed into the American population during the 19th and the early part of
the 20th century. The assimilation of immigrants was a dramatic and highly visible set of events
and illustrates the process well.

Acculturation
The convergence and acceptance of one culture into another. Culture A to Culture B (English
language from USA to Chinese masses). Acculturation refers to the processes that occur when
different individuals or groups of people meet and exchange aspects of their culture. Due to
advances in transportation, communication, and technology, there has been a significant increase
in the interactions among different cultures. As a result, understanding acculturation, and
learning how to accomplish it effectively, has become vital to the future of the world.

ANTICIPATED AND PAST QUESTIONS ON CULTURE:-

1) What is the role of culture in socialization of an individual to become a useful

member of society? Discuss with examples.
2) Short note – Ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism
3) Discuss the role of culture and social group in the formation of personality.
4) Ethnocentrism leads to sectarianism. Is it so? How both are number one problems
of Pakistan? What are the remedies?
5) Define and corroborate – Culture and sub-culture
6) Short note – Ethnocentrism
7) Short note – Value and norm
8) Define culture. Use this definition as a framework and discuss the salient features
of Pakistani culture.
9) Prove that “individual is a social produce”. Highlight the contribution of culture
and society in this process.
10) Culture is everything which is socially learned and shared by the members of a
society. Discuss by giving examples from Pakistan society.
11) “The cultural deception of the West and the cultural diffusion of the East lead to
anomic.” Elucidate.
12) Often social change results in social disorganization. What cultural prerequisite
can avoid such situation?
13) Why is culture indispensable to human society and what part do norms and values
play in social life.”
14) It has been said that a person raised in one culture may learn to act like people in
an adopted culture, but will never be able to think and feel like a person of adopted
culture. Do you agree?
15) Discuss the role of media in social and cultural change in Pakistan. What type of
social planning/policy is needed to direct this change in the context of our own
social and cultural values? Discuss with examples.