Choosing a High-speed Grease

Most industrial facilities have bearings that rotate faster than normal processing equipment. When it
comes to lubricating these pieces of equipment, not all lubricants behave the same way.
For grease-lubricated components, the effects of the grease on the bearings can lead to increased heat,
drag and ultimately premature failure. By properly selecting a grease that can handle these higher
speeds, you can help minimize any potential failures caused by mismatching the lubricant to the
application.

High-speed Applications
During my frequent plant visits, I often am asked about the temperature at which bearings should operate.
Inevitably, the bearings that seem to be running the hottest are the ones that rotate the fastest. For
example, on a recent trip, I inspected an overhanging fan. This fan was belt-driven at a 1-to-1 ratio from a
large electric motor.
The speed of the motor was set at 1,750 revolutions per minute (rpm). Since there was no reduction or
increase in pulley size, it is safe to assume the speed of the bearings was quite similar. These bearings
were greased with a product that was much too thick for them, leading to the generation of excess heat
and shortening the bearing life. By matching the grease properties more closely to the bearing needs, you
can help prolong the life of the bearing.

While this example paints a picture of a type of machine in most plants (fans), it is common to find high-
speed applications in other components as well. For instance, some pumps that are directly coupled to a
motor and have grease-lubricated bearings may spin in excess of 2,000 rpm.
The same holds true for certain mixers, agitators and blowers. These components may suffer if a multi-
purpose grease is simply applied without much regard to the needs of the bearing. To understand what the
bearing requires in terms of lubrication, you must first learn how to determine the speed factor of a bearing.

1
Calculating the Speed Factor
The speed factor is a term that helps define the relationship of the speed at which a bearing rotates with
the size of the bearing. There are two main ways to calculate this factor. The first is known as the DN
value, which uses the bearing inner diameter multiplied by the speed at which it rotates. The second
method is known as the NDm value. This uses the bearing’s median size, also known as the pitch
diameter, and the rotation speed to calculate the speed factor.
The speed factor can help you determine a variety of lubricant properties, which you can then utilize to
select the proper lubricant. Among these properties would be the viscosity of the oil and the National
Lubricating Grease Institute (NLGI) grade of the grease for the application.

Viscosity
The most important physical property of a lubricant is the viscosity. Viscosity is what determines how thick
or thin the lubricating film will be based upon the load, speed and surfaces in contact. This must be
matched to the needs of the bearing. Most general-purpose greases have a base oil viscosity of around
220 centistokes. While this type of grease may work fine for moderate speeds and loads, when the
bearing speed increases, the viscosity must be reduced accordingly.

There are many ways to calculate viscosity. By utilizing the speed factor mentioned earlier, you can use
standardized charts to identify an appropriate viscosity for the bearing at the operating temperature. In the
previous example of the fan bearing, the NDm value of the bearing was 293,125, which led to a base oil
viscosity of approximately 7 centistokes. The bearing was operating at around 150 degrees F.
With a standard viscosity index of 95, this equates to an ISO 22-32 base oil viscosity. If you were to use a
standard multi-purpose grease, this bearing would receive about 10 times the viscosity needed. Although
some excess viscosity isn’t necessarily a bad thing, this level would be a bit extreme.
Excessive viscosity can lead to excess heat generation and increased energy consumption. Both of these
are detrimental to the health of the bearing and the lubricant. The hotter the bearing runs, the lower the
viscosity of the grease becomes.
This can cause increased grease run-out and require more frequent applications of fresh lubricant. The
energy consumption can also add up over time, resulting in money lost due to nothing more than the
increased drag from excess viscosity.
With grease, it is common to be able to lubricate bearings easily until they reach speed factors greater
than 500,000. This is when specially formulated high-speed greases are employed. Some greases on the
market are touted to work up to speed factors of 2 million.
However, it is worth noting that not all greases are created equal, and not all can perform well at varying
speed levels.

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Channeling Characteristics
One property of a lubricating grease that can determine how it will lubricate at high speeds is called
channeling. This term is used to define how well grease can flow and fill a void left in its surface. Method
3456.2 of Federal Test Method Standard 791C offers one way to test the channeling characteristics of a
lubricant. In this test, grease is applied to a container, and the surface is leveled off.
After the temperature has been stabilized, a steel strip, known as the channeling tool, is pulled through
the grease, leaving behind a void or channel in the grease. After 10 seconds, the grease is checked to
see if it has flowed back into the channel or covered the bottom of the vessel. If the grease has filled the
void, it is known as non-channeling. If the grease did not fill the void, it is labeled as a channeling grease.
Channeling greases are more easily pushed out of the way of the element as it rotates, thus leading to
less churning and less temperature gain. Greases that are non-channeling flow back into the path and
can result in the generation of excess heat.

Thickener Type
Aside from the base oil viscosity, another grease property that impacts its channeling characteristics is
the thickener type. The thickener in a grease is commonly referred to as the sponge that holds the oil.
The structure of the fibers in the thickener can affect certain grease properties, such as channeling,
bleed, dropping point and overall consistency. Some grease thickeners have long fibers, while others
have short fibers.
Short-fibered thickeners will have a smoother texture. More complex thickeners, as well as those with
lithium, calcium, polyurea and silica thickeners, are short-fibered. The greases formulated with these
thickeners typically have better channeling characteristics and are more easily pumped.

3
Long-fibered thickeners, such as those with sodium, aluminum and barium, tend to have worse
channeling characteristics. The longer thickener fiber can also be sheared through the churning process,
which can cause a change in consistency. In addition, since these greases often flow back into the
channel that has been cut by a bearing, they can result in an increase in heat and exacerbate the
shearing process.

NLGI Grade
The base oil viscosity and the amount of thickener concentration greatly influence the NLGI grade of the
finished lubricating grease. The NLGI number is a measure of the grease’s consistency. The higher the
NLGI number, the thicker the overall consistency. The scale ranges from 000 (fluid like) to 6 (solid block).
When it comes to high-speed greases for rolling-element bearings, the NLGI grade tends to go up while
the base oil viscosity goes down. This balance is to ensure there isn’t excess oil bleed from the thickener.
Based upon the bearing’s speed factor as well as the temperature in which the bearing operates, you can
draw solid conclusions about the appropriate NLGI grade of the grease.

Bearing Type
Rolling elements in bearings come in a variety of shapes. The shape of the element makes an impact on
the required viscosity, NLGI grade and regreasing interval. This all has to do with the amount of surface
area in contact with the grease between the element and the race.
The more surface area, the more the oil will be wrung out of the thickener. Also, the bearings that have
more contact (spherical, cylindrical, needle, tapered roller, etc.) tend to be more heavily loaded than a
standard ball bearing. This added load lends itself to an increased separation rate as well as the need for
higher viscosity base oils.

Dropping Point
Perhaps one of the most notable considerations when selecting a high-speed grease is the temperature
at which the bearing will operate. To ensure the selected grease will perform at elevated temperatures,
you should check the dropping point of the grease (ASTM D566 and D2265).

4
These test results can be found on most all grease technical data sheets. The test uses a small cup with
a hole in the bottom in which the grease is applied to the inside walls. A thermometer is then inserted but
does not touch the grease. This apparatus is then heated until a single drop of oil separates and drips out
of the bottom of the cup. The temperature at which this occurs is the dropping point of the grease.
A high dropping point is important for bearings operating at elevated temperatures. However, just
because a grease has a high dropping point doesn’t mean the base oil can withstand elevated
temperatures. The dropping point does not equate to the maximum usable temperature. There should be
a buffer between the temperature at which the bearing operates and the dropping point of the grease .

Incompatibility Issues
When changing grease types, it is important to remove as much of the old grease as possible to minimize
any incompatibility issues with the new grease. If feasible, disassemble the equipment and clean out as
much of the grease as possible.

Although the majority of applications will be properly lubricated with a general-purpose grease, for those
instances when the NDm value is excessively high, it is essential to ensure the lubricant is able to protect
the equipment. Even if you are diligent and select a grease based upon all the previously mentioned
properties, the only way to truly know if the grease will perform in the desired manner is to conduct a field
trial. Monitor the bearing temperature and look for any signs of grease or oil leaking out from the seals or
purge vents.
Finally, be sure to do your homework and calculate the NDm values of your bearings in order to select the
appropriate lubricant. With proper attention and lubricant selection, your high-speed equipment will enjoy
a longer service life.

6 Factors for Selecting a High-speed Grease

Base Oil Viscosity – Ensure the viscosity adequately provides the lubricating film but is not too thick to
cause excessive heat and drag.
Channeling Characteristics – The grease should be able to channel so excess heat isn’t generated
from grease churning.
Dropping Point – The dropping point of the grease should exceed the operating temperature by a wide
margin to avoid excessive bleed and possible bearing failure.
Thickener Type – Choose a thickener that can provide the proper dropping point, channeling and bleed
characteristics. Also, if you use multiple greases, check the thickener types for compatibility in case of
accidental mixing.
NLGI Grade – The consistency of the grease will have an impact on the bleed characteristics and
channeling properties of the finished lubricating grease.
Additive Load – Most applications require additives to help the oil lubricate. For greases, a wide variety
of chemical and solid additives can be blended to aid in film strength and reduce friction and wear.

5
How to Design an Electric Motor Regressing
Program?

Rolling element bearings used in electric motors have many failure causes such as incorrect bearing
selection, improper bearing fits, poor handling during installation, improper installation techniques,
excessive thrust loads, loss of lubricant, contamination and overgreasing.
Grease volume control has been a long-standing problem for industry, and simply following OEM
recommendations may not be enough to solve this problem.
A motor relubrication practice was developed by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) in 1992 and
is widely used by the nuclear power industry today. The program was designed to minimize overgreasing
motor bearings in-between required bearing replacements. The relubrication program, associated retrofits
and details are discussed in this article.

Background
The problem of overgreasing electric motors was first identified in the nuclear power industry in 1988.
Several motor and/or bearing failures occurred at various nuclear power plants due to excessive grease
addition.
In 1992, EPRI’s Nuclear Maintenance Application Center developed an electric motor predictive and
preventive maintenance guide. This guide, outlined a complete maintenance program for various electric
motors based on size and bearing type.
Part of this maintenance program offered guidance on regreasing motor bearings. This program has
helped utilities save money by reducing labor cost for regreasing and reducing bearing failures due to
overgreasing.

Bearing Housing Designs

There are two basic bearing housing designs used in most motors with regreasable rolling element
bearings.
More motors are manufactured with a same-side design (Figure 2) than a flow-through design (Figure 1).
Figure 2 shows the drain plug is the only external path for the grease to exit the grease cavity.

6
 Figure 1. Flow-through design -
used only with open face bearings.

Figure 2. Same-side fill and drain –

used with open, single-shielded,
and double-shielded bearings.

Four Basic Bearing Types

1. Open Face Bearing – This bearing consists of the inner and outer race, the balls and the ball
cage. It does not retain grease within shields and requires a grease cavity around it for
lubrication.
2. Single-shielded Bearing – This bearing has a metallic shield on one side only, and is usually
installed with the shield facing the motor winding. It can be regreased and typically has the same
regreasing intervals as an open face bearing.
3. Double-shielded Bearing – This type has a metallic shield on both sides of the bearing and is
designed to retain grease between the shields. There is a small air gap between the shields and
the inner race which allows a certain amount of oil transfer over a long period of time between the
grease in the grease cavity and the grease between the shields. There is some debate whether
this type of bearing can be regreased. Regreasing double-shielded bearings has been successful

7
 and this article provides guidance for those who choose to place double-shielded bearings in a
regreasing program.
4. Sealed Bearings – These bearings are designed similar to a double-shielded bearing with one
exception. The inner race slides against the seals resulting in the absence of an air gap between
the seals and the inner race. This type of bearing cannot be regreased.

Grease-related Bearing Failures

There are several types of grease-related bearing failures:
Lubricant starvation – Occurs when the grease cavity is not packed with the proper amount of grease
during bearing installation, when the bearing is not regreased at the appropriate interval with the proper
amount or when the oil is removed from the base of the grease by bearing overheating.
Grease incompatibility – Greases are made with different base compounds such as lithium or polyurea.
Not all greases are compatible with each other; therefore it is important to use the same grease or
compatible substitute throughout the life of the bearing.
Wrong grease – It is important to use the correct grease for the correct application. Some bearing
designs and applications need only general purpose (GP) grease while others need extreme pressure
grease (EP). Selecting or regreasing with the wrong grease can lead to premature bearing failure.
Overpressurization of the bearing shields – When grease is added to a grease cavity, grease volume
and cavity pressure increase. Damage can occur to the shield on a single- or double-shielded bearing
during regreasing if the grease is added too fast. When the motor is placed into service, the grease will
thermally expand.
If the grease cavity is full, thermal expansion can create damaging pressure on the bearing shields. In
either case, the shields can be dislodged from the bearing or the outside shield can be pushed against
the bearing cage by grease pressure, which can lead to a bearing failure (Figures 6 and 7).

8
 Figure 6. Overgreasing Failure

Figure 7. Shield was pressurized by

excessive grease which caused a cage failure.
Inside of motor full of grease – If the grease cavity is full and regreasing continues, the excess grease
can find its way between the inner bearing cap and the shaft and flow to the inside of the motor. This
allows the grease to cover the end windings of the insulation system and can cause both winding
insulation and bearing failures (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Overgreasing caused inside

of motor to fill with grease.

9
Overheating due to excess grease – The balls of a bearing act as tiny viscosity pumps which roll on a
small amount of oil film between the balls and the race. Too much volume will cause the elements to
churn the grease, resulting in parasitic energy losses and high operating temperatures, which in turn
increase risk of bearing failure.

Hardware to Limit Overgreasing and Overpressurization of

Bearing Cavities
One thing that happens with adding grease to motors is that there is a limited path for excess grease to
exit a bearing cavity. Two examples of hardware that can assist in limiting overgreasing and
overpressurization of a bearing cavity are shown in Figures 9 and 10. The use of these fittings can
eliminate the need to remove the drain plug for excess grease and pressure release during the
regreasing activity.
The fittings shown in Figures 9 and 10 are commercially available from Alemite and have been used
successfully in the nuclear power industry.

Figure 9. The pressure cut-off-fill-plug does not allow additional grease to be added to a grease
cavity when the pressure exceeds 20 psi. (Left)
Figure 10. The plunger drain plug opens the center plunger on 1 to 5 psi to purge excess grease
and pressure. (Right)

Grease Degradation
Grease degradation is a gradual process. Most grease degrading influences are more present only while
the motor is running; however, degradation can occur while a motor is idle. Grease degradation can be
caused by any of the following conditions:
 Grease hardening – This usually results from absorption of dirt, moisture or oxidation over a long
period of time.
 Chemical breakdown – Typically caused by excessive heat. Overgreasing can cause
overheating.
 High bearing loads – Side-loaded motors can load a bearing system more than a direct coupled
motor.
 Oil separation from grease base material – This occurs on motors that remain idle for long
periods of time, when the grease is churned excessively, and over time due to the designed
normal bleed rate.
 Rotational speed of the bearing – The higher the speed, the more grease will degrade.
 Bearing size – The larger the bearing, the more grease degradation can occur. The size of the
bearing can usually be equated to the horsepower of the motor.

10
  Environment – Bearings operating in ambient temperature above 140°F can cause more rapid
degradation of the grease.

Electric Motor Regreasing Program

Clearly, several factors must be considered to develop a sound regreasing program for all of the motors
in a plant.
1. Verify the type of bearings installed in both the inboard and outboard ends. This will determine if
the bearings are regreasable.
2. Verify the initial grease fill of the grease cavity to ensure available space for future regreasing.
3. Identify the grease type (GP, EP, synthetic, etc.) and the manufacturer if possible.
4. Make grease fittings accessible, both fill and drain fittings.
5. Establish cleanliness around the fill and drain fittings.
6. Identify an owner of the program. If there is no owner, then a successful program is unlikely.

Motor Bearing Regreasing Techniques

How Should the Grease Be Added?

Because the bearing balls act as tiny viscosity pumps, and the grease is less viscous when hot, a bearing
should be regreased while the motor is running. If this is not practical, then perform regreasing
immediately after the motor is removed from service while the grease is still hot.
Although no program eliminates overgreasing an already filled grease cavity, the steps listed below will
help minimize overgreasing-related failures.
The following steps should be performed in the sequence listed:
1. Ensure the grease gun contains the appropriate lubricant for the bearings to be regreased.
2. Clean the areas around the fill and drain fittings.
3. Remove the drain fitting and if possible, run a spiral bottle brush into the grease cavity and
remove a small amount of grease to form an exit path. If the plunger-type drain plugs are used,
this step can be eliminated.
4. Grease the bearing with the proper amount of grease. Add grease slowly to minimize excessive
pressure buildup in the grease cavity.
5. If regreasing is performed with the motor out of service, operate the motor until bearing
temperature stabilizes to allow thermal expansion of the grease. Ensure the drain plug is left out
during this run unless the plunger-type is used.
6. After excessive grease has been purged, reinstall the drain plug and clean excessive grease from
the drain area.

How Often Should Bearings be Regreased

The program presented in this article and listed in EPRI NP-7502 Report is based on the following
information about the motor design and operation:
1. Continuous operation

11
 2. Intermittent operation
3. Standby or lay-up
4. Open face, single-shielded or double-shielded bearing (inboard and outboard). Different types
can be used for the inboard and outboard bearings. Note: Sealed bearings cannot be regreased.
5. RPM of the motor
6. Horsepower of the motor
7. Load configuration – side-loaded verses direct-loaded
8. Ambient temperature - less than 140°F and greater than 140°F
Table 1 was designed for a relatively clean nuclear plant environment. A dirty or contaminated
environment may require adjustments to the recommended intervals.
For intermittent duty cycle motors, the greasing intervals should be the same time frame as continuous
duty cycle motors measured by their operation time, not calendar days.
For example, if an intermittent duty cycle motor runs 50 percent of the time and meets the same
characteristics in the table as a continuous duty cycle motor that has a 24 - to 36-month regreasing
interval, then the intermittent duty cycle motor’s regreasing interval will be 48 to 72 months.
Because there is still some debate whether or not a double-shielded bearing can be regreased, the
double-shielded bearing column was not included on the table in the EPRI report. However, for double-
shielded bearings, it is recommended to double the frequency in the table and halve the amount added
shown on the grease fill chart.
It is worth noting that this regreasing program was designed to minimize overgreasing of bearings in
between bearing replacement. When a bearing is replaced, not only should the bearing be packed (open
and single-shielded bearings), but the grease cavity is filled with grease to around 50 percent fill, leaving
additional space for regreasing.
The grease should be added to the grease cavity in such a way as to provide grease around 360 degrees
of the cavity. It should also be added in such a way as to allow the grease to come in contact with the
bearing. If the grease is packed only in the bottom of the grease cavity, no contact will occur between the
grease and the bearing.
For bearing configurations that have their open side toward the bearing cavity, no grease contact would
allow the bearing to sling out the grease packed around the balls and cause a lubricant starvation issue
and possible bearing failure.
Once the grease cavity fills, any excess grease must vent through the designated vent port, or will be
pushed into the motor.
Unfortunately, due to frequent inaccessibility to the vent port after motor installation, this often does not
happen. Overgreasing can lead to bearing shield deformation, cage failure, overheated bearing or filling
the inside of the motor with excess grease.

How Much Grease Should be Added?

This is another area in which different manufacturers give differing recommendations. However, to
provide guidance on the amount of grease to be added for different size motors, a grease weight versus
shaft diameter curve was determined to provide the most useful information (Figure 11).

12
 Figure 11. Grease Fill Curve
For ease of plant implementation, the number of ounces of grease should be converted into strokes for
each different type grease gun used, or a calibrated grease meter can be attached to the output of a
grease gun.
For motors in standby or lay-up mode and double-shielded bearings, the ounces of grease identified by
the above curve for any given motor should be divided by two and that value should be used for the
amount added.
The development of a regreasing program that will work for all motors requires ownership by someone
familiar with motor designs, operating conditions, history of bearing replacements and type of grease
used. Once the program is developed, it can be implemented by simply following procedures.
This program has proven to be effective in providing adequate lubrication during the bearing life. It has
also minimized bearing failures from overgreasing. Many of the nuclear power plants in the U.S. have
implemented this program for motor relubrication since the EPRI report was published in 1992.
Editor’s Note:
This article was published in the Lubrication Excellence 2004 Conference Proceedings. April 2004, Noria
Corporation.
References:

1. NRC Information Notice No. 88-12, “Overgreasing of Electric Motor Bearings,” NER 880492.
2. EPRI Report No. NP-7502. “Electric Motor Predictive and Preventive Maintenance Guide,” 1992.
3. EPRI, Power Plant Electrical Reference Series, EL-5036, Volume 6, Motors.
4. SKF Bearing Maintenance Institute Manual. (This manual is obtainable only by attending SKF
bearing maintenance seminar.)
5. American Bearing Manufacturer Association (ABMA) Standards Nos. 1, 1984 and 9, 1978.
6. American Bearing Manufacturer Association.
7. General Electric. Guide for Relubrication and Relubrication Intervals for Grease-lubricated Ball
and Roller Bearing Motors. (B-19).
8. FAFNIR, TEXTRON, Inc. Manual, “How to Prevent Ball Bearing Failures.”

13
9. EPRI, NMAC. Lube Notes written by Bob Bolt.

14
Precision Lubrication for Grease-lubricated Bearings

There are four primary components to precision grease lubrication for bearings: lubricant selection,
application method, the volume of lubricant to be delivered and the frequency with which it is applied.
Many different methods are available for specifying these values, and opinions vary concerning which
approach is best. For this reason, the best approach may be to use more than one method to develop a
strategy that defines default values, which are then fine-tuned based on feedback from visual inspections,
operating temperature, ultrasonic instrumentation and other factors.
Due to the variability of operating conditions and machine design, it may be impossible to be precise
without introducing the condition-based component to the formula. Condition-based lubrication should be
part of any world-class program, and this subject is gaining interest in the lubrication industry.
By acquiring knowledge of the fundamental parameters used to define grease lubrication values and
applying the latest technological tools, today’s lubrication engineer can improve the reliability of
machinery, increase the efficiency of PM activities and continue to shift the lubrication program to the
preferred and fiscally sound proactive strategy.

Figure 1. Regreasing Example

15
Grease Selection
When studying the grease lubrication strategy, a good starting point is selecting the right grease. Simply
choosing the best-quality grease is not as important as picking the correct grease for a given application.
Too often, grease selection is oversimplified and the key properties overlooked. Grease selection is more
complicated than lubricating oil selection. Due to the lack of specificity in most grease recommendations,
it is important to learn how to properly select greases for certain applications.
Proper grease specification involves all of the components of lubricating oil specification including base oil
viscosity, additive requirements and base oil type, as well as other considerations including thickener type
and concentration, consistency, dropping point and operating temperature range.
While most users acknowledge grease quality, many don’t stop to make sure the right lubricant is being
used. For a comprehensive discussion on grease selection, see the referenced article concerning this
issue.1

Application Method
There are several different methods for applying grease. Grease can be applied through centralized
application systems, single-point auto application systems, hand packing and, the more common, manual
grease gun.
A compelling argument can be made for the superiority of continuous application systems, but
unfortunately, they are impractical for most applications. Therefore, the manual grease gun is the most
common application method and is the primary focus of this article.
Manual grease application, when performed correctly, is an effective method and provides certain
advantages over automatic systems.
One requirement of manual application is for the technician to be in close proximity to the lubricated
component.
This allows for inspections to be made in conjunction with relubrication. In addition to sensory
observations such as sight, smell and sound - instrument inspections, such as ultrasonic monitoring and
temperature readings, may be used to provide component condition information and to fine-tune the
lubrication activity.
The addition of ultrasonic monitoring to an already developed greasing strategy will help take the
lubrication program to a world-class level.

Relubrication Volume
One of the more important and frequently botched components of the greasing strategy is relubrication
volume. When asked how individuals determine the amount of grease to apply to a particular component,
a common response is “however much it takes.”
This is obviously not a precise method. There are many acceptable methods for estimating the
appropriate relubrication volume. A common method is recommended by SKF, where grease
replenishment volume is defined by the following equation:

Gp = 0.005 * D * B
where
Gp = grease replenishment amount (gm)
D = bearing outside diameter (mm)
B = total bearing width (mm)

16
This method generally provides positive results, but does not always take every factor into consideration.
For example, it does not account for differences in bearing housings and application points.
Instead, it assumes the grease is added at the optimum location. Also, it is not always possible to know
the amount and condition of old grease in the housing at the time of reapplication. For these reasons, it
may be advantageous to modify the calculated values with a condition-based approach. The most
advanced condition-based technique is ultrasonic instrumentation, which optimizes the relubrication
volume.
By establishing a baseline value and determining a statistically appropriate limit, the volume of grease
added can be optimized. It is the opinion of the author that this hybrid approach is the best method for
arriving at the optimum relubrication volume rather than relying on calculated values or instrument
feedback.

Application Frequency
The component of the greasing strategy that holds the most variability is the frequency of relubrication.
Many factors must be considered to be even reasonably precise in determining the best application
frequency. Such factors as operating temperature, seal type and condition, particle contamination,
moisture, vibration and grease type all play a role in determining reapplication frequency.
Although there are several methods for calculating frequency, some of which take many of these factors
into consideration, they can still generate different values. Figure 2 charts correction factors from SKF - a
common method used to calculate frequency.
Once again, to be precise, feedback is needed from the lubricated components to verify the proper
frequency has been chosen. For frequency, as with volume, ultrasonic instrumentation might be the best
tool available to help dial in the optimum relubrication frequency.
A conservative approach is to use a frequency generation method as a starting point, and continuously
refine that value based on feedback from the ultrasonic equipment or other physical observations.

Summary
Optimizing a grease lubrication strategy can be tricky. The best approach is to combine the latest
technology with proven traditional methods and of course, the valuable intuition that comes with
experience and knowledge should never be underestimated.
Put simply, just remember to use the right lubricant in the right place, and use the right application
method in the right amount at the right time. To bring all of these elements together and do the best job
possible, one must be aware of all available techniques, theories and technologies.

17
Figure 2. Frequency Calculation
(Courtesy of SKF)

18
Figure 3

19
Lubricant Additives - A Practical Guide
Noria Corporation

Lubrication professionals often become very familiar with the base oil viscosity of their lubricants. After all,
viscosity is the most important property of a base oil.
Baselines for incoming oils are set and the health of the lubricant is monitored based on viscosity alone.
However, there is more to lubricants than just viscosity. It’s crucial to understand the role of additives and
their function(s) within the lubricant.
Lubricant additives are organic or inorganic compounds dissolved or suspended as solids in oil. They
typically range between 0.1 to 30 percent of the oil volume, depending on the machine.
Additives have three basic roles:
 Enhance existing base oil properties with antioxidants, corrosion inhibitors, anti-foam agents
and demulsifying agents.
 Suppress undesirable base oil properties with pour-point depressants and viscosity index (VI)
improvers.
 Impart new properties to base oils with extreme pressure (EP) additives, detergents, metal
deactivators and tackiness agents.

20
Polar Additives
Additive polarity is defined as the natural directional attraction of additive molecules to other polar
materials in contact with oil. In simple terms, it is anything that water dissolves or dissolves into water.
A sponge, a metal surface, dirt, water and wood pulp are all polar. Things that are not polar include wax,
Teflon, mineral base stock, a duck’s back and water repellents.
It’s important to note that additives are also sacrificial. Once they are gone, they’re gone. Think about the
environment you work in, the products you produce and the types of contaminants

that are around you

daily. If you are allowing into your system contaminants that additives are attracted to, such as dirt, silica
and water, the additives will cling to the contaminants and settle to the bottom or will be filtered out and
deplete your additive package.

Polar Mechanisms
There are a few polar mechanisms such as particle enveloping, water emulsifying and metal wetting that
are worthy of discussion.
Particle enveloping means that the additive will cling to the particle surface and envelop it. These
additives are metal deactivators, detergents and dispersants. They are used to peptize (disperse) soot
particles for the purpose of preventing agglomeration, settling and deposits, especially at low to moderate
temperatures.
You generally will see this in an engine. It offers a good reason to repair and eliminate any issues as soon
as they are detected through an appropriate oil analysis test slate.

Too Much of a Good Thing

When using oil additives, more is not always better. As more additive is blended into the oil, sometimes
there isn’t any more benefit gained, and at times the performance actually deteriorates. In other cases,
the performance of the additive doesn’t improve, but the duration of service does improve.
In addition, increasing the percentage of a certain additive may improve one property of an oil while at the
same time degrade another. When the specified concentrations of additives become unbalanced, overall
oil quality can also be affected.
Some additives compete with each other for the same space on a metal surface. If a high concentration
of an anti-wear agent is added to the oil, the corrosion inhibitor may become less effective. The result
may be an increase in corrosion-related problems.
Water emulsifying occurs when the additive polar head clings to a micro-droplet of moisture. These
types of additives are emulsifying agents. Consider this the next time you observe water in a reservoir.
While it is important to remove the water, determine where the water entered the system and repair it
using a root-cause maintenance approach, you must also keep in mind that the additive package has
been affected. In lubrication terms, this is known as additive depletion. A proper oil analysis report can
determine the health of the additives remaining in the lubricant.

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Metal wetting is when additives anchor to metal surfaces, which is what they are supposed to do. They
attach to the interior of the gear casing, gear teeth, bearings, shafts, etc.
Additives that perform this function are rust inhibitors, anti-wear (AW) and EP additives, oiliness agents
and corrosion inhibitors.
AW additives work specifically to protect metal surfaces during boundary conditions. They form a ductile,
ash-like film at moderate to high contact temperatures (150 to 230 degrees F).
Under boundary conditions, AW film shears instead of surface material.
One common anti-wear additive is zinc dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP). It reduces the risk of metal-to-
metal contact, which can lead to increased heat, result in oxidation and negatively affect the film strength.
Whether they are enhancing, suppressing or imparting new properties to the base oil, additives play an
important role in the lubrication of machinery. Remember, when the additives are gone, they’re gone, so
don’t forget to check your additive package.

of lubrication professionals monitor additive

health as part of their oil analysis program,
63% according to a recent poll at
[Link]

Types of Lubricant Additives

There are many types of chemical additives mixed into base oils to enhance the properties of the base oil,
to suppress some undesirable properties of the base oil and possibly to impart some new properties.

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Additives typically make up about 0.1 to 30 percent of the finished lubricating oil, depending upon the
target application of the lubricant.
Lubricant additives are expensive chemicals, and creating the proper mix or formulation of additives is a
very complicated science. It is the choice of additives that differentiates a turbine (R&O) oil from
a hydraulic oil, a gear oil and an engine oil.
Many lubricant additives are available, and they are selected for use based upon their ability to perform
their intended function. They are also chosen for their ability to mix easily with the selected base oils, to
be compatible with other additives in the formulation and to be cost effective.
Some additives perform their function within the body of the oil (e.g., anti-oxidants), while others do their
work on the surface of the metal (e.g., anti-wear additives and rust inhibitors).

Conventional Lubricant Additives

These include the following general types of additives:

Anti-oxidants
Oxidation is the general attack of the weakest components of the base oil by oxygen in the air. It occurs
at all temperatures all of the time but is accelerated at higher temperatures and by the presence of water,
wear metals and other contaminants.
It ultimately causes acids (which produce corrosion) and sludge (which results in surface deposits and
viscosity to increase) to form. Oxidation inhibitors, as they are also called, are used to extend the
operating life of the oil.
They are sacrificial additives that are consumed while performing their duty of delaying the onset of
oxidation, thus protecting the base oil. They are present in almost every lubricating oil and grease.

Rust and Corrosion Inhibitors

These additives reduce or eliminate internal rust and corrosion by neutralizing acids and forming a
chemical protective barrier to repel moisture from metal surfaces.
Some of these inhibitors are specific to protecting certain metals. Therefore, an oil may contain several
corrosion inhibitors. Again, they are common in almost every oil and grease. Metal deactivators are
another form of corrosion inhibitor.

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Viscosity Index Improvers
Viscosity index improvers are very large polymer additives that partially prevent the oil from thinning out
(losing viscosity) as the temperature increases. These additives are used extensively when blending
multi-grade engine oils such as SAE 5W-30 or SAE 15W-40.
They are also responsible for better oil flow at low temperatures, resulting in reduction in wear and
improved fuel economy. In addition, VI improvers are used to achieve high-VI hydraulic and gear oils for
improved start-up and lubrication at low temperatures.
To visualize how a VI-improver additive functions, think of the VI improver as an octopus or coil spring
that stays coiled up in a ball at low temperatures and has very little effect on the oil viscosity.
Then, as the temperature rises, the additive (or octopus) expands or extends its arms (making it larger)
and prevents the oil from thinning out too much at high temperatures.
VI improvers do have a couple of negative features. The additives are large (high molecular weight)
polymers, which makes them susceptible to being chopped or cut up into small pieces by machine
components (shearing forces). Gears are notoriously hard on VI-improver additives.
Permanent shearing of the VI-improver additive can cause significant viscosity losses, which can be
detected with oil analysis. A second form of viscosity loss occurs due to high shearing forces in the load
zone of frictional surfaces (e.g., in journal bearings).
It is thought that the VI-improver additive loses its shape or uniform orientation and therefore loses some
of its thickening ability.
The viscosity of the oil temporarily drops within the load zone and then rebounds to its normal viscosity
after it leaves the load zone. This characteristic actually aids in the reduction of fuel consumption.
There are several different types of VI improvers (olefin copolymers are common). High-quality VI
improvers are less susceptible to permanent shear loss than low-cost, low-quality VI improvers.

Anti-wear (AW) Agents

These additives are typically used to protect machine parts from wear and loss of metal during boundary
lubrication conditions. They are polar additives that attach to frictional metal surfaces.
They react chemically with the metal surfaces when metal-to-metal contact occurs in conditions of mixed
and boundary lubrication.
They are activated by the heat of contact to form a film that minimizes wear. They also help protect the
base oil from oxidation and the metal from damage by corrosive acids.

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These additives become “used up” by performing their function, after which adhesive wear damage will
increase. They are typically phosphorus compounds, with the most common being zinc
dialkyldithiophosphate (ZDDP).
There are different versions of ZDDP — some intended for hydraulic applications and others for the
higher temperatures encountered in engine oils. ZDDP also has some anti-oxidant and corrosion-
inhibition properties. In addition, other types of phosphorous-based chemicals are used for anti-wear
protection (e.g., TCP).

Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives

These additives are more chemically aggressive than AW additives. They react chemically with metal
(iron) surfaces to form a sacrificial surface film that prevents the welding and seizure of opposing
asperities caused by metal-to-metal contact (adhesive wear).
They are activated at high loads and by the high contact temperatures that are created. They are
typically used in gear oils and give those oils that unique, strong sulphur smell. These additives usually
contain sulphur and phosphorus compounds (and occasionally boron compounds).
They can be corrosive toward yellow metals, especially at higher temperatures, and therefore should not
be used in worm gear and similar applications where copper-based metals are used. Some chlorine-
based EP additives exist but are rarely used due to corrosion concerns.
Anti-wear additives and extreme pressure agents form a large group of chemical additives that carry out
their function of protecting metal surfaces during boundary lubrication by forming a protective film or
barrier on the wear surfaces.
As long as the hydrodynamic or elastohydrodynamic oil film is maintained between the metal surfaces,
boundary lubrication will not occur and these boundary lubrication additives will not be required to perform
their function.
When the oil film does break down and asperity contact is made under high loads or high temperatures,
these boundary lubrication additives protect the wearing surfaces.

Detergents
Detergents perform two functions. They help to keep hot metal components free of deposits (clean) and
neutralize acids that form in the oil. Detergents are primarily used in engine oils and are alkaline or basic
in nature.
They form the basis of the reserve alkalinity of engine oils, which is referred to as the base
number (BN). They are typically materials of calcium and magnesium chemistry. Barium-based
detergents were used in the past but are rarely used now.
Since these metal compounds leave an ash deposit when the oil is burned, they may cause unwanted
residue to form in high-temperature applications. Due to this ash concern, many OEMs are specifying
low-ash oils for equipment operating at high temperatures. A detergent additive is normally used in
conjunction with a dispersant additive.

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Dispersants

Dispersants are mainly found in engine oil with detergents to help keep engines clean and free of
deposits. The main function of dispersants is to keep particles of diesel engine soot finely dispersed or
suspended in the oil (less than 1 micron in size).
The objective is to keep the contaminant suspended and not allow it to agglomerate in the oil so that it will
minimize damage and can be carried out of the engine during an oil change. Dispersants are generally
organic and ashless. As such, they are not easily detectable with conventional oil analysis.
The combination of detergent/dispersant additives allows more acid compounds to be neutralized and
more contaminant particles to stay suspended. As these additives perform their functions of neutralizing
acids and suspending contaminants, they will eventually exceed their capacity, which will necessitate an
oil change.

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Anti-foaming Agents

The chemicals in this additive group possess low interfacial tension, which weakens the oil bubble wall
and allows the foam bubbles to burst more readily. They have an indirect effect on oxidation by reducing
the amount of air-oil contact.
Some of these additives are oil-insoluble silicone materials that are not dissolved but rather dispersed
finely in the lubricating oil. Very low concentrations are usually required. If too much anti-foaming
additive is added, it can have a reverse effect and promote further foaming and air entrainment.

Friction Modifiers
Friction modifiers are typically used in engine oils and automatic transmission fluids to alter the friction
between engine and transmission components. In engines, the emphasis is on lowering friction to
improve fuel economy.
In transmissions, the focus is on improving the engagement of the clutch materials. Friction modifiers can
be thought of as anti-wear additives for lower loads that are not activated by contact temperatures.

Pour Point Depressants

The pour point of an oil is approximately the lowest temperature at which an oil will remain fluid. Wax
crystals that form in paraffinic mineral oils crystallize (become solid) at low temperatures. The solid
crystals form a lattice network that inhibits the remaining liquid oil from flowing.
The additives in this group reduce the size of the wax crystals in the oil and their interaction with each
other, allowing the oil to continue to flow at low temperatures.

Demulsifiers
Demulsifier additives prevent the formation of a stable oil-water mixture or an emulsion by changing the
interfacial tension of the oil so that water will coalesce and separate more readily from the oil. This is an
important characteristic for lubricants exposed to steam or water so that free water can settle out and be
easily drained off at a reservoir.

Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are used in oil-water-based metal-working fluids and fire-resistant fluids to help create a stable
oil-water emulsion. The emulsifier additive can be thought of as a glue binding the oil and water together,
because normally they would like to separate from each other due to interfacial tension and differences in
specific gravity.

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Biocides
Biocides are often added to water-based lubricants to control the growth of bacteria.

Tackifiers
Tackifiers are stringy materials used in some oils and greases to prevent the lubricant from flinging off the
metal surface during rotational movement.
To be acceptable to blenders and end users alike, the additives must be capable of being handled in
conventional blending equipment, stable in storage, free of offensive odor and be non-toxic by normal
industrial standards.
Since many are highly viscous materials, they are generally sold to the oil formulator as concentrated
solutions in a base oil carrier.
A couple of key points about additives:
More additive is not always better. The old saying, “If a little bit of something is good, then more of the
same is better,” is not necessarily true when using oil additives.
As more additive is blended into the oil, sometimes there isn’t any more benefit gained, and at times the
performance actually deteriorates. In other cases, the performance of the additive doesn’t improve, but
the duration of service does improve.
Increasing the percentage of a certain additive may improve one property of an oil while at the same time
degrade another. When the specified concentrations of additives become unbalanced, overall oil quality
can be affected.
Some additives compete with each other for the same space on a metal surface. If a high concentration
of an anti-wear agent is added to the oil, the corrosion inhibitor may become less effective. The result
may be an increase in corrosion-related problems.

How Oil Additives Get Depleted

It is very important to understand that most of these additives get consumed and depleted by:

1. “decomposition” or breakdown,
2. “adsorption” onto metal, particle and water surfaces, and
3. “separation” due to settling or filtration.

The adsorption and separation mechanisms involve mass transfer or physical movement of the additive.
For many additives, the longer the oil remains in service, the less effective the remaining additive
package is in protecting the equipment.
When the additive package weakens, viscosity increases, sludge begins to form, corrosive acids start to
attack bearings and metal surfaces, and/or wear begins to increase. If oils of low quality are used, the
point at which these problems begin will occur much sooner.
It is for these reasons that top-quality lubricants meeting the correct industry specifications (e.g., API
engine service classifications) should always be selected. The following table can be used as a guide for
a more thorough understanding of additive types and their functions in engine oil formulations.

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 SURFACE PROTECTIVE ADDITIVES
ENGINE LUBRICANTS
ADDITIVE TYPE PURPOSE TYPICAL COMPOUNDS FUNCTIONS
Anti-Wear Agent Reduce friction and wear, Zinc dithiophosphates, Chemical reaction with the
and prevent scoring and organic phosphates and metal surface to form a film
seizure acid phosphates; organic with lower shear strength
sulphur and chlorine than the metal, thereby
compounds; sulphurized preventing metal-to-metal
fats, sulfides and disulfides contact
Corrosion & Rust Prevent corrosion and Zinc dithiophosphates, Preferential adsorption of
Inhibitor rusting of metal parts in metal phenolates, basic polar constituent on metal
contact with the lubricant metal sulfonates, fatty acids surface to provide a
and amines protective film and/or
neutralization of corrosive
acids
Detergent Keep surfaces free of Metallo-organic compounds Chemical reaction
deposits and neutralize of barium, calcium and with sludge and
corrosive acids magnesium phenolates, varnish precursors to
phosphates and sulfonates neutralize them and keep
them soluble
Dispersant Keep insoluble soot Polymeric Contaminants are bonded
dispersed in the lubricant alkylthiophosphonates and by polar attraction to
alkylsuccinimides, organic dispersant molecules,
complexes containing prevented from
nitrogen compounds agglomerating and kept in
suspension due to solubility
of dispersant
Friction Modifier Alter coefficient of friction Organic fatty acids and Preferential adsorption of
amines, lard oil, high surface-active materials
molecular weight organic
phosphorus and phosphoric
acid esters
PERFORMANCE ADDITIVES
ENGINE LUBRICANTS
Pour Point Enable lubricant to flow Alkylated naphthalene and Modify wax crystal formation
Depressant at low temperatures phenolic polymers, to reduce interlocking
polymethacrylates
Seal Swell Agent Swell elastomeric seals Organic phosphates, Chemical reaction with
aromatics, halogenated elastomer to cause slight
hydrocarbons swell
Viscosity Improver Reduce the rate of Polymers and copolymers Polymers expand with
viscosity change with of methacrylates, butadiene increasing temperature to
temperature olefins and alkylated counteract oil thinning
styrenes
LUBRICANT PROTECTIVE ADDITIVES
ENGINE LUBRICANTS

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Anti-Foaming Prevent lubricant from Silicone polymers and Reduce surface tension to
forming a persistent foam organic copolymers speed collapse of foam
Anti-Oxidant Retard oxidative Zinc dithiophosphates, Decompose peroxides and
decomposition hindered phenols, aromatic terminate free-radical
amines, sulphurized reactions
phenols
Metal Deactivator Reduce catalytic effect of Organic complexes Form inactive film on metal
metals on oxidation rate containing nitrogen or surfaces by complexing with
sulphur, amines, sulphides metallic ions
and phosphites

It is evident from the information above that there is a lot of chemistry occurring in most of the oils that are
used to lubricate equipment. They are complicated mixtures of chemicals that are in balance with one
another and need to be respected.
It is for those reasons that the mixing of different oils and adding additional lubricant additives should be
avoided.

After-market Additives and Supplemental Oil Conditioners

There are hundreds of chemical additives and supplemental lubricant conditioners available. In certain
specialized applications or industries, these additives may have a place in the improvement of
lubrication.
However, some manufacturers of supplemental lubricants will make claims about their products that are
exaggerated and/or unproven, or they fail to mention a negative side effect that the additive may cause.
Take great care in the selection and application of these products, or better still, avoid using them. If you
want a better oil, buy a better oil in the first place and leave the chemistry to the people who know what
they are doing.
Often oil and equipment warranties are voided with the use of after-market additives because the final
formulation has never been tested and approved. Buyer beware.
When considering the use of an after-market additive to solve a problem, it is wise to remember the
following rules:
Rule #1
An inferior lubricant cannot be converted into a premium product simply by the inclusion of an
additive. Purchasing a poor-quality finished oil and attempting to overcome its poor lubricating qualities
with some special additive is illogical.
Rule #2
Some laboratory tests can be tricked into providing a positive result. Some additives can trick a
given test into providing a passing result. Often multiple oxidation and wear tests are run to obtain a
better indication of the performance of an additive. Then actual field trials are performed.
RULE #3
Base oils can only dissolve (carry) a certain amount of additive. As a result, the addition of a
supplemental additive into an oil having a low level of solubility or being already saturated with additive
may simply mean that the additive will settle out of the solution and remain in the bottom of the crankcase
or sump. The additive may never carry out its claimed or intended function.

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If you choose to use an after-market additive, before adding any supplemental additive or oil conditioner
to a lubricated system, take the following precautions:
1. Determine whether an actual lubrication problem exists. For instance, an oil contamination
problem is most often related to poor maintenance or inadequate filtration and not necessarily
poor lubrication or poor-quality oil.
2. Choose the right supplemental additive or oil conditioner. This means taking the time to research
the makeup and compatibility of the various products on the market.
3. Insist that factual field-test data is made available that substantiates the claims made regarding
the product’s effectiveness.
4. Consult a reputable, independent oil analysis laboratory. Have the existing oil analyzed at least
twice before adding a supplemental additive. This will establish a reference point.
5. After the addition of the special additive or conditioner, continue to have the oil analyzed on a
regular basis. Only through this method of comparison can objective data regarding the
effectiveness of the additive be obtained.
There is a great deal of controversy surrounding the application of supplemental additives. However, it is
true that certain supplemental lubricant additives will reduce or eliminate friction in some applications
such as machine tool ways, extreme pressure gear drives and certain high-pressure hydraulic system
applications.

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