Chapter 6: Exploring the Empires of

Mesopotamia

Learning Target:​ I can describe the most important achievements

of the Mesopotamian empires.

Introduction
Ancient Sumer flourished in Mesopotamia between
3500 and 2300 B.C.E. As you read on, you will
discover what happened to the Sumerians and who
ruled Mesopotamia after them.
The city-states of ancient Sumer were like small
independent countries. They often fought over land
and water rights, never uniting into one group. Their
division left them open to attacks by stronger groups.

About 2300 B.C.E., the Akkadians (uh-KAY-dee-unz)

conquered Sumer. This group made the Sumerian
city-states a part of an empire, which is a large
territory where groups of people are ruled by a single
leader or government. Groups like the Akkadians first
conquer and then rule other lands.

In this lesson, you will learn about four empires that

rose to power in Mesopotamia between 2300 and 539
B.C.E. They were the Akkadian Empire, the
Babylonian (bah-buh-LOH-nyuhn) Empire, the
Assyrian (uh-SIR-ee-un) Empire, and the
Neo-Babylonian Empire.

You will also learn that each of these empires faced ​conflict​ with neighboring lands, which led to many
wars. Rulers focused on improving their military strategies and began training warriors in more advanced
tactics. Some people even chose to rebel against their kings, creating problems within the empire.

What was life like in each of these powerful Mesopotamian empires? Who were the ruthless rulers that
commanded them? Why did they all collapse? Let's find out more about these empires.

Section 1 - The Akkadian Empire

For over a thousand years, Sumer was a land of independent city-states. Later, around 2300 B.C.E.,
the Akkadians from northern Mesopotamia conquered the land. According to legends, King Sargon led the
Akkadians and went on to become the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire.

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 Sargon was both a strong king
and a skilled general who built his
empire​ through effective military
strategies​. After ​assembling​ a large
army, he taught his soldiers to fight in
tight formations. Soldiers carrying
shields stood at the front of the
formation, while those carrying
spears stood in the line behind. The
spear-carriers would extend their
weapons between the shields.

Sargon used his military tactics to

add territory to his empire. After defeating the king of the city-state of Uruk, Sargon had gained control of
all of Mesopotamia, including Sumer.

To maintain control of his empire, Sargon used very clever political strategies. He destroyed the walls
of many city-states, leaving them completely defenseless. Sargon believed that without the protection of
the walls, people were less likely to rebel. He also demanded the loyalty of the governors of city-states,
replacing any disloyal ones with his own men.

Sargon lived to be a very great age and decreed that his sons would rule after his death. His name
soon passed into legend because he and the Akkadians had created the world's first empire—their
greatest achievement.

Section 2 - Life Under Akkadian Rule

Sargon ruled his empire for more than 50 years, during which
he formed the city of Agade (uh-GAH-duh) in northern
Mesopotamia, the empire's ​capital​. He constructed the city
with the help of ​tributes​ collected from the people he
conquered. One of the richest and most powerful cities in the
world, Agade became a cultural center with many beautiful
temples and palaces.
The Akkadians may have ruled Sumer, but the Sumerian
culture continued to thrive. The Akkadians farmed using the
Sumerians' irrigation ​techniques​. To record information, they
used Sumer's system of cuneiform writing. They even
worshipped the same gods and goddesses, despite referring to
them by different names. Religion stayed central to the social
order, and kings continued to rule in the name of the gods.
Although men typically held power, priestesses and
noblewomen had some access to power. For example, Sargon
placed his daughter in the powerful position of high priestess of
the moon god, a tradition that later kings adopted as well.

The Akkadians had their own cultural achievements. Over

time, their language replaced that of the Sumerians. In art, they

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became especially well known for their skillful three-dimensional [Link] also carved relief
sculptures, called ​steles,​ on stones. A famous example is the Victory Stele, which was created to
celebrate a military victory by Sargon's grandson, King Naram-Sin. The stele shows Naram-Sin leading
his victorious army up a mountain [Link] of his enemies are crushed underfoot, while others die,
flee, or beg for mercy.

Sargon had hoped that his empire would last for a thousand years, but future kings found it difficult to
rule such a large territory, causing the empire to grow weak. After
about 200 years, the Akkadian Empire fell to new ​invaders​ from the
north and east.

Section 3 - Hammurabi and the Babylonian Empire

For a while after the fall of the Akkadians, Sumer was once
again a group of city-states. The next ruler to unite all of
Mesopotamia was a king named Hammurabi (hah-muh-RAH-bee).
Hammurabi ruled Babylon (BAH-buh-luhn), a small city-state in
central Mesopotamia. After conquering the rest of Mesopotamia, he
named Babylon the capital of his empire, so the region became
known as the Babylonian Empire, or Babylonia.

Hammurabi is best known for his ​code of laws​, which he wrote

during his reign from 1792 to 1750 B.C.E. He used the code of laws
to ​unify​ his empire and to preserve order, basing the laws not
merely on his own authority, but on the word of the gods. He
declared the Babylonian god, Marduk (MAHR-dook), supreme over other [Link] claimed
that the gods had
instructed him to create
laws that applied to the
entire empire. Since the
laws were based on the
gods' will, they could
never be changed. The
code of laws was written
on a stele and put on
public ​display​ in a
temple.

Hammurabi's code was

detailed, covering many
situations, such as trade,
payment for work,
marriage, and divorce.
The code spelled out
punishments for crimes,
such as stealing or
causing injury. For
example, if a poorly
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assembled house were to collapse and kill its owner, then the builder could be put to death. However,
if the owner's son rather than the owner were killed in the collapse, the builder's son could be
sentenced to death.

Laws like this one seem harsh to us now, but Hammurabi's code was a notable achievement.
Although the laws and punishments did not treat all people equally, the code did apply to everyone
living in the empire.

Section 4 - Life in the

Babylonian Empire
Babylonia thrived under
Hammurabi. He worked to unite the
people of his empire. The roads he
built and the postal service he
created helped connect Babylonians
of all social statuses.
Agriculture and trade flourished.
Hammurabi was careful to properly
maintain irrigation systems so that
land remained fertile and provided
enough food. Because the city of
Babylon was on the banks of the
Euphrates River, it became an
important center of [Link] traded grain and woven cloth for wood, gold, silver, precious gems,
and livestock (animals) with people throughout the Persian Gulf.

Trade helped the empire's ​economy​. Many types of artisans used materials brought from distant lands
like Egypt. The arts also flourished. Writers wrote historical poems, some of which survive today.

Most significantly, Babylonian society was unusually fair for its time. The laws treated the various
classes differently, but even slaves had some rights. Slaves could work elsewhere and keep their wages,
own property, and even buy their freedom if they saved enough money.

Babylonian women also had more rights than in most other ancient societies. Even though their fathers
chose their husbands, women could own property and keep money of their own.

Hammurabi was proud of his achievements, once writing:

I rooted out the enemy above and below.

I made an end of war. I promoted the welfare of the land . . .
I have governed them [the people] in peace.
I have sheltered them in my strength.

Section 5 - The Assyrian Empire

The line of royalty Hammurabi initiated did not continue to rule Babylonia for long. Over the next
several hundred years, a number of groups governed sections of what had previously been the

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 Babylonian Empire. However, a warlike
people called the Assyrians created the next
great empire in Mesopotamia.
Assyria lay to the north of Babylon. The
Assyrians had lived in Mesopotamia for a
long time, briefly establishing their own
empire before Hammurabi conquered them.
They rose to power again toward 900
B.C.E., when a series of Assyrian rulers
began training an army for war in hopes of
expanding their territory.

The Assyrians were feared for their military

might and their [Link] greatest
achievements were their new weapons and
war strategies. They perfected the use of
horses and iron weapons in battle. They
also became greatly skilled at ​siege
warfare, a strategy in which army soldiers
camp outside a city and repeatedly attack it until the city falls. The Assyrians developed new ways of
attacking [Link] instance, they developed
new types of battering rams. These long,
heavy, wheeled beams were used for
breaking down walls. The Assyrians also built
moveable towers that were rolled up to a
city's walls so that soldiers could climb over
the walls.

The Assyrians were often ruthless. They

might force entire populations to leave areas
they had recently conquered. The Assyrians
spread tales of their cruelty far and wide, and
creating fear among their enemies became
part of the Assyrian military strategy.

Section 6 - Life Under Assyrian

Rule
Powerful kings ruled the Assyrian Empire.
Religion, however, remained extremely crucial to social and political order. Even kings were obliged to
obey the gods.
The Assyrians believed that their kings were special beings, so they built beautiful, elaborate palaces
to honor their rulers. The great palace in the capital city of Nineveh (NIH-nuh-vuh) had many rooms. Some
palaces were built on tall mounds, to raise them above the surrounding buildings. Huge sculptures of
winged bulls or lions, with human faces, stood at the entrances.

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 Like other societies in Mesopotamia, the Assyrians dug canals to irrigate their land and keep it fertile
for farming. They also developed some of the first aqueducts, which are pipes or channels used to carry
water. A system of canals and aqueducts brought drinking water to
Nineveh from 30 miles away.

Assyrian artisans were known for their two-dimensional sculptures called

bas-reliefs.​ Many of their most famous bas-reliefs were on palace walls.
Amazingly realistic, they often depicted scenes of the king hunting,
fighting in battle, or enjoying family life. The Assyrians used ivory to
decorate thrones, beds, and chairs.

The Assyrian Empire lasted about 300 years. At its height, it stretched
from Egypt to the Persian Gulf, but its weakness lay in being too vast a
territory to control. The army was stretched thin, and the Assyrians could
not fight off opposing neighbors. In

612 B.C.E., a combined army of Babylonians, Scythians, and a group

called the Medes attacked Nineveh, permanently breaking the Assyrians'
reign over the land.

Section 7 - The Neo-Babylonian Empire

After the fall of Nineveh, the Babylonians once again took control of Mesopotamia, establishing a
new empire called the Neo-Babylonian
Empire. Neo means “new.”
The new empire's most famous king
was Nebuchadnezzar II
(neh-byuh-kuhd-NEH-zehr). A ruthless
military leader, he reigned from 605 to
561 B.C.E.

Nebuchadnezzar expanded his

empire whenever possible. He drove
the Egyptians out of Syria and also

conquered part of Canaan (present-day Israel), the home of the

Israelites, or Jews. When the Israelites rebelled, he took most of them
captive and brought them to Babylonia. Many of them were never able
to return to their homeland.

As a military leader, Nebuchadnezzar knew that it was essential to

keep the capital city of Babylon safe, so he had inner and outer walls
built around it. These walls were so thick that two chariots could pass
each other on top of them. Towers, for archers to stand on, were
placed on the walls. Finally, a moat was dug around the outer wall
and filled with water. During peacetime, people used bridges to cross

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the moat and enter the city. In times of war, however,
the bridges were dismantled.

Section 8 - Life in the Neo-Babylonian

Empire

Nebuchadnezzar worked hard to restore the

splendor that Babylon had enjoyed under
Hammurabi. From 605 to 562 B.C.E., he rebuilt the
city's ziggurat, a huge structure that was several
stories high. The Babylonians referred to it as the
“House of the Platform of Heaven and Earth.”
Nebuchadnezzar decorated his palace with lush gardens planted on rooftops and tall terraces so that
greenery would cascade down the walls. A watering system kept the plantings fresh and green. The
Hanging Gardens of Babylon became famous, and this human-made display is considered one of the
great wonders of the ancient world.

The Babylonians were also skilled in mathematics and astronomy. They created the first sundial, a
device that uses the sun to tell time. They made discoveries that many believe led to our modern system
of a 60-minute hour and a 7-day week.

The Neo-Babylonian Empire lasted only 75 years. Then, in

539 B.C.E., a new conqueror from the Persian Empire named Cyrus (SIE-ruhs) swept into Babylon
from the east.

The Persians came from present-day Iran. For about 200 years, they ruled the most powerful empire in
the world, until a man named Alexander the Great conquered the Persians.

Lesson Summary
In this lesson, you read about the most important achievements of the four empires that once
ruled Mesopotamia.
The Akkadian Empire​ King Sargon created the world's first empire. The Akkadians developed their own
language. Artists carved beautiful relief sculptures on stones.
The Babylonian Empire​ King Hammurabi created a code of laws that applied to everyone in the empire.
Babylonian agriculture and trade thrived under his rule.
The Assyrian Empire​ The Assyrians honored their powerful kings with beautiful palaces and huge
sculptures. They built some of the earliest aqueducts.
The Neo-Babylonian Empire​ King Nebuchadnezzar restored the splendor of King Hammurabi's time. His
Hanging Gardens of Babylon became famous.

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