Production Management in a Global Economy

A Report on Unit V: Job Design Work Measurements and Learning Curves

Presented to:
The Faculty of College of Business Administration
University of the Cordilleras

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
MASTERS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

By

Abdrahman Hamid
Camelyn Fajardo
Nseng Okomo, Pelayo M.
Wilfredo Canilang Jr

Submitted to
Ms. Renee Rose Flores

May 23, 2021

 JOB DESIGN WORK MEASUREMENTS AND LEARNING CURVES

JOB DESIGN

Job design is defined as a process of describing a job in terms of its duties and responsibilities; the
methods to be used in carrying out the job in terms of techniques, systems, and procedures; and
the relationship that should exist between the job holders and their superiors, subordinates, and
colleagues.

It is also defined as a deliberate and systematic attempt to structure the technical and social
aspects of work, so as to improve technical efficiency and job satisfaction.

Davis (1966) has defined job design as “the specification of the content, methods and relationships
of jobs in order to satisfy technological and organizational requirements as well as the social and
personal requirements of the job holder”.

“Job design is the process of deciding on the contents of a job in terms of its duties and
responsibilities, on the methods to be used in carrying out the job, in term of techniques, systems
and procedures and on the relationships that should exist between the jobholder and his superiors,
subordinates and colleagues” Ibid.

Employee productivity and satisfaction are the two important concerns of a human resource
manager. The structure of work, the activities to be performed and the responsibilities attached to a
position are the determinants of employee productivity and satisfaction. Job design is the process
of structuring work and designating the specific activities at individual or group levels. These work
activities and the eventual work done, have to contribute to the organizational objectives in the
most effective and efficient manner.

Goals of Job Designing:

Job designing has vital impact on the employees as well as the organization.

The main goal of designing a job are as follows:

Facilitating the interest of employees towards the job and enhancing their satisfaction
Increasing employee motivation and productivity
Enhancing employees’ skills by identifying their training needs
Covering the modern needs of employee participation
Ensuring safer working environment
Making the communication process clear and effective in the organization
Improving the quality of working life of employees
Eliminating the unnecessary levels of supervision, checking, and control
Establishing high-level standards for customer service
Minimizing cost by reducing wastage.

Guidelines for Job Designing:

The cautious framing of job design ensures that the real objectives of job design are achieved.

While designing a job, following key factors should be considered:

Identifying the tasks clearly and forming natural work units

Fixing the responsibility associated with a job clearly
Allowing an appropriate provision for the autonomy of doing a work in the job design
Equipping the employees to participate in decision-making
Including the details about working environment of a job
Developing interest of employees in their jobs
Presenting the timely feedback to employees on their performance
Providing timely recognition and sufficient support to employees
Establishing good relationship and open feedback channels to get effective feedback from the
employees.

Importance of Job Design:

Job design and work organization deal with the specifications of the content, methods, and
relationships of jobs in an integrated manner to satisfy technological and organizational
requirements as well as the personal needs of employees.

During the 1970s, the challenge before HRM professionals dealing with job designs was to find out
how organizations achieve results in the wake of loss of productive effort resulting from industrial
actions and absenteeism, increased demand for employee participation, and imposition of various
employee legislations.

During the 1980s a major change occurred in the working environment in the form of introduction
of new technologies and a shift in the cost of production in favour of machines as against workforce.
In this period of recession, the need for retrenchment of employees also arose. All these factors
changed the perspective of job design.

It was only in the 1990s that a real challenge in terms of optimum job design and work organization
arose to respond to the fast-changing environmental conditions. This resulted in giving a greater
importance and adopting a new approach towards job design.

Performance Objectives: Quality, Speed, Dependability, Flexibility, Cost, Health and Safety &
Quality of Working Life

Objective # 1. Quality:
The ability of staff to produce high-quality products and services can be affected by job design.
This includes avoiding errors in the short term, but also includes designing jobs which encourage
staff to improve that job itself in such a way as to make errors less likely.

Objective # 2. Speed:
Sometimes speed of response is the dominant objective to be achieved in job design. For example,
the way in which the jobs of emergency service personnel are organised (the range of tasks for
which they are trained, the sequence of activities in their approved procedures, the autonomy
which they have to decide on appropriate action, and so on) will go a long way to determine their
ability to respond promptly to emergencies and perhaps same lives.

Objective # 3. Dependability:
Dependable supply of goods and services is usually influenced, in some way, by job design. For
example, in the postal services, working arrangements, multiskilling, accurate use of sorting
equipment through good staff machine interface design, and the ‘design’ of postal staff’s clothing,
can all aid dependable delivery of letters and particles.

Objective # 4. Flexibility:
Job design can affect the ability of the operation to change the nature of its activities. New product
or service flexibility, mix flexibility, volume flexibility and delivery flexibility are all dependent to
some extent on job design. For example, staff who have been trained in several tasks
(multi-skilling) may find it easier to cope with a wide variety of models and new product or service
introductions.

Objective # 5. Cost:
All the elements of job design described above will have an effect on the productivity, and therefore,
the cost of the job. Productivity in this context means the ratio of output to labour input- for example,
the number of customers served per hour or the number of products made per worker. In addition,
job design will influence two other particularly important objectives.

Objective # 6. Health and Safety:

Whatever else a job design achieves, it must not endanger the well-being of the person who does
the job, other staff of the operation, the customers who might be present in the operation, or those
who use any products made by the operation.

Objective # 7. Quality of Working Life:

The design of any job should take into account its effect on bob security, intrinsic interest, and
variety, opportunities for development, stress level and attitude of the person performing the job.

3 Major Factors Affecting: Organizational, Environmental and Behavioural

1. Environmental Factors affect the job design to a considerable extent. These factors include both
the internal as well as external factors. They include factor like employee skills and abilities, their
availability, and their socioeconomic and cultural prospects.

(a) Employee availability and abilities- Employee skills, abilities and time of availability play a
crucial role while designing the jobs. The above mentioned factors of employees who will actually
perform the job are taken into consideration. Designing a job that is more demanding and above
their skill set will lead to decreased productivity and employee satisfaction.

(b) Socio economic and cultural expectations- Jobs are nowadays becoming more employee
centered rather than process centered. They are therefore designed keeping the employees into
consideration. In addition the literacy level among the employees is also on the rise. They now
demand jobs that are to their linking and competency and which they can perform the best.

2. Behavioural Factors or human factors are those that pertain to the human need and that need to
be satisfied for ensuring productivity at workplace. They include the elements like autonomy,
diversity, feedback, etc.

(a) Autonomy- Employees should work in an open environment rather than one that contains fear.
It promotes creativity, interdependence and leads to increased efficiency.

(b) Feedback- Feedback should be an integral part of work. Each employee should receive proper
feedback about his work performance.

(c) Diversity- Repetitive jobs often make work monotonous which leads to boredom. A job should
carry sufficient diversity and variety so that it remains as interesting with every passing day. Job
variety/diversity should be given due importance while designing a job.

(d) Use of skills and abilities- Jobs should be employee rather than process centered. Though due
emphasis needs to be given to the latter but jobs should be designed in a manner such that an
employee is able to make full use of his abilities is able to make full use of his abilities and perform
the job effectively.

3 Important Methods:

1. Job Rotation involves shifting a person from one job to another, so that he is able to understand
and learn what each job involves. The company tracks his performance on every job and decides
whether he can perform the job in an ideal manner. Based on this he is finally given a particular
posting.

Job rotation is done to decide the final posting for the employee, e.g., Mr. A is assigned to the
marketing department whole he learns all the jobs to be performed for marketing at his level in the
organization. After this, he is shifted to the sales department and to the finance department and so
on.

He is finally placed in the department in which he shows the best performance. Job rotation gives
an idea about the jobs to be performed at every level. Once a person is able to understand this he
is in a better understanding of the working of organization.

Advantages of Job Rotation:

(a) Avoid Monopoly: Job rotation helps to avoid monopoly of job and enable the employee to learn
new things and therefore enjoy his job.

(b) Provides an Opportunity to Broaden One’s Knowledge: Due to job rotation the person is able to
learn different job in the organization this broadens his knowledge.

(c) Avoiding Fraudulent Practice: In an organization like bank jobs rotation is undertaken to prevent
employees from doing any kind of fraud i.e., if a person is handling a particular job for a very long
time he will be able to find loopholes in the system and use them for his benefit and indulge
(participate) in fraudulent practices job rotation avoids this.

Disadvantages of Job Rotation:

(a) Frequent Interruption: Job rotation results in frequent interruption of work. A person who is
doing a particular job and gets it comfortable suddenly finds himself shifted to another job or
department. This interrupts the work in both the departments.

(b) Reduces Uniformity in Quality: Quality of work done by a trained worker is different from that of
a new worker. When a new worker “I” shifted or rotated in the department, he takes time to learn
the new job, makes mistakes, in the process and affects the quality of the job.

(c) Misunderstanding with the Union Member: Sometimes job rotation may lead to
misunderstanding with member of the union. The union might think that employees are being
harassed and more work is being taken from them. In reality this is not the case.

2. Job Enlargement is another method of job design when any organization wishes to adopt proper
job design it can opt for job enlargement. Job enlargement involves combining various activities at
the same level in the organization and adding them to the existing job. It increases the scope of the
job.

It is also called the horizontal expansion of job activities. Job enlargement can be explained with
the help of the following example. If Mr. A is working as an executive with a company and is
currently performing three activities on his job after job enlargement or through job enlargement we
add four more activities to the existing job so now Mr. A performs seven activities on the job.

It must be noted that the new activities which have been added should belong to the same
hierarchy level in the organization. By job enlargement we provide a greater variety of activities to
the individual so that we are in a position to increase the interest of the job and make maximum
use of employee’s skill. Job enlargement is also essential when policies like VRS are implemented
in the company.

Advantages of Job Enlargement:

(a) Variety of Skills: helps the organization to improve and increase the skills of the employee due
to organization as well as the individual benefit.

(b) Improve Earning Capacity: the person learns many new activities. When such people apply for
jobs to other companies they can bargain for more salary.
(c) Wide Range of Activities: provides wide range of activities for employees. Since a single
employee handles multiple activities the company can try and reduce the number of employees.
This reduces the salary bill for the company.

Disadvantages of Job Enlargement:

(a) Increases Work Burden: increases the work of the employee and not every company provides
incentives and extra salary for extra work. Therefore the efforts of the individual may remain
unrecognized.

(b) Increasing Frustration of the Employee: In many cases employees end up being frustrated
because increased activities do not result in increased salaries.

(c) Problem with Union Members: Many union members may misunderstand job enlargement as
exploitation of worker and may take objection to it.

3. Job Enrichment is a term given by Fredrick Herzberg. According to him, a few motivators are
added to a job to make it more rewarding, challenging and interesting. According to Herzberg, the
motivating factors to an existing job to make it more interesting.

The motivating factors can be:

(a) Giving more freedom.

(b) Encouraging participation.
(c) Giving employees the freedom to select the method of working.
(d) Allowing employees to select the place at which they would like to work.
(e) Allowing workers to select the tools that they require on the job.
(f) Allowing workers to decide the layout of plant or office.

Job enrichment gives lot of freedom to the employee but at the same time increases the
responsibility. Some workers are power and responsibility hungry. Job enrichment satisfies the
needs of employees.

Advantages of Job Enrichment:

(a) Interesting and Challenging Job: When a certain amount of power is given to the employees it
makes the job more challenging for them, we can say that job enrichment is a method of employee
empowerment.

(b) Improves Decision-Making: Through job enrichment we can improve the decision-making ability
of the employee by asking him to decide on factory layout, method and style of working.

(c) Identifies Future Managerial Calibre: When we provide decision-making opportunities to

employees, we can identify which employee is better than other in decision-making and mark
employees for further promotion.

(d) Identifies Higher Order Needs of Employees: This model identifies higher order needs of the
employee. Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation speaks of these higher order needs, e.g., ego
and esteemed needs, self-actualization etc. These needs can be achieved through job enrichment.

(e) Reduces Work Load of Superiors: Job enrichment reduces the work load of senior staff. When
decisions are taken by juniors the seniors work load is reduced.

Disadvantages of Job Enrichment:

(a) Job enrichment is based on the assumptions that workers have complete knowledge to take
decisions and they have the right attitude. In reality this might not be the case due to which there
can be problems in working.

(b) Job enrichment has negative implications i.e., along with usual work decision-making work is
also given to the employees and not many may be comfortable with this.

(c) Superiors may feel that power is being taken away from them and given to the junior’s. This
might lead to ego problems.

(d) This method will only work in certain situations. Some jobs already give a lot of freedom and
responsibility; this method will not work for such jobs.

(e) Some people are internally dissatisfied with the organization. For such people no amount of job
enrichment can solve the problem.

Job design principles help in tackling and managing the following issues:

Work overload;
Work underload;
Repetitiveness leading to drudgery and adverse effect on productivity
Work and people isolation;
Multiple shifts;
Managing pending filling-up of vacancies;
Excessive working hours; and
Lack of understanding of the whole job process.

Job design and workplace design are interrelated concepts as both contribute to keeping the
physical requirements of a job reasonable. Job design focuses on the need for administrative
changes that can help in improving working conditions. Workplace design focuses on the physical
setting of the workplace, such as work-station, tools, and body posture, which contribute to an
individual’s work perfor-mance.

3. Organizational Factors that affect job design can be work nature or characteristics, work flow,
organizational practices and ergonomics.

(a) Work Nature- There are various elements of a job and job design is required to classify various
tasks into a job or a coherent set of jobs. The various tasks may be planning, executing, monitoring,
controlling etc. and all these are to be taken into consideration while designing a job.

(b) Ergonomics – Ergonomics aims at designing jobs in such a way that the physical abilities and
individual traits of employees are taken into consideration so as to ensure efficiency and
productivity.

(c) Workflow- Product and service type often determines the sequence of work flow. A balance is
required between various product or service processes and a job design ensures this.

(d) Culture- Organizational culture determines the way tasks are carried out at the work places.
Practices are methods or standards laid out for carrying out a certain task. These practices often
affect the job design especially when the practices are not aligned to the interests of the union.

Ergonomics is the science of finding an ideal fit between people and the work they do. Applied to
technology, it makes sure that products and devices are designed according to the user, the
working environment and the task. When everything is considered together, it means people can
do their jobs effectively and safely.
However, in some industries and areas of business, the terms “human factors” and “ergonomic
factors” are also used. The factors in question are those that organisations need to take into
account in order to ensure the best possible fit between employees and their work.

EXAMPLES OF ERGONOMIC FACTORS

According to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), human factors (or ergonomic factors)
generally consist of three interconnected aspects—the job, the individual and the organisation.

THE JOB

To be thought of as ergonomic, a job (and the tasks it involves) should be designed to

acknowledge the physical and mental limitations and strengths of the person doing it. This includes
things such as:

what the role entails

the workload
how equipment is designed (size, shape, suitability for tasks etc.)
the working environment (temperature, humidity, lighting, noise, vibration etc.)
how information is used and accessed

THE INDIVIDUAL

An ergonomic approach to the individual employee means designing jobs and working equipment
that will help make best use of the person’s capabilities, while at the same time protecting their
health and safety and increasing the organization’s overall productivity.

This covers aspects such as the person’s:

physical characteristics (body size and shape)

fitness, strength and posture
vision, hearing and touch
skills and competence
knowledge and experience
personality and attitude
training
Read more about using ergonomic factors to design workstations

THE ORGANIZATION

How employees behave at work can’t usually help but be influenced by the characteristics of the
organization employing them. Assessing an organization from an ergonomic, human factors
perspective means looking at how business-level considerations affect people’s behavior and
actions.

This includes aspects such as:

organizational culture
management, supervision and leadership
teamwork
working patterns and hours
communications
resources

WHY ERGONOMIC FACTORS ARE IMPORTANT IN THE WORKPLACE

By taking the above factors into account, an organization can go a long way to protecting its staff
from work-related injury or ill health. At the same time, implementing ergonomic principles can also
improve a business’s performance and productivity overall.

Substandard workplace ergonomics can come with a high cost. Employees whose jobs aren’t
designed with ergonomic factors in mind are more vulnerable to a range of health complaints,
including work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSDs).

These conditions are very common, affecting nearly half a million workers in Britain each year.

ERGONOMIC HAZARDS FOUND IN THE WORKPLACE

Understanding human factors and the associated hazards that could occur within the workplace is
a vital step in creating an ergonomic organization.

Below, we look at some ergonomic hazards common throughout many workplaces, but offices in
particular.

PHYSICAL HAZARDS
POOR OR AWKWARD POSTURE
Having a poorly set-up workstation makes it more likely that an employee will sit with an awkward
posture throughout the day.

A workstation that isn’t set up correctly is one that either makes no use of ergonomic equipment
(e.g. ergonomic chairs and desks), or isn’t at all designed and adjusted with the worker’s needs in
mind (e.g. a chair set to the correct height, or matched to the person’s body size and shape).

Posture isn’t solely about having a straight back, but also concerns the position of the head and
neck, arms and wrists, and legs and feet. Bad posture can cause a range of musculoskeletal
injuries, including:

pain or discomfort in the:

Back
hands, fingers or wrists
shoulders
neck
swollen or stiff joints
muscle cramps or tightness

These conditions might prevent employees from doing their jobs to the best of their ability, and/or
lead to them having to take time off. This itself can have an impact on the business’s productivity
and finances.

WORKING WITH COMPUTERS

Most office workers spend much of their day sitting in front of a computer. This can be hazardous
not only because of the health problems associated with sedentary behavior but also those issues
that can occur from typing, using a mouse and/or staring at a monitor or display screen for
prolonged periods.

While the physical act of typing seems so simple and effortless, if not done properly it can, over
time, cause repetitive strain injuries and similar musculoskeletal disorders. Mice should have an
ergonomic design and kept within easy reach, to avoid arm strain.

The use of monitors and display screens, meanwhile, can lead to eye strain, headaches and other
vision problems if human factors aren’t fully considered. Monitor arms are especially useful for
ensuring the monitor is positioned at the correct height to reduce strain on the body. Unsuitable
display settings (such as contrast and brightness) and glare caused by lighting are other hazards
to look out for.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

UNSUITABLE LIGHTING
In offices, there’s a need to think about how lighting can affect the tasks employees are doing,
whether it’s using a computer, reading paper documents and so on.

Different types of work require different levels of light. Unsuitable lighting can hinder performance
and productivity and even be detrimental to people’s health (especially eyesight).

Room lighting might be unsuitable if the light is too low for people to read comfortably, or if it’s
reflecting off monitors and display screens and causing glare.

UNSUITABLE ROOM TEMPERATURE

If an office is overly cold or overly hot, it can make workers feel uncomfortable, which in turn can
cause them to become dissatisfied with their job and/or the organisation, and to take more time off
due to sickness and stress.

As many office premises regulate room temperature from a central thermostat to which individual
workers don’t have access, this needs to be given full consideration as part of any ergonomic risk
assessment.

INSUFFICIENT SPACE
Staff need the right amount of space to do their jobs, whether this is moving around their
workstation or having access to certain equipment. Indeed, there are working laws that offer
guidance for exactly how much space workers should have.

Space-saving devices such as cable baskets and CPU supports both reduce potential hazards and
increase overall workspace around the desk area.

As with other environmental hazards, lacking sufficient space can lead employees to work less
efficiently, take more time off sick, and report feeling dissatisfied with their jobs.

HOW BUSINESSES CAN IDENTIFY ERGONOMIC HAZARDS

The law gives all businesses a duty to carry out an overall health and safety risk assessment, and
considering ergonomic hazards is an important part of this. The first stage of any assessment is to
identify the hazards that might put workers at risk, which is where the initial check for ergonomic
factors can be made.

When conducting a risk assessment, businesses are legally required to consult their employees
directly. Consulting employees allows businesses to better manage health and safety by more
easily identifying workplace risks, and ensuring controls put in place to protect workers’ health and
safety controls are suitable and practical.

Employees are the people best placed to provide insight into the kinds of hazards that can occur
within the workplace. They know their individual roles better than most and are acutely aware of
any problems that affect their ability to work.

For this reason, any consultation should involve asking each employee questions about aspects
such as their:

working position—are they able to adopt a proper posture throughout the working day?
comfort—do they feel discomfort, pain or fatigue at any point while doing their job?
working equipment—is it suitable for the tasks at hand, easy to use and well maintained?
If employees raise concerns about elements of their role, they should be asked to propose possible
solutions too. Not only will this make their jobs easier and safer to do, but including them in the
process should make it more likely that they will take any changes on board.

Giving ergonomic factors the proper consideration can make a huge difference to a business’s
bottom line. It reduces the risk of costly accidents and injuries occurring, cuts the amount of sick
leave employees need to take, and boosts overall productivity.

USING ERGONOMIC FACTORS TO DESIGN WORKSTATIONS

Ergonomic factors have a huge influence over employees’ working behaviour, health and
wellbeing. When businesses make decisions with these human factors in mind, it ensures that they
are meeting the needs of all their workers and keeping people safe and free of risk.

Designing workspaces and workstations means considering ergonomic principles while taking into
account issues around cost, efficiency and the effectiveness of technology. Creating a workstation
for a specific employee means considering that person’s:

body size and shape

posture
muscle strength
freedom of movement

The aim is to create a workstation that gives the employee the widest range of comfortable
movement and allows them to maintain a proper posture.

Lacking the freedom to work properly can cause a number of health issues, particularly pain and
discomfort in the muscles of the body. This is why people who work sedentary jobs and are seated
for large portions of the day are advised to change their working position on a regular basis.

Employees should have enough space to perform their duties and easy access to all the areas in
which they work. This means considering their physical characteristics and making sure the
workspace accounts for those specific body dimensions, as well as the clothing or other equipment
they wear as part of their job. Height-adjustable work surfaces (such as sit-stand desks) are ideal
for creating workstations that fit the employee’s body dimensions in the best possible way.

Method study in Production and Operation Management

Method study enables the industrial engineer to subject each operation to systematic analysis.

The main purpose of method study is to eliminate the unnecessary operations and to achieve the

best method of performing the operation. Method study is also called methods engineering or

work design.

Method engineering is used to describe collection of analysis techniques which focus on improving

the effectiveness of men and machines. According to British Standards Institution (BS

3138): “Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination or existing and proposed

ways or doing work as a means or developing and applying easier and more effective methods and

reducing cost.”
 Fundamentally method study involves the breakdown of an operation or procedure into its

component elements and their systematic analysis. In carrying out the method study, the right

attitude of mind is important. The method study man should have:

1. The desire and determination to produce results.
2. Ability to achieve results.
3. An understanding of the human factors involved.

Method study scope lies in improving work methods through process and operation analysis, such

as:
1. Manufacturing operations and their sequence.
2. Workmen.
3. Materials, tools and gauges.
4. Layout of physical facilities and work station design.
5. Movement of men and material handling.
6. Work environment.

Objectives of Method Study

Method study is essentially concerned with finding better ways of doing things. It adds value and

increases the efficiency by eliminating unnecessary operations, avoidable delays and other forms

of waste. The improvement in efficiency is achieved through:

1. Improved layout and design of workplace.
2. Improved and efficient work procedures.
3. Effective utilization of men, machines and materials.
4. Improved design or specification of the final product.

The objectives of method study techniques are:

1. Present and analyze true facts concerning the situation.
2. To examine those facts critically.
3. To develop the best answer possible under given circumstances based on critical
examination of facts.

Scope of Method Study

The scope of method study is not restricted to only manufacturing industries. Method study

techniques can be applied effectively in service sector as well. It can be applied in offices, hospitals,

banks and other service organizations. The areas to which method study can be applied

successfully in manufacturing are:

1. To improve work methods and procedures.
2. To determine the best sequence of doing work.
3. To smoothen material flow with minimum of back tracking and to improve layout.
4. To improve the working conditions and hence to improve labor efficiency.
5. To reduce monotony in the work.
6. To improve plant utilization and material utilization.
7. Elimination of waste and unproductive operations.
8. To reduce the manufacturing costs through reducing cycle time of operations.
 Methods Analysis

Dividing and analyzing a job is called method study. The approach takes a systematic approach to
reducing waste, time and effort. The approach can be analyzed in a six-step procedure:

1. Select
Tasks most suitable will probably be repetitive, require extensive labour input and be critical to
overall performance.

2. Record
This involves observation and documentation of the correct method of performing the selected
tasks. Flow process charts are often used to represent a sequence of events graphically. They are
intended to highlight unnecessary material movements and unnecessary delay periods.

3. Examine
This involves examination of the current method, looking for ways in which tasks can be eliminated,
combined, rearranged and simplified. This can be achieved by looking at the flow process chart for
example and re-designing the sequence of tasks necessary to perform the activity.

4. Develop
Developing the best method and obtaining approval for this method. This means choosing the best
alternative considered taking into account the constraints of the system such as the performance
of the firm’s equipment. The new method will require adequate documentation in order that
procedures can be followed. Specifications may include tooling, operator skill level and working
conditions.

5. Install
Implement the new method. Changes such as installation of new equipment and operator training
will need to be undertaken.

6. Maintain
Routinely verify that the new method is being followed correctly New methods may not be followed
due to inadequate training or support. On the other hand people may find ways to gradually
improve the method over time. Learning curves can be used to analyse these effects.

Selection of the Job for Method Study

Cost is the main criteria for selection of a job, process and department for methods analysis. To

carry out the method study, a job is selected such that the proposed method achieves one or more

of the following results:

1. Improvement in quality with lesser scrap.
2. Increased production through better utilization of resources.
3. Elimination of unnecessary operations and movements.
4. Improved layout leading to smooth flow of material and a balanced production line.
5. Improved working conditions.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION OF METHOD STUDY

The job should be selected for the method study based upon the following considerations:
1. Economic aspect
2. Technical aspect, and
3. Human aspect.
1. Economic Aspects
The method study involves cost and time. If sufficient returns are not attained, the whole exercise
will go waste. Thus, the money spent should be justified by the savings from it. The following
guidelines can be used for selecting a job:
1. Bottleneck operations which are holding up other production operations.
2. Operations involving excessive labor.
3. Operations producing lot of scrap or defectives.
4. Operations having poor utilization of resources.
5. Backtracking of materials and excessive movement of materials.
2. Technical Aspects
The method study man should be careful enough to select a job in which he has the technical
knowledge and expertise. A person selecting a job in his area of expertise is going to do full
justice.

Other factors which favor selection in technical aspect are:

3.
1. Job having in consistent quality.
2. Operations generating lot of scraps.
3. Frequent complaints from workers regarding the job.
4. Human Considerations
Method study means a change as it is going to affect the way in which the job is done presently
and is not fully accepted by workman and the union. Human considerations play a vital role in
method study. These are some of the situations where human aspect should be given due
importance:
1. Workers complaining about unnecessary and tiring work.
2. More frequency of accidents.
3. Inconsistent earning.

Recording Techniques for Method Study

The next step in basic procedure, after selecting the work to be studied is to record all facts relating

to the existing method. In order that the activities selected for investigation may be visualized in

their entirety and in order to improve them through subsequent critical examination, it is essential

to have some means of placing on record all the necessary facts about the existing method.

Records are very much useful to make before and after comparison to assess the effectiveness of

the proposed improved method.

The recording techniques are designed to simplify and standardize the recording work. For this

purpose charts and diagrams are used.

Method Study techniques

The method study techniques are explained below

Recording techniques for method study

 CHARTS USED IN METHODS STUDY

This is the most popular method of recording the facts. The activities comprising the jobs are

recorded using method study symbols. A great care is to be taken in preparing the charts so that

the information it shows is easily understood and recognized. The following information should be

given in the chart. These charts are used to measure the movement of operator or work (i.e., in

motion study).
1. Adequate description of the activities.
2. Whether the charting is for present or proposed method.
3. Specific reference to when the activities will begin and end.
4. Time and distance scales used wherever necessary.
5. The date of charting and the name of the person who does charting.

Types of Charts

It can be broadly divided into (A) Macro motion charts and (B) Micro motion charts. Macro motion

charts are used for macro motion study and micro motion charts are used for micro motion study.

Macro motion study is one which can be measured through ‘stop watch’ and micro motion study is

one which cannot be measured through stop watch.

MACRO MOTION CHARTS

Following four charts are used under this type:

1. Operation Process Chart
It is also called outline process chart. An operation process chart gives the bird’s eye view of the
whole process by recording only the major activities and inspections involved in the process.
Operation process chart uses only two symbols, i.e., operation and inspection. Operation,
process chart is helpful to:
1. Visualize the complete sequence of the operations and inspections in the process.
2. Know where the operation selected for detailed study fits into the entire process.
3. In operation process chart, the graphic representation of the points at which
materials are introduced into the process and what operations and inspections are carried on
them are shown.
2. Flow Process Chart
Flow process chart gives the sequence of flow of work of a product or any part of it through the
work centre or the department recording the events using appropriate symbols. It is the
amplification of the operation process chart in which operations; inspection, storage, delay and
transportation are represented. However, process charts are of three types:
 1. Material type— which shows the events that occur to the materials.
2. Man type—Activities performed by the man.
3. Equipment type— how equipment is used.

The flow process chart is useful:

1. to reduce the distance travelled by men (or materials).
2. to avoid waiting time and unnecessary delays.
3. to reduce the cycle time by combining or eliminating operations.
4. to fix up the sequence of operations.
5. to relocate the inspection stages.

Like operation process chart, flow process chart is constructed by placing symbols one below

another as per the occurrence of the activities and are joined by a vertical line. A brief

description of the activity is written on the right hand side of the activity symbol and time or

distance is given on the left hand side.

3. Two Handed Process Chart
A two handed (operator process chart) is the most detailed type of flow chart in which the
activities of the workers hands are recorded in relation to one another. The two handed process
chart is normally confined to work carried out at a single workplace. This also gives synchronized
and graphical representation of the sequence of manual activities of the worker. The application
of this charts are:
 To visualize the complete sequence of activities in a repetitive task.
 To study the work station layout.
4. Multiple Activity Chart
It is a chart where activities of more than subject (worker or equipment) are each recorded on a
common time scale to show their inter-relationship. Multiple activity chart is made:
 to study idle time of the man and machines,
 to determine number of machines handled by one operator, and
 to determine number of operators required in teamwork to perform the given job.

Diagrams Used in Method Study

The flow process chart shows the sequence and nature of movement but it does not clearly show

the path of movements. In the paths of movements, there are often undesirable features such as

congestion, back tracking and unnecessary long movements. To record these unnecessary

features, representation of the working area in the form of flow diagrams, string diagrams can be

made:
1. To study the different layout plans and thereby; select the most optimal layout.
2. To study traffic and frequency over different routes of the plant.
3. Identification of back tracking and obstacles during movements.

Diagrams are of two types:

1. Flow diagram and
2. String diagram.
1. FLOW DIAGRAM
Flow diagram is a drawing, of the working area, showing the location of the various activities
identified by their numbered symbols and are associated with particular flow process chart either
man type or machine [Link] routes followed in transport are shown by joining the symbols in
 sequence by a line which represents as nearly as possible the path or movement of the subject
concerned. Following are the procedures to make the flow diagram:
1. The layout of the workplace is drawn to scale.
2. Relative positions of the machine tools, work benches, storage, and inspection
benches are marked on the scale.
3. Path followed by the subject under study is tracked by drawing lines.
4. Each movement is serially numbered and indicated by arrow for direction.
5. Different colors are used to denote different types of movements.
2. STRING DIAGRAM
The string diagram is a scale layout drawing on which, length of a string is used to record the
extent as well as the pattern of movement of a worker working within a limited area during a
certain period of time. The primary function of a string diagram is to produce a record of a existing
set of conditions so that the job of seeing what is actually taking place is made as simple as
possible.

One of the most valuable features of the string diagram is the actual distance travelled during the

period of study to be calculated by relating the length of the thread used to the scale of drawing.

Thus, it helps to make a very effective comparison between different layouts or methods of doing

job in terms of the travelling involved. The main advantages of string diagram compared to flow

diagram is that respective movements between work stations which are difficult to be traced on

the flow diagram can be conveniently shown on string diagram.

Following are the procedures to draw string diagram:

1. A layout of the work place of factory is drawn to scale on the soft board.
2. Pins are fixed into boards to mark the locations of work stations, pins are also driven
at the turning points of the routes.
3. A measured length of the thread is taken to trace the movements (path).
4. The distance covered by the object is obtained by measuring the remaining part of
the thread and subtracting it from original length.

Symbols Used in Method Study

Graphical method of recording was originated by Gilberth, in order to make the presentation of the

facts clearly without any ambiguity and to enable to grasp them quickly and clearly. It is useful to

use symbols instead of written description.

METHOD STUDY SYMBOLS

Operation

An operation occurs when an object is intentionally changed in one or more of its characteristics

(physical or chemical). This indicates the main steps in a process, method or procedure.
 An operation always takes the object one stage ahead towards completion.

Examples of operation are:

 Turning, drilling, milling, etc.
 A chemical reaction.
 Welding, brazing and riveting.
 Lifting, loading, unloading.
 Getting instructions from supervisor.

Inspection

An inspection occurs when an object is examined and compared with standard for quality and

quantity. The inspection examples are:

 Visual observations for finish.
 Count of quantity of incoming material.
 Checking the dimensions.

Transportation

A transport indicates the movement of workers, materials or equipment from one place to another.

Example:

Movement of materials from one work station to another.

Workers travelling to bring tools.

Delay D: Delay (Temporary Storage)

A delay occurs when the immediate performance of the next planned thing does not take

place.

Example:
 Work waiting between consecutive operations.
 Workers waiting at tool cribs.
 Operators waiting for instructions from supervisor.

Storage

Storage occurs when the object is kept in an authorized custody and is protected against

unauthorized removal. For example, materials kept in stores to be distributed to various work.

ILLUSTRATION 1. Develop a Process Chart for making a cheese sandwich.

SOLUTION. The following chart is one possible solution. The level of detail in process charts

depends upon the requirements of the job. Time is often included to aid analysis of value added.

Process Chart

Distance in Symbol Process description meter

 ILLUSTRATION 2.

Develop a Multiple Activity Chart for doing three loads of laundry, assume you will have access to

one washing machine and one dryer.

SOLUTION:

The following chart is one possible solution. The level of detail in process charts depends upon the

requirements of the job. Time is often included to aid analysis of value added.

MICRO-MOTION STUDY CHART

Micro-motion study provides a technique for recording and timing an activity. It is a set of

techniques intended to divide the human activities in a groups of movements or micro-motions

(called Therbligs) and the study of such movements helps to find for an operator one best pattern

of movements that consumes less time and requires less effort to accomplish the task. Therbligs

were suggested by Frank O. Gilbreth, the founder of motion study. Micro-motion study was mainly

employed for the job analysis. Its other applications include:

1. As an aid in studying the activities of two or more persons on a group work?
2. As an aid in studying the relationship of the activities of the operator and the machine as a
means of timing operations.
3. As an aid in obtaining motion time data for time standards.
4. Acts as permanent record of the method and time of activities of the operator and the
machine.

SIMO chart symbols

The micro-motion group of techniques is based on the idea of dividing human activities into division

of movements or groups of movements (Therbligs) according to purpose for which they are made.

Gilbreth differentiated 17 fundamental hand or hand and eye motions. Each Therbligs has a

specific color, symbol and letter for recording purposes. The Therbligs are micro-motion study

involves the following steps:

1. Filming the operation to be studied.
2. Analysis of the data from the film.
The recording of the data through SIMO chart is done as micro motion chart.

SIMO Chart

Simultaneous motion cycle chart (SIMO chart) is a recording technique for micro-motion study. A

SIMO chart is a chart based on the film analysis, used to record simultaneously on a common time

scale the Therbligs or a group of Therbligs performed by different parts of the body of one or more

operators.
It is the micro-motion form of the man type flow process chart. To prepare SIMO chart, an

elaborate procedure and use of expensive equipment are required and this study is justified when

the saving resulting from study will be very high.

Efficient Arrangement of the Workplace
Tools, materials and controls should have a defined place and be located to minimize the motions
needed to get to them. The workplace should be comfortable and healthy.

Worker at a Fixed Workplace

There are many jobs that require workers to remain at a specified workstation in order to complete
their assigned tasks, This applies to both manufacturing and services. When the nature of the work
is primarily manual (such as sorting, inspecting, making entries, or assembly operations l. the
focus of work design is on simplifying the work method and making the required operator motions
as few and as simple as possible. I The same concepts also apply to services. For example, a
customer service representative at a call center is trained to ask specific questions in a given order
so that a customer's inquiry is processed as efficiently as possible. With services, however, the
issue is further complicated by the presence of the customer in the process. Here efficiency cannot
be achieved at the expense of angering the customer, who may perceive an efficient operator as
being curt or rude.
There are two basic ways to determine the best method for performing an essentially manual task.
The first is to search among the various' workers performing that task and find the one who
performs the job best. That person's method is then accepted as the standard, and the other
workers are trained to perform it in the same way. This was basically F. W. Taylor's approach, The
second method is to observe the performance of a number of workers, analyze in detail each step
of their work, and pick out the superior features of each worker's performance, This results in a
composite method that combines the best elements of the group studied. This was the procedure
used by Frank Gilbreth, the father of motion study, to determine the "one best way" to perform a
work task. Taylor observed actual performance

Efficient use of Equipment

Equipment and mechanized tools enhance worker abilities. Controls and foot-operated devices
that can relieve the hand/arms of work should be maximized. Equipment should be constructed
and arranged to fit worker use.
Motion study is seen as one of the fundamental aspects of scientific management and indeed it
was effective in the design of repetitive, simplified jobs with the task specialization which was a
feature of the mass production system. The use of motion study has declined as there has been a
movement
towards greater job responsibility and a wider range of tasks within a job. However the technique is
still a useful analysis tool and particularly in the service industries, can help improve process
performance.
1. Work measurement Part II of Work Study
2. Introduction
Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified
worker to carry out specified jobs at a defined level of performance. We have seen how total time
to manufacture a product is increased by:
adding undesirable features to product, bad operation of the processes, and ineffective time added
because of worker and management. All this leads to decreased productivity.
3. Introduction
Method study is one of principal techniques by which work contenting the product manufacture or
process could be decreased.
It is a systematic method of investigating and critically examining the existing methods, to develop
the improved ones.
Method study is, then, a technique to reduce the work content mainly by eliminating unnecessary
movements by workers and/or materials and/or equipment’s.
However, even after that, there could be substantial unnecessary time taken for the process
because of lack of management control and/or inaction of worker.
4. Introduction
Work measurement (WM) is concerned with investigating, reducing and eliminating ineffective time,
whatever may be the cause.
WM is the means of measuring the time taken in the performance of an operation or series of
operations in such a way that the ineffective time is shown up and can be separated out.
In practice, proving existence of the ineffective times the most difficult task. After existence is
proved, nature and extent is easy to see!
5. Introduction
WM is also used to set standard times to carry out the work, so that any ineffective time is not
included [Link] addition the standard time would show up as excess time and thus can be
brought to attention. Since, standard times are set for all the activities through WM, it has earned
bad reputation among workers. Major reason for that has been the initial focus of the WM methods,
which essentially targeted only the worker controllable ineffective times. Management controllable
ineffective times were ignored traditionally.
6. Introduction
Two critical issues in work study:
Method study should precede the work measurement, always.
Elimination of management controllable ineffective time should precede the elimination of the
ineffective time within the control of the workers.
7. Purpose of WM
To reveal the nature and extent of ineffective time, from whatever cause, so that action can be
taken to eliminate it; and then, To set standards of performance that are attainable only if all
avoidable ineffective time is eliminated and work is performed by the best method available.
8. Uses of WM
To compare the efficiency of alternative methods. Other conditions being equal, the method which
takes the least time will be the best method.
To balance the work of members of teams, in association with the multiple activity charts, so that,
as far as possible, each member has tasks taking an equal time.
To determine, in association with man and machine multiple activity charts, the number of
machines an worker can run.
9. Uses of time standards
To provide information on which the planning and scheduling of production can be based, including
the plant and labor requirements for carrying out the program of work and utilization of resources.
To provide information on which estimates for tenders, selling prices and delivery promises can be
[Link] set standards of machine utilization and labor performance which can be used for
incentive scheme. To provide information for labor-cost control and to enable standard costs to be
fixed and maintained.
10. Techniques for WM
Time study Activity sampling; and rated activity sampling Synthesis from standard data
Pre-determined motion time system Estimating Analytical estimating Comparative estimating.
11. Time study
A WM technique for Recording the times and rates of working for the elements of a specified job
carried out under specified conditions, Analyzing the data so as to obtain the time necessary for
carrying out the job at a defined level of performance.
12. Selecting a job for time study
The job in question is a new one not previously carried out.
A change in material or method of working has been made and a new time standard is required.
A complaint has been received about the time standard for an operation.
A particular operation appears to be bottleneck holding up the subsequent operations and possibly
previous operations.
Standard times are required prior to the introduction of an incentive scheme.
13. Selecting a job for time study
To investigate the utilization of a piece of plant, the output of which is low, or which appears to be
idle
for an excessive [Link] a preliminary to making a method study, or to compare the efficiency of
two proposed methods.
When the costs of a particular job appear to be excessive.
14. Qualified worker
One who is accepted as having the necessary physical attributes, who possesses the required
intelligence, education, and has acquire.
Work Standard:
Standard work is a concept at the heart of the Lean business management approach. It is the
simple, but powerful idea that every task that is repeated requires a written description of the most
efficient and effective way to complete it with the highest quality outcome. Insisting that employees
use the selected standard work process each time the task is performed ensures that the same
results are achieved, in the same amount of time, regardless of who completes the task.
Benefits
The numerous benefits of standard work include:
• Consistent quality
• Predictable costs
• On-time delivery
• Increased productivity
• Reduced stress
• Elimination of errors
• Reduced waste
• Simplified new employee training
• Reduced dependence on individual skill holders
• Instant visibility into process breakdowns
• Clear employee expectations• Easy decision making
Although the idea of standard work originated in the manufacturing sector, it and the other tenants
of the Lean approach are being used by a broad range of companies that want to improve quality,
eliminate waste, achieve continuous improvement and create more value for customers.
Essential Elements
The essential elements of implementing standard work include:
• Takt time – No, that isn’t a typo. “Takt” is a German word which refers to the pace or beat of a
musical composition. It is used in Lean to describe the rate at which products must be made to
meet customer demand.
• Work sequence – This defines the exact work sequence the employee uses to complete each
task.
• Standard inventory – In manufacturing, of course, this refers to parts, but in other sectors it can
refer to applications, data inputs or other resources necessary to perform the job.
Implementation Best Practices
There are a few things that mangers should keep in mind when implementing a standard work
approach. Adhering to these best practices will ensure an easy transition and better end results:
• Involve employees in the process of standard work definition – Not only are they a great
resource in terms of determining the best practice for each task, involving employees will help
ensure engagement, investment and ultimately adherence to the standard work approach.
• Focus on the details – While you want your standard work documentation to be
easy-to-understand, it must be thorough to be useful in reducing variation. No detail should be
omitted.
• Use visualizations – Images, photographs, diagrams and examples will help bring your standard
work definition to life and increase the likelihood
of consistent compliance.• Make it readily accessible – The documentation must be accessible at
the time and place that the work it to be performed.
• Iterate – While you don’t want employees deviating from the standard work process, there must
be a method to give consideration to changes when new conditions or new ideas warrant revision.
Introducing a structure for improving processes will increase the likelihood that changes will be
analyzed and approved rather than being implemented ad-hoc. Standard work is an excellent
method of improving quality, reducing waste, and transferring maximum value to customers. It is a
simple concept, but it only works when deployed, communicated, and managed with care. The fact
that the approach is popular with organizations of all types and sizes is testament to the fact that
the results are well worth the effort.
Work interacting with other worker: It is the ability to effectively interact, cooperate, collaborate and
manage conflicts with other people.
Productivity Resulting from Interaction
When people are happy at work, they tend to do a better job. Errors are reduced, productivity
increases and customer service improves. Having great office interaction also improves teamwork,
which makes an entire team more efficient during times of high stress, such as holiday sales or
end-of-year report production.
It doesn't matter what your company does, what product or service it provides, good interaction
means that people are having positive experiences. What are some examples of positive
interactions?
Positive interactions start with basic pleasantries. These include answering the phones in a
professional, pleasant way, keeping in mind the old school idea that people can "see your smile"
over the phone. A positive interaction also starts with greeting people who are walking into the
establishment, perhaps even opening the door for them, as they [Link] interaction goes well
beyond politeness and communication between people. Interaction is an experience that other
workers and consumers have when working with someone for a short time or for an extended
period of time.
For example, look at a typical office dynamic. If Jane's job is reliant upon Joe completing his tasks
and upon handing the file over to her, she will have a positive interaction experience with him, if he
is on time consistently, is efficient, and has few errors. Conversely, she would have a negative
experience if he is always late, hands her his files, complete with gaps and errors, and is rude in
the process.
The latter scenario could lead to a long-term negative experience that increases Jane's anxiety
about getting work done, as well as having animosity in dealing with Joe and even poor
performance, as she tries to meet deadlines, even though she was not given a full-time frame to
complete her job. That's why workplace interaction is so important. The benefits of effective
working relationships always outweigh the cost of developing those relationships.
Develop Company Morale
The morale of your employees is directly related to the types of interactions they get on a regular
basis. As you can see from the example of Jane and Joe, working with people who consistently
create negative interactions leads to long-term morale issues, which leaves employees feeling that
no one cares whether or not anyone does their job. This "why bother" attitude is infectious in
offices and in operation centers. The best way to resolve this is to prevent it, as much as is
possible.
Developing positive company morale among all employees is no easy task. It requires business
leaders who take into consideration employees' talents, workloads and their general personality
traits. It also requires that business leaders examine the processes and procedures to try to find
areas in which gaps or backlogs frequently happen.
When a business leader is able to define what's working and what's not, he can establish systems
to increase daily positive interactions in the office. A system may be something as simple as giving
positive feedback to a telemarketing team. Typically, these departments have negative interactions
all day from call recipients; altering the energy in the call center with upbeat music, leadership
enthusiasm and positive reinforcement prevents telemarketers from falling into negative patterns.
This helps keep office productivity up.
Consumer Satisfaction Results
A business leader should think like a consumer and get into that mindset, when developing policies
that affect people. Businesses do this when developing a product or service, and they should place
the same importance on communication and on interaction skills.
Think about the last time you walked into a large store. Did you feel like a mere number in a sea of
others who were also searching and seeking solutions? If you did, chances are your interactive
experience with this store started negatively. Unless someone greets you with a smile or asks if
you need assistance, you are left on your own, perhaps wondering what the role of the employees
really is. The benefits of effective working relationships when customers are concerned means that
customers feel they are being served.
When employees are knowledgeable and passionate about helping, consumers feel this.
Employees can also tell when someone is stressed and overworked. Being in that state doesn't
create a positive customer experience.
Sometimes, this isn't the fault of the worker. If a company is understaffed, one person may be
juggling too many things. No matter how much he wants to help and no matter how much he tries,
he just can't do it all. Customer’s sense this, and this leads to a negative interaction with the
company - not the worker per se.
This is why managers must pay attention to employee workload, employee capabilities and
workflow to make sure that the employees can facilitate positive interactions with the company.
Facilitating Positive Interactions
As already mentioned, an environment and company culture of positive interactions are not
achieved by accident. Google works very hard to create a corporate culture where employees feel
that they can have a personal life, can adjust their schedules and can work on projects that they
are passionate about. This has created a corporate culture, in which innovation, creativity and
passion are the underlying components of success for the company. Google is proud of its loyal
employees who love to go to work.
You can further facilitate positive interactions within your own organization by modeling behaviors
that result in great experiences. As the boss, do you take a
moment to ask how your team's weekend was? Do you hold team meetings or one-on-one
consultations regularly, so that you may discover and address any issues that your team is
experiencing? People can tell when someone cares and who takes the time to understand team
members' goals, challenges and interests, which may help you facilitate positive interactions
among your team.
Training and Policies
Employees might look at a negative situation and feel that there is nothing you can do to change
how others act or how they do their job. Essentially, employees might be mistaken in thinking that
you can't take a negative scenario and transfer it into a positive interaction for everyone.
Start with developing positive policies that include rules about work habits, punctuality, dress code
and communication. Set policies in which processes must be followed because it helps keep things
organized and flowing, which enables positive momentum. Then, hold training about
communication, inclusiveness and team building. Training should give people information to
absorb, as it teaches them the importance of good communication. But this process then needs to
step up as it transforms into everyday practice, with role playing and procedures for implementing
these practices. Employees may feel silly engaging in role playing, but this is a critical exercise as
to how to learn new communication skills.
As you give your employees an increasing number of skills, which enable them to deal with
problems in the workday or the gaps in their own skill set, you increase the chances for the team to
have a greater number of positive interactions. Team-building exercises can transform a negative
dynamic between two employees who did not understand each other before the exercises, into a
dynamic in which these two employees walk away from the exercise with a new appreciation of the
other's point of view. These types of training programs must reinforce policies and procedures that
enhance positive interactions. This is an ongoing process for every employee and business leader.
Potential Risks of Fraternization
When employees are enjoying working together, it is highly likely that friendships and even
romantic relationships develop. While an employer wants employees being friendly, bringing too
much out-of-office personal stuff into the office can lead to negative interactions in the office. This,
of course, has a negative effect on team morale and productivity. The first risk to consider with
fraternization is the distraction it creates.
Employees are likely to meet and talk during work hours, and might not address work tasks. This
action could create animosity among coworkers, who must hold down the fort, while their
colleagues are nowhere to be found. It also means that those employees are not getting done what
you are paying them for. Teams may feel favoritism, and bad feelings can occur, as a result of the
imbalance.
On the more serious side, when a relationship ends acrimoniously, it is very likely that anxiety and
tension resulting from that acrimonious end will permeate throughout the department. Gossip and
even sabotage can occur, if one party seeks revenge on the other. This can directly harm
co-worker and client relationships. It can also lead to very serious allegations, especially if the
relationship was between a superior and subordinate.
Some sexual harassment allegations and lawsuits stem from a consensual relationship ending
badly. The manager is often accused of abusing his level of power, and could face serious legal
action, as well as dismissal. Other sexual harassment allegations and lawsuits stem directly from
uninvited, unwarranted harassment on the part of the abuser.
Explain the importance of warning colleagues of problems and changes that may affect them.
When a company and its team have each others' backs, trust increases and builds stronger teams.
Surveying and Evaluating Interaction Building an environment of positive interaction takes time
and energy. Becoming complacent leaves room for negative habits and issues to arise that
become like cancer within an organization. Negativity travels and is absorbed faster than positivity;
thus, business leaders must be vigilant to maintain positive energy.
There are several ways to evaluate the morale of the company. Team meetings should be more
than simply reviewing data. Take the time to ask for feedback on what your team is experiencing,
good or bad. Ask questions and seek solutions from them. You can also get a lot of information by
looking around the room in a team meeting.
Observe who is always speaking up to determine if anyone seems to want to speak but hesitates.
This is why one-on-one meetings help the survey process. Getting feedback in a dynamic where
people are not intimidated by others frees up the conversation and actually makes that a positive
interaction for employees seeking to find a voice. Even an anonymous "suggestion box" helps give
everyone a voice, and is a positive interaction.
Once you have the feedback, you need to evaluate what is really going on. This requires reading
between the lines in some circumstances. If someone is upset that another worker isn't doing her
job properly, you could assume that this person is not capable, or you could evaluate her
performance. Evaluating performance could show that simple training issues could resolve the
issue by making everyone happier. It could also show that the person complaining was actually the
center of the problem and was redirecting attention away from himself.
Finding a way to boost your team whenever possible, streamline its workflow or make something
just plain easier will always yield positive interactions. While you cannot control every personality
and every interaction, you can set the environment the leads to success for everyone. When the
team is experiencing more positive, the company bottom line usually increases, as well.

Learning Curve Theory (Computation)

Introduction
A learning curve is a concept that graphically depicts the relationship between the cost and
output over a defined period of time, normally to represent the repetitive task of an employee or
worker. The learning curve was first described by psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus in 1885 and
is used as a way to measure production efficiency and to forecast costs.

In the visual representation of a learning curve, a steeper slope indicates initial learning
translates into higher cost savings, and subsequent learnings result in increasingly slower, more
difficult cost savings.

What is a learning curve?

A learning curve is a correlation between a learner's performance on a task and the number
of attempts or time required to complete the task; this can be represented as a direct proportion on
a graph.

The learning curve theory proposes that a learner’s efficiency in a task improves over time
the more the learner performs the task.

Understanding Learning Curves

The learning curve also is referred to as the experience curve, the cost curve, the efficiency
curve, or the productivity curve. This is because the learning curve provides measurement and
insight into all the above aspects of a company. The idea behind this is that any employee,
regardless of position, takes time to learn how to carry out a specific task or duty. The amount of
time needed to produce the associated output is high. Then, as the task is repeated, the employee
learns how to complete it quickly, and that reduces the amount of time needed for a unit of output.

That is why the learning curve is downward sloping in the beginning with a flat slope toward
the end, with the cost per unit depicted on the Y-axis and total output on the X-axis. As learning
increases, it decreases the cost per unit of output initially before flattening out, as it becomes
harder to increase the efficiencies gained through learning.

Application of Learning Curve

Let’s take a look at some different examples of where the learning curve is being applied
today.
a. Manufacturing
Manufacturing costs as related to workforce performance can be tracked by using
the learning curve. Instead of performance and number of attempts, the values could be
unit cost or unit labor hours and cumulative production in units. As workers produce more
product, the per-unit cost will often decrease.

The learning curve can be used to predict potential costs when production tasks
change. For example, when the pricing of a new product is being determined, labor costs
are factored in.

If a product takes two hours to produce, the product is released to the market for
sale at a cost that reflects the two-hour production period plus other associated costs and
markups.

But what if the production time was based on the first few attempts? What if by the 100th
time the product was produced, production time is reduced to one hour? The product would
be on the market at a price that is much too high, resulting in potentially lower sales. Using
the learning curve can provide additional insight for planning purposes.

b. Business
Learning curves can also be applied to organizational performance using either the
generalized approach or by conducting a measured analysis. Determining which approach
to take depends on whether the desired performance can be directly measured.

For example, employees learning a difficult task, such as learning to use a complex
software program, may have poor performance at the beginning due to the inherent
difficulty of the task. If the goal is that employees need to know how to use the software in
their day to day tasks, this may be difficult to measure as it involves many variables. By
applying the learning curve theory as a framework, organizations can still benefit.

The learning curve as a framework can help organizations to understand in this

scenario what is required to become proficient in the software. If training support and time
to practice are identified as important factors, then it can be seen that employees who are
given support and time to practice with the software will over time have better performance
than employees who are not given support or time to practice.

If the software is important for productivity, then employee performance could

decrease over time if employees cannot effectively use the software. Organizations can
then provide additional support or resources needed.

To utilize a measured learning curve, organizations would need to identify a specific

variable to analyze. For example, an organization seeking to improve the performance of
customer service could decide that the implementation of a new initiative (# of attempts)
would result in a decrease in customer complaints (performance). The organization could
track and analyze the repetitive practice of this initiative over time to determine if indeed
customer complaints decreased over time.

c. Medicine
For surgeons in the operating room, many procedures will involve the same
repetitive tasks.

Because a surgeon is essentially practicing the same skill over and over whenever
that procedure is done, the learning curve can be applied to show individual learning and
performance over time.
 This enables not only insight into the improvement that the surgeon is achieving, but
aides instructors with identifying where more resources and assistance can be directed to
improve performance.

Cumulative Average Model

The “Cumulative Average Model” (or “Wright’s Model”), which was described by T.P. Wright
in 1936 in his work "Factors Affecting the Cost of Airplanes", after realizing that the cost of aircraft
production decreased with the increase in production performance. There are currently different
variations of the original formula used today in specialized applications, but the idea remains
familiar to the original formula.

The experience curve theory states that the effort to complete a task should take less time
and effort the more the task is done over time.

If one were to plot the repeated attempts of a learner against the time taken to complete the
attempt, a pattern can be identified indicating that the task takes less time as the learner gains
more experience via repeated attempts. The theory can also be expressed as a mathematical
function that can be used as a prediction tool.

Learning curve formula

The original model uses the formula: Y = aXb
where:
Y = the cumulative average time (or cost) per unit.
X = the cumulative number of units produced.
a = time (or cost) required to produce the first unit.
b = slope of the function when plotted on log-log paper.
= log of the learning rate/log of 2.
The formula can be used as a prediction tool to forecast future performance.

Cumulative number of units

The formula stipulates that the more attempts that are included, the more the overall time
will decrease. The formula can be used to predict a learner’s rate of learning of a simple task or
even help businesses to predict the production rate of a product.

Methods of Learning Curve

There are two methods of learning for which we can find the average time spent per unit:

1. Tabular Approach
- the simplest approach to learning-curve problems
- also known as Arithmetic Approach
- each time that production doubles, labor per unit declines by a constant
 factor, known as the learning rate.
- As long as we wish to find the hours required to produce X units and X is one of
the doubled values (e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, . . .units), then this approach works.
Arithmetic analysis does not tell us how many hours will be needed to produce
other units (like 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, . . units).
- For flexibility, we must turn to the algebraic approach.

Illustration:
The first vending machine that GoCoffee, Inc., assembled took 100 labor hours. The nature
of the work is repetitive and the company has 80% learning rate.

Required:
a. Calculate average time per unit when 8 units were produced.
b. Calculate total time for 8 units.

Solution:

Cumulative number of units Cumulative average time Cumulative total labor

(X) per unit (Y) hours (XY)
1 100 100
2 80 160
4 64 256
8 51.20 409.60

a. Calculate average time per unit when 8 units were produced. Answer: 51.20
b. Calculate total time for 8 units. Answer: 409.60

2. Algebraic Approach
- uses formula to solve learning-curve problems
- also known as logarithmic approach
- applicable to all X units

The formula to use is the learning curve formula: Y = aXb

where:
Y = the cumulative average time per unit.
X = the cumulative number of units produced.
a = time required to produce the first unit.
r = learning rate
log �
b = slope: log 2

Illustration:
The first vending machine that GoCoffee, Inc., assembled took 100 labor hours. The nature
of the work is repetitive and the company has 80% learning rate.

Required:
a. Calculate average time per unit when 8 units were produced.
b. Calculate total time for 8 units.
c. Calculate time to finish the 8th units.

Given:
Y=?
X = 8 units
a = 100 hours
r = 80% or 0.80
 log 0.80
b = slope: log 2
Solutions:
a. Calculate average time per unit when 8 units were produced.

� = ���

log 0.80
� = (100) (8) log 2

� = (100) (8)−0.322

� = (100) (0.512)

� = ��. �

Answer: Average time per unit is 51.2 hours when 8 units were produced.

b. Calculate total time for 8 units.

Total time = XY
= (8) (51.2)
= 409.60

Answer: 409.60 total labor hours are needed to produce 8 units.

c. Calculate time to finish the 8th units.

To compute for the time to finish the 8th units, we need to compute the total time for 8
units and the total time for 7 units. The difference between the two total time will be the
time used for the 8th units.

� = ��� when X = 7 � = ��� when X = 8

log 0.80 log 0.80

� = (100) (7) log 2 � = (100) (8) log 2

� = (100) (7)−0.322 � = (100) (8)−0.322

� = 53.44 � = 51.20

Total Time (8 units) = 51.20 x 8 = 409.60

Total Time (7 units) = 53.44 x 7 = 374.08
Time to make 8th units = 409.60 – 374.08 = 35.52 hours

Answer: It takes 35.52 hours to produce the 8th unit.

Limitations of Learning Curve

 Because learning curves differ from company to company, as well as industry to industry,
estimates for each organization should be developed rather than applying someone else’s.
 Learning curves are often based on the time necessary to complete the early units;
therefore, those times must be accurate. As current information becomes available,
reevaluation is appropriate.
  Any changes in personnel, design, or procedure can be expected to alter the learning curve,
causing the curve to spike up for a short time, even if it is going to drop in the long run.
 While workers and process may improve, the same learning curves do not always apply to
indirect labor and material.
 The culture of the workplace, as well as resource availability and changes in the process,
may alter the learning curve. For instance, as a project nears its end, worker interest and
effort may drop, curtailing progress down the curve.
 Although the theory states that more attempts = a decrease in time, it does not always work
out that way. Many factors can impact the end-results, resulting in a variety of different
learning curve shapes. (e.g. Diminishing-Returns Learning Curve, Increasing-Returns
Learning Curve, Increasing-Decreasing Return Learning Curve (the S-curve), and Complex
Learning Curve)

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