Mixtures

Solid Solid
This is the type of mixture which involves two or more solids. When the solids are
metals, they are known as alloys. Examples of solid-solid mixture: Brass (Copper
mixed with Zinc)

1. Solid-Solid materials are composed of a variety of substances and can

be distinguished from each other.
2. The appearance of solid-solid materials can be hard like a rock, soft like fur,
a
big rock like an asteroid, or small rocks like grains of sand. It can also appear
like a powder or small.

Liquid-liquid
1. Liquid-liquid materials formed from two or more liquid substances.
2. When some liquid are suspended in liquid we call the mixture an emulsion.
3. Emulsion tend to be opaque.
4. Solutions are especial kinds of mixtures in which the particles are so well
mixed that they are not separated from each other.
5. Liquid-liquid materials appearance looks the same when we look with the
naked eye.
6. Not all liquid-liquid materials have the same appearance.

Solid-liquid
1. A solid-liquid material is a combination of two or more substances that results
in a reversible or irreversible change to the substances.
2. Some solid materials that dissolve is called soluble material.
3. Some solid materials that do not dissolve is called insoluble material.
4. Some substances combine so evenly that you can’t tell them apart, and other
substances stay separate, even when you combine them.

Types Of Mixture
Homogeneous
A homogeneous mixture is a solid, liquid or gaseous mixture that has the same
proportions of its components throughout any given sample. All solutions would be
considered homogeneous because the dissolved material is present in the same amount
throughout the solution.

The solute is the substance that is being dissolved ( usually the lesser amount),
while
the solvent is the substance that is being dissolving medium (usually the greater
amount).

1. A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the components that make up the

mixture are uniformly distributed throughout the mixture. The composition of
the mixture is the same throughout.
2. There are three properties of mixtures: the components of a mixture each keep
their original properties; the separation of components can be easily done; and,
the proportion of the components is variable.
3. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute in a solvent.
4. The solute is the substance that is being dissolved.
5. The solvent is the substance that is being dissolving medium
6. A homogeneous mixture is a solid, liquid or gaseous mixture that has the same
proportions of its components throughout any given sample.

Heterogeneous
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that quite simply, is not uniform throughout.
Hetero means different. Parts of the mixture can be separated from each other.
Another characteristic is that, the different substances that make up a
heterogeneous
mixture keep their own properties.

1. A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture which is not uniform in appearance.

2. Heterogeneous mixtures are classified based on the phase of matter that they
are in.

A homogeneous mixture is also known as solution, where in you cannot recognized

the materials or components from one another. While in heterogeneous mixtures, the
components retained their own characteristics..

1. Components of homogeneous mixtures are not visible while in heterogeneous the

components can be easily seen by our naked eye.
2. In homogeneous mixture, it has the same phase while in heterogeneous have two
phases and layers may separate.
3. Particle size in homogeneous mixture is often at atomic or molecular level while
in
heterogeneous mixture have large particles.
4. In homogeneous mixtures, components cannot be separated easily but in
heterogeneous mixtures, components can be separated easily.

Techniques in Separating mixtures

❖ Handpicking is a convenient method of separating substances, when the quantity

of impurities is usually not very large.
❖ Decantation is a process of separating mixtures by removing a layer of liquid,
generally one from which a precipitate has settled.
❖ Magnets can be used to separate components of mixtures which are magnetically
susceptible.
❖ Evaporation is a technique used to separate out homogenous mixtures where there
is one or more dissolved solids.
❖ Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more
pure liquids.
❖ Chromatography is the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or
suspension or as a vapor (as in gas chromatography) through a medium in which the
components move at different rates.
❖ Sieving is a simple technique for separating particles of different sizes.
❖ Filtration is a separation method used to separate out pure substances in
mixtures
comprised of particles some of which are large enough in size to be captured with a
porous material.

1. Handpicking is a convenient method of separating substances, when the quantity

of impurities is usually not very large.
2. Flotation is a process for separating the different minerals in a mass of
powdered
or based on the tendency to sink in, or float on, a given liquid.
3. Scooping refers to the use of a ladle or ladle like utensil, especially a small,
deep-
sided shovel with a short, horizontal handle, for taking up flour, sugar, etc.

1. Distillation is a separation of constituents of a liquid mixture by vaporization

and condensation.
2. In chromatography the mixture is dissolved in a substance called
the mobile phase, which carries it through a second substance called
the stationary phase.

SECOND QUARTER
ORGAN SYSTEM

Musculoskeletal system and integumentary

The musculoskeletal system (locomotor system) is a human body system that

provides our body with movement, stability, shape, and support. It is subdivided
into two broad
systems:
• Muscular system, which includes all types of muscles in the body. Skeletal
muscles, in
particular, are the ones that act on the body joints to produce movements. Besides
muscles, the
muscular system contains the tendons which attach the muscles to the bones.
• Skeletal system, whose main component is the bone. Bones articulate with each
other and form
the joints, providing our bodies with a hard-core, yet mobile, skeleton. The
integrity and function
of the bones and joints are supported by the accessory structures of the skeletal
system;
articular cartilage, ligaments, and bursae.

Parts of Muscle Tissue

1. The SMOOTH MUSCLE is used to control the flow of substances within the lumens of
hollow organs, and are not consciously controlled.
2. The SKELETAL MUSCLE is a form of striated muscle tissue which is under the
'voluntary' control of the somatic nervous system. Most skeletal muscles are
attached
to bones by bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons.
3. The CARDIAC MUSCLE is found in the heart and are used only to circulate blood.

Parts of Musculo-Skeletal System

- A JOINT is the point where two or more
bones meet.
- A CARTILAGE is a firm connective tissue but
is softer and much more flexible than bone.
- A TENDON is a tough band of fibrous
connective tissue that usually connects
muscle to bone and is capable of
withstanding tension.

What are the two division of the skeletal system?

- The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the skull,
vertebral column,
rib cage and sternum (breast bone). The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton
that
consists of the skull, vertebral column, rib cage and sternum (breast bone)
- The appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the upper limbs, the lower
limbs,
the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle. The pectoral girdle acts as the point
of attachment
of the upper limbs to the body. The upper limb consists of the arm, the forearm,
and the
wrist and hand.
The appendicular skeleton holds and supports the limbs of the human body, allowing
humans to walk and manipulate things.

Functions of the Musculo-Skeletal System

√ provides form and stability √ protects vital organ
√ supports the body √ allows motion
Functions of the Skeletal System
√ it provides the shape and form √ produces blood for the body
for the body √ stores minerals
√ support and protection √ allows bodily movement

1. The musculoskeletal system is made up of bones, muscles, joints, tendons and

ligaments which all work together to provide the body with support, protection, and
movement.
2. The major functions of the bones are body support, facilitation
of movement, protection of internal organs, storage of minerals and fat, and
hematopoiesis. Together, the muscular system and skeletal system are known as the
musculoskeletal system.

INTEGUMENTARY
Integumentary system is the set of organs that forms the external covering of the
body. It
protects many threats such as infection, desiccation, abrasion, chemical assault
and
radiation damage.

In humans, the integumentary system includes the skin – a thickened keratinized

epithelium
made of multiple layers of cells that is largely impervious to water. It also
contains specialized
cells that secrete melanin to protect the body from the carcinogenic effects of UV
rays and cells
that have an immune function. Sweat glands that excrete wastes and regulate body
temperature are also part of the integumentary system. Somatosensory receptors and
nociceptors are important components of this organ system serves as warning
sensors,
allowing the body to move away from noxious stimuli.

Layers of the Skin

1. The epidermis is the outer layer, resting atop the dermis.
2. The second major section of the integument is the dermis and is occasionally
called
the ‘true skin’ since it is supplied with blood vessels and nerve endings.
3. Subscutaneous fats. It's the one way that your body stores energy. It functions
as a
padding to protect your muscles and bones from the impact of hits or falls.

Six functions of the integumentary system

1. Protection- The skin functions as our first line of defense against toxins,
radiation and
harmful pollutants.
2. Absorption- Thousands of pores on the surface of the skin can absorb vitamins,
acids,
water and oxygen in order to provide moisture and nourishment to our skin.
3. Excretion- The skin is the body’s largest waste removal system.
4. Secretion- The skin secretes sebum, a mixture of oils that keeps the skin soft
and
supple.
5. Regulation- The skin regulates the body’s temperature by sweating; when water
from
sweat on the skin evaporates it gives off heat and cools the body.
6. Sensation- The skin contains millions of nerve endings that transport stimuli.

1. The Integumentary system is the set of organs that forms the external covering
of the
body. The three layers of the skin are, dermis, epidermis, and subscutaneous fats.
2. The function of integumentary system are; protection, absorption, excretion,
secretion,
regulation, and sensation.

DIGESTION

The process of digestion begins in

the mouth with the intake of food. The
teeth play an important role in masticating
(chewing) or physically breaking food into
smaller particles. The enzymes present in
saliva also begin to chemically break down
food. The food is then swallowed and
enters the esophagus—a long tube that
connects the mouth to the stomach. Using
peristalsis, or wave-like smooth-muscle
contractions, the muscles of the
esophagus push the food toward the
stomach.
Further breakdown of food takes
place in the small intestine where bile
produced by the liver, and enzymes
produced by the small intestine and the pancreas, continue the process of
digestion. The smaller
molecules are absorbed into the blood stream through the epithelial cells lining
the walls of the small
intestine. The waste material travels on to the large intestine where water is
absorbed and the drier
waste material is compacted into feces; it is stored until it is excreted through
the anus.

Parts of the Digestive System

Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts here
as soon as you take the first
bite of a meal. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested,
while saliva mixes with
food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and
use.

Throat
Also called the pharynx, the throat is the next destination for food you've eaten.
From here, food travels
to the esophagus or swallowing tube.

Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach. By
means of a series
of contractions, called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to the stomach.

Stomach
The stomach is a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls. In addition to holding
the food, it's also a
mixer and grinder. The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes that continue the
process of
breaking down the food. When it leaves the stomach, food is the consistency of a
liquid or paste.
Small Intestine
Made up of three segments, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, the small intestine is
a long tube loosely
coiled in the abdomen (spread out, it would be more than 20 feet long). The small
intestine continues
the process of breaking down food by using enzymes released by the pancreas and
bile from the liver.
Bile is a compound that aids in the digestion of fat and eliminates waste products
from the blood.

Important role in helping the stomach and small intestine digest food
1. Pancreas 2. Liver 3. Gallbladder

Colon (Large Intestine)

The colon (large intestine) is a 5- to 6-foot-long muscular tube that connects the
cecum (the first part of
the large intestine to the rectum (the last part of the large intestine). It is
made up of the cecum, the
ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left)
colon, and the sigmoid colon
(so-called for its "S" shape; the Greek letter for S is called the sigma), which
connects to the rectum.

Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to
the anus. It is the
rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let you know there is stool to be
evacuated, and to hold
the stool until evacuation happens.

Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It consists of the pelvic floor
muscles and the two anal
sphincters (internal and external muscles). The lining of the upper anus is
specialized to detect rectal
contents.

Digestion Process
Mechanical digestion is the breaking of food by means of cutting, tearing, grinding
and smashing of food into
very fine mixture. Mechanical digestion involves chewing of food to break it down
into smaller pieces. The
mechanical digestion is done by teeth and tongue through the contraction of the
stomach and through the
movement of the small intestine.

Chemical Digestion involves the breakdown of large molecules in food into smaller
substances by enzymes.
Digestive enzymes are fluid that speeds up the chemical reaction needed to break
down starch into simpler form
called glucose, protein into amino acids, fats into fatty acids, and glycerol. The
smaller substances can be
absorbed into the body’s cells.
The digestive system is responsible for taking whole foods and turning them into
energy and nutrients to
allow the body to function, grow, and repair itself. The six primary processes of
the digestive system include:
1. Ingestion of food
2. Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes
3. Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body
4. Digestion of food into smaller pieces
5. Absorption of nutrients
6. Excretion of wastes

The digestive system uses 3 main processes to move and mix food;
• Swallowing. Swallowing is the process of using smooth and skeletal muscles in the
mouth, tongue,
and pharynx to push food out of the mouth, through the pharynx, and into the
esophagus.

• Peristalsis. Peristalsis is a muscular wave that travels the length of the GI

tract, moving partially
digested food a short distance down the tract. It takes many waves of peristalsis
for food to travel from
the esophagus, through the stomach and intestines, and reach the end of the GI
tract.

• Segmentation. Segmentation occurs only in the small intestine as short segments

of intestine
contract like hands squeezing a toothpaste tube. Segmentation helps to increase the
absorption of
nutrients by mixing food and increasing its contact with the walls of the
intestine.

1. The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into
energy and basic
nutrients to feed the entire body.
2. To achieve the goal of providing energy and nutrients to the body, six major
functions
take place in the digestive system:
- Ingestion - Digestion - Mixing and movement
- Secretion - Absorption - Excretion

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiration is the sequence of events that results in the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between
the atmosphere and the body cells. Every 3 to 5 seconds, nerve impulses stimulate
the
breathing process, or ventilation, which moves air through a series of passages
into and out of the lungs.
After this, there is an exchange of gases between the lungs and the blood. This is
called external
respiration. The blood transports the gases to and from the tissue cells. The
exchange of gases between
the blood and tissue cells is internal respiration. Finally, the cells utilize the
oxygen for their specific
activities: this is called cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration. Together,
these activities constitute
respiration.

The respiratory system is divided into two main components:

Upper respiratory tract: Composed of the nose, the pharynx, and the larynx, the
organs of the upper
respiratory tract are located outside the chest cavity.

• Nasal cavity: Inside the nose, the sticky mucous membrane lining the nasal cavity
traps dust
particles, and tiny hairs called cilia help move them to the nose to be sneezed or
blown out.

• Sinuses: These air-filled spaces along side the nose help make the skull lighter.

• Pharynx: Both food and air pass through the pharynx before reaching their
appropriate
destinations. The pharynx also plays a role in speech.

• Larynx: The larynx is essential to human speech.

Lower respiratory tract: Composed of the trachea, the lungs, and all segments of
the bronchial tree
(including the alveoli), the organs of the lower respiratory tract are located
inside the chest cavity.

• Trachea: Located just below the larynx, the trachea is the main airway to the
lungs.

• Lungs: Together the lungs form one of the body’s largest organs. They’re
responsible for providing
oxygen to capillaries and exhaling carbon dioxide.

• Bronchi: The bronchi branch from the trachea into each lung and create the
network of intricate
passages that supply the lungs with air.

• Diaphragm: The diaphragm is the main respiratory muscle that contracts and
relaxes to allow
air into the lungs.

Mechanics of Ventilation
Ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air through the conducting passages
between the
atmosphere and the lungs. The air moves through the passages because of pressure
gradients that are
produced by contraction of the diaphragm and thoracic muscles.

Pulmonary ventilation
Pulmonary ventilation is commonly referred to as breathing. It is the process of
air flowing into the lungs
during inspiration (inhalation) and out of the lungs during expiration
(exhalation). Air flows because of
pressure differences between the atmosphere and the gases inside the lungs.
Air, like other gases, flows from a region with higher pressure to a region with
lower pressure. Muscular
breathing movements and recoil of elastic tissues create the changes in pressure
that result in
ventilation. Pulmonary ventilation involves three different pressures:
• Atmospheric pressure
• Intraalveolar (intrapulmonary) pressure
• Intrapleural pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air outside the body. Intraalveolar
pressure is the pressure
inside the alveoli of the lungs. Intrapleural pressure is the pressure within the
pleural cavity. These
three pressures are responsible for pulmonary ventilation.
Inspiration
Inspiration (inhalation) is the process of taking air into the lungs. It is the
active phase of ventilation
because it is the result of muscle contraction.

Expiration
Expiration (exhalation) is the process of letting air out of the lungs during the
breathing cycle.

1. The process of physiological respiration includes two major parts: external

respiration and internal
respiration. External respiration, also known as breathing, involves both bringing
air into the
lungs (inhalation) and releasing air to the atmosphere (exhalation). During
internal respiration,
oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the cells and blood vessels.
2. Respiration begins at the nose or mouth, where oxygenated air is brought in
before moving down
the pharynx, larynx, and the trachea. The trachea branches into two bronchi, each
leading into
a lung. Each bronchus divides into smaller bronchi, and again into even smaller
tubes
called bronchioles. At the end of the bronchioles are air sacs called alveoli, and
this is where gas
exchange occurs.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The three major parts of the Circulatory System are:

1. HEART
The heart is a hollow muscular organ that pumps
the blood to the lungs and to the rest of body parts.
The heart is enclosed in a protective sac called
pericardium that enables the heart to smoothly
contract and relax. The heart is divided by septum
into halves, the left and right side. The right side of
the heart brings deoxygenated blood (oxygen-poor
blood and the left side brings oxygenated blood
(oxygen-rich blood)
The heart is divided into 2 upper chambers called
Atria (singular: Atrium) and the two lower chambers
are called Ventricles. The atria receives blood while
the ventricles pump blood out of the heart.

There are Valves, the flaps of muscles between the chambers of the heart. They
prevent the
blood from flowing backward and ensure that the blood flows only in one direction.
The tricuspid
valve is between the right atrium and right ventricle while bicuspid valve or
mitral valve is
between the left atrium and left ventricle. The two other valves control the flow
of blood out of
the heart. The pulmonary valve is between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery
while aortic
valve is between left ventricle and aorta.

2. BLOOD VESSELS
The Blood Vessels are tubes that serve pathways or
passageways for blood to reach the different cells or body
parts. There are three kinds of blood vessels: The Arteries,
the Veins and the Capillaries.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. The wall of arteries
is thick so that it will not break easily due to the pressure of
blood coming from the heart. All arteries deliver oxygen-
rich blood to all body parts, except for the pulmonary
artery, which carries oxygen-poor blood. The smallest
arteries are called Arterioles.

Veins bring blood from different body parts back to the

heart. The walls of the veins are thinner and less elastic than
arteries. The veins carry blood that contain carbon dioxide
and other wastes except for the pulmonary veins which carry
oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart. The smallest
veins are called venules.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels that connect the arterioles and venules.
They have
very thin walls that allow the exchange of materials from blood to the body parts.
Oxygen and
food nutrients are transported from the blood to body parts while carbon dioxide
and other
wastes leave the body parts and enter the blood.

3. BLOOD
The blood delivers essential nutrients, water,
oxygen to the cells or body parts and carries
away waste products like carbon dioxide and
excess water.

The blood is composed of Liquid and Solid Part.

LIQUID PART:
PLASMA
is the
yellowish liquid
that carries
nutrients,
hormones and
proteins
throughout the
body.

SOLID PARTS
RED BLOOD CELLS
(RBC) are produced in the
red marrow of the bone. It
contain hemoglobin and
carry oxygen and
nutrients to the cells.

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

(WBC) are also called
leukocytes. They served as
antibodies that protect the
body against diseases and
infection.

PLATELETS or
thrombocytes are irregular
in shape. It helps in blood
clotting to prevent loss of
blood

How the blood circulate in our body?

The Paths of Circulation:
1. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION – The blood that leaves the heart is rich in oxygen. This
oxygenated blood passes through the aorta and travels throughout the body in
arteries
to the capillaries. This is the flow of blood from the Heart to the body parts and
back to
the heart.
2. PULMONARY CIRCULATION – The oxygen-poor blood (deoxygenated blood) flows from
the right side of the heart through the vena cava. From the heart the deoxygenated
blood go to the lungs through pulmonary artery. Exchange of gasses happens as
oxygen is received by the blood and carbon dioxide is released. The blood become
oxygenated in the lungs and return back to the heart. This is the flow of blood
from the
Heart to the lungs and back to the heart.
3. CORONARY CIRCULATION – This is the flow of blood within the tissue of the heart.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
All the things that we do like thinking, playing, reading, eating, thinking and
other things that
we do everyday is being controlled by our Nervous System. The Nervous System is the
most
complex body system that serve as the control center of the body. It directs the
work of other
body system. It controls, monitors, and coordinates all body parts and processes.
It receives
information from the environment and has the power to make decisions or specific
act on the
information. The Nervous System is made up of brain, spinal cord and nerve cells or
neurons.

1. BRAIN – is protected by skull and layers

of meninges. The major parts of the brain
are the Cerebrum, Cerebellum and Brain
Stem or Medulla Oblongata.

A. CEREBRUM – is the largest part of the

brain. It is responsible for controlling our
senses, memory, emotions, intelligence,
thinking, reasoning, speech and sensations.
The cerebrum is divided into 4 lobes that
Control specific activity.

B. CEREBELLUM – is called the little brain that located below the cerebrum. It is
responsible for balance, posture and coordination of movements. It regulates the
muscle as it contracts and relax. If the cerebellum is damaged, the person might be
paralyzed or parts of the muscles cannot be moved.

C. MEDULLA OBLONGATA or BRAIN STEM – is found at the base

of the brain. It connects the brain and the spinal cord. It controls
basic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat and digestion. It
is also responsible with reflex actions that protect the body.
Examples of reflex actions are coughing, sneezing and blinking.
2. SPINAL CORD – it is located inside the spinal column or backbone. It
is the extension of the brain. The main function of the spinal cord is
served as pathway of messages from the nerve cells to the brain and
vise versa. The spinal cord enables the body to react immediately on
something without thinking. For example, you accidentally touch hot
object, so your immediate reaction is to put your hand away from the
hot object to protect yourself from harm.

3. NERVE CELLS or NEURONS –

The main function of the nerve cells is carry and collect messages or nerve
impulses. These
impulses or messages are sent to the brain and sent back to the body parts.

Three types of Nerve Cells or Neurons

A. SENSORY NERVE CELLS –
The brain and the spinal cord receive nerve impulses from the different parts of
the body
through the sensory nerve cells that are connected to the different sense organs.

B. MOTOR NERVE CELLS –

The brain and spinal cord send instructions of needed action to the involved body
parts
through the motor nerves.

C. CONNECTOR NERVE CELLS –

It connects the Sensory Nerve Cells and Motor Nerve Cells and carry the nerve
impulses
between them.

VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES

Another way to group animals is by whether they have backbone. Animals that have
backbone
are called vertebrates. The backbone is the column of bones that supports the body
and
protects the spinal cord
The five classes of vertebrate animals are classified as warm blooded and cold
blooded
animals. Mammals and birds are warm blooded while fish, amphibians and reptiles are
cold
blooded [Link] blooded produces heat by their own and regulate their
consistent
body temperature in any environment. Basically, warm bloo ded animals are mammals
and
birds.

Birds are vertebrate animals adapted for flight.

Many can also run, jump, swim, and dive. Some, like penguins, have lost the ability
to fly but retained their wings. Birds are found worldwide and in all habitats. The
largest is the nine-foot-tall ostrich. The smallest is the two-inch-long bee
hummingbird.

Everything about the anatomy of a bird reflects its ability to fly. The wings, for
example, are shaped to create lift. The leading edge is thicker than the back edge,
and they are covered in feathers that narrow to a point. Airplane wings are modeled
after bird wings.

The bones and muscles of the wing are also highly specialized. The main bone, the
humerus, which is similar to the upper arm of a mammal, is hollow instead of solid.
It also connects to the bird’s air sac system, which, in turn, connects to its
lungs. The powerful flight muscles of the shoulder attach to the keel, a special
ridge of bone that runs down the center of the wide sternum, or breastbone. The
tail feathers are used for steering.

Birds have a unique digestive system that allows them to eat when they can—usually
on the fly—and digest later. They use their beaks to grab and swallow food. Even
the way a bird reproduces is related to flight. Instead of carrying the extra
weight of developing young inside their bodies, they lay eggs and incubate them in
a nest.

The fossil record shows that birds evolved alongside the dinosaurs during the
Jurassic period 160 million years ago. The best known fossil is archaeopteryx,
which was about the size of a crow.

Mammal, (class Mammalia), any member of the group of vertebrate animals in which
the young are nourished with milk from special mammary glands of the mother. In
addition to these characteristic milk glands, mammals are distinguished by several
other unique features.

Vertebrate Animals
Fish, Amphibians and Reptiles are cold blooded animals that do not maintain
constant body
temperature. They get their heat from the outside environment, so their body
temperature
changes or fluctuates, based on the external temperatures. If it is 40 degrees
Celsius outside,
their body temperature will eventually drop to 40 degrees.

FISH
Most common among vertebrates are fish. All fish live in water. They can move
easily
through water because of their fins, tails, and shape of their body. They get
oxygen
from the water that passes through their gills, the breathing organ of fish. Most
fish
have slippery scales and others don’t have scales.

REPTILES
Reptiles can live well in land. They have short legs that bring their bodies very
close to the
ground, and some don’t have legs at all. The skin of reptiles is tough and covered
with thick
scales made of protein called keratin. They lay eggs with shell on land breathe air
through
lungs. Crocodiles, snakes, turtles, lizards and alligators are reptiles.

AMPHIBIANS
Amphibians can live both on land and water. Amphibian means dual life. They lay
eggs in
water. Most young amphibians live in water. They get oxygen through their gills and
through
their smooth moist slippery skin. As they grow, most amphibians develop lungs that
they use
to breathe. Frogs, toads and salamanders are amphibians.

INVERTEBRATES

SPONGES
Sponges are also
called poriferans.
It is the simplest
form of animals
that look like
plants. They only
have mouths.
Examples are tube
sponges and pond
sponges.

CNIDARIANS
Cnidarians are also
called Coelenterates.
They have tube-like
bodies and most of
them have tentacles
with stinging
structures. Examples
are hydra, jellyfish,
sea anemones and
corals

WORMS

1. FLATWORMS
Flatworms have flat and
ribbon-like bodies.
They only have one
opening for food and
excreting waste. It is
also called
Platyhelminthes.

2. ROUNDWORMS
Roundworms are also
called nematodes.
They have long,
smooth and rounded
bodies. They have
mouth for food and
anus for excreting
wastes. Examples are
hookworms,
pinworms, and ascaris.

3. SEGMENTED WORMS
Segmented worms are called
Annelids. They have long and
segmented bodies. Their body
allow them to burrow
themselves in soil and swim in
water. Examples are
earthworms and leeches.

The largest group of invertebrates are the arthropods with four types or kinds
namely: Insects, Crustaceans, Arachnids and Chilipoda. Some arthropods like
crustaceans and insects undergo a life cycle called metamorphosis.
MOLLUSKS
Most mollusks have
shells. The body of
mollusks is usually
soft and unsegmented
usually enclosed in
shell. Examples are
snails, mussels
(tahong), oyster and
clams. Some mollusks,
like octopus and
squid, have shell- like
structure called a pen
inside their bodies.

ECHINODERMS
Echinoderms are
radial symmetry
marine animals
including starfish,
sea urchins and
sea cucumbers.
Echinoderms are
spiny-skinned
aquatic animals.

ARTHROPODS
Arthropods belong to a big
group of invertebrate animals
that have segmented body and
jointed appendages. There are
four types of arthropods, the
Insects, Crustaceans, Arachnids
and Chilopoda.

1. INSECTS
Insects have well-defined
head, thorax and abdomen,
only 3 pairs of legs and or 2
pairs of wings like butterfly,
bees, bugs and praying

2. CRUSTACEANS
Crustaceans have modified
appendages on each segment
and 2 pairs of antennae.
Examples are lobsters,
shrimps, crabs.

3. ARACHNIDS
Arachnids are terrestrial
invertebrates with segmented
body divided into two regions
of which the anterior bears four
pairs of legs but no antennae.
Examples are spiders,
scorpions, mites and tics.
4. CHILIPODA
Chilipoda are group of predatory
arthropods commonly known as
centipedes and millipedes. They
are segmented arthropods with a
pair legs on every segment. They
are carnivores and poisonous.

Mammals- are the animals that feed their young with milk from their mammary gland.
Birds - their bodies are covered with feathers and have the ability to fly.
Fishes - are adapted living in water because they have gills which enable them to
breathe and fins in swimming.
Amphibians- are animals that can live both on land and in water.
Reptiles- have dry and scaly skin and mostly adapted living on land.
While the distinguished characteristics of Invertebrates. Invertebrates are the
second classification of animals that do not have backbone. The same with the group
of
vertebrates, invertebrates are classified into many groups namely the sponges,
coelenterates, annelids (worms), mollusks, echinoderms and the arthropods.
Sponges- are aquatic animals which bodies are with pores.
Mollusks - are soft bodied animals which their body are bilaterally symmetrical.
Coelenterates-- are aquatic animals which bodies are with tentacles.
Echinoderms -are marine invertebrates with a radially symmetrical body which are
covered with spines.
Arachnids-are the group of arthropods with two body sections and have four pair of
legs.
Crustaceans- are animals with five pair of legs.
Centipedes and Millipedes- are the group of arthropods with many feet along their
long body trunk.
Annelids-soft-bodied animals that can be free-living or sometimes parasitic in
form.

• Biotic factors are simply the living components of the environment. They consist
of other organisms including animals, plants and other organisms.
• Abiotic factors are the non-living components of the environment. They include
factors such as sunlight, air, soil, temperature, and water.
The living part of an ecosystem consists of the different species or organism. Each
species is a part of the ecosystem’s population. The different population make up a
community. There are many places within an ecosystem where different organism can
exists. The part of the ecosystem where different organism can interact and live is
called
habitat.

Layers of Tropical Rainforest

1. Emergent: Tall giant trees that are much higher than the average
canopy height. The emergent trees are 130 to 180 feet tall. They
house many animals and insects.
2. Canopy: The canopy is home to a large biodiversity of plants and
animals. It is the leafy world which may be over 100 feet (30 m)
above the ground, is made up of the overlapping branches and
leaves of rainforest trees. It is also the tallest layer which receives
plenty of sunlight and rain.

3. Understory: The layer of the rainforest which is usually warm,

damp, and sheltered layer below the canopy that is why it has a
dark and cool environment. It rises about to about 60 feet and
consists of trunks, shrubs, small plants and trees. The understory
has a large number of insect life.
4. Forest floor: The forest floor is the lowest layer where it is dark,
hot and damp. The light from the sun is blocked by the upper layer
of forest. Most of the life here consists of fungi, insects, worms and
litter from taller trees that fall on the forest floor. Larger animals
like jaguars, tigers, okapis, and cassowaries live here.

Interactions in Coral Reefs

Predation, mutualism, commensalism also occur in the coral reef similar with the
forest ecosystem. Sea grass, which is the producer, provides nutrients for every
marine
life like sea turtles and fish.

▪ Predation- occurs between big and small fishes. Big fishes are the predators in
the ecosystem. They eat small fish as their food.
Example: Crown-of- thorns sea star and sea urchin eat corals

▪ Competition-occurs when two or more organisms compete for resources like food
and space. Example: Algal population competes for space with young corals.

▪ Mutualism- Both organism are benefitted. Example: Corals depend for survival
on photosynthetic protists called zooxanthallae that live on their tissue.

▪ Parasitism-one organism is benefitted while the other one is harmed.

Example: ticks and dog.

▪ Commensalism-one organism is benefited while the other neither is harmed nor

benefitted. Example: barrnacles and whale. Barnacles benefited on the host
(whale) is neither benefited nor harmed.

3RD QUARTER

FRICTION
Friction is resisting the motion by acting in the direction opposite to the force
applied between
surfaces that are in contact. It only means that the direction of the friction is
opposite to the
direction of a moving object.

Always remember that the movement of an object depends on the amount of friction
present in a material that is in contact. Rougher surface has greater friction
making
the object move slower while a smoother surface has lesser friction causing the
object
to move faster.

Desirable Effect
Friction allows us to grip things. You would be able to hold your pencil and a
baseball bat with friction. Without friction, human would find it very difficult to
stand
up because he would have no grip on the floor.

Friction converts some energy into heat. Friction helps us to produce heat
just like when you light a match stick and rub your hands together when you feel
cold

Undesirable Effect
Friction makes objects difficult to move continuously. Due to the resistive
force of friction, heavy objects could hardly move. Dragging large blocks would
need a
higher amount of force to overcome the friction.

Friction causes to wear and tear materials. Since friction produces heat,
material could wear and tear when used often. The wearing of vehicle tires, the
sole of
slippers and shoes are examples of this phenomena.

1. Friction is a force that opposes the motion between two surfaces that are in
contact.
2. Friction increases when the force between two objects is increased
3. Weight affects friction, if one doubles the load being moved, friction
increases.
4. The amount of friction depends on the surface of the material.
5. There are desirable and undesirable effects of friction.

Kinds of Friction
Friction is produced when two surfaces rub against each other. Which also includes
objects that
move in water and air.
Friction occurs in four different kinds. It can be sliding, static, rolling, and
fluid friction.

Static friction exists between a stationary object and the surface on which it is
resting.
Therefore, there is no actual movement just like the vase sitting on the table.

Rolling friction is the resistance of a usually circular object that is free to

rotate as it rolls across a
surface. This occurs when a wheel, ball, or cylinder rolls freely over a surface.

Sliding Friction is that kind of friction that happens when a body slides over
another body.

Fluid friction is friction that acts on objects that are moving through a fluid
like water or air.

1. Friction has 4 different kinds - static, sliding, fluid, and rolling

2. Fluid friction is friction that acts on objects that are moving through a fluid.
Fluids like liquids and gases.
3. Rolling friction is friction that acts on objects when they are rolling over a
surface.
4. Sliding friction is friction that acts on objects when they are sliding over a
surface.
5. Static friction acts on objects when they are resting on a surface.
6. There are different ways to reduce the friction.

GRAVITY

Gravity is very important in our everyday lives. Without gravity we would float off
our
planet and we couldn’t be productive in our time. Surely, it might be fun to try
for few
moments, but we certainly couldn’t live life on earth without gravity.
Gravity attracts all objects towards each other and earth's gravity is what keeps
us on the ground and what makes things fall. It is a non-contact force because it
pulls the objects towards the centre of the Earth without touching them.

Gravity
Isaac Newton realized the law of universal gravitation by seeing an apple fall to
the
ground rather than go up or across. He found out that gravity acts between objects
in the universe. However, we do not notice the attraction among objects because
these
forces are small compared to the force of Earth’s attraction.
Gravity is an invisible force that pulls between two objects that have mass.

Factors affecting Gravitational Force

Distance
Gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
the
two interacting objects. That means more separation distance will result in weaker
gravitational forces. So, as two objects are separated from each other, the force
of
gravitational attraction between them also decreases. The more distant the body
from the earth, the less the gravitational force of attraction is.
Mass

Gravitational pull doesn’t just affect by distance but also the mass of an object.
Gravity
is directly proportional to the amount of object’s mass. As the mass increases the
gravitational pull also increases. How much gravity an object depends on how much
mass it has. Always remember that the amount of object’s mass is equal to
gravitational
pull. Therefore, the object with twice as much mass will exert twice as much
gravitational pull on other object. Check the illustration below.
mass of the object = gravitational pull.
2x 2x 10x 10x
= Gravity = Gravity

Remember: Mass and weight are different. Mass is how much matter an object
contains while weight is the force exerted on a mass by gravity. Therefore, mass is
constant while weight changes on location. You have the same mass on earth and
on moon but since there is less gravitational pull on moon, you would weigh less
there.

Air Resistance
We’ve learned that through gravity anything pulls down towards the center of the
earth.
When a person jumps off a plane, he has vertical movement due to the earth’s
gravity.
However, the acceleration slows down if that person wears a parachute. The air
resistance that catches on the parachutes slows down the acceleration of the
falling
person. Air resistance is a force that act in the opposite direction to an object
moving through the air. The more air particles hit on the surface area of an object
and
the greater the resistance.

1. Gravitational Force is a force that pulls objects toward one another.

2. Gravity pulls down anything toward the center of the earth.
3. Gravitational force is affected by distance. The more distant the body from the
earth, the less the gravitational force of attraction is.
4. Gravitational pull depends on how on the mass of an object has. The greater the
mass the greater the gravitational attraction.
5. Air resistance is a frictional force that air pushes against a moving object.

1. Sound energy is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate.

2. Heat energy is energy that comes from a substance whose molecules and atoms
are vibrating faster due to a rise in temperature.
3. Light energy travels out in all directions in the form of waves through space.
Nothing travels faster than light energy.
4. Electrical energy is produced by the energy of electrons moving through
conductors.
5. Sound energy can travel through solid, liquid, gasses.
6. Heat flows from a warmer object to a cooler object.
7. In electrical energy, the amount of energy depends on the speed of charges-the
faster they move, the more electrical energy they carry.

1. Heat is always involved in all energy transformations.

2. Examples of materials that undergo heat to light energy transformations are
the electric lamp, the bulb, the fire, matchsticks, and others.
3. For light to generate heat, the wavelength of the light must be absorbed by an
object to create a wavelength of heat.
4. The object converts the short wavelength light into long wavelength heat
when visible light absorbed by the object.
5. Electrical energy can be transformed into heat into light energy.
6. Most objects that have this type of energy transformation are our modern
machines that use electricity to function.

SIMPLE MACHINES

Simple machine is a device that makes work easier by amplifying or changing

the direction of the force. That means that we use a machine to do the work with
less
effort.
Simple machines are used to transform, transfer energy, multiply speed or
force, and change the direction of the force. They also do work in one movement or
one-type of work easing device.
Wheel and Axle
The wheel and axle are made up of a wheel fixed to a rod (axle). The wheel is a
bigger wheel fixed to a rod (axle). Wheels are round, and they turn to make things
go.
It is one of our most important inventions, essential to transportation because it
is
used to carry loads easily and for long distances with very less effort.
An axle is a rod or pole centered in the wheel that allows the wheel to turn
around it. Wheels are found where things turn in a circle such as an electric fan,
bicycle, door knobs, cars, and on your skateboard. People use wheels to easily
transport goods because it reduces the friction between surfaces-between the load
and
the ground.

The screw is a twisted inclined plane. It allows

movement from a lower position to a higher position but at the
same time it moves it in a circle. Screws are very useful for
holding things together. They can pull or push an object
together. They can be used to lift very heavy objects and
tighten things too .

Some examples of the uses of a screw are in a jar lid, a drill, a bolt, a light
bulb, faucets, bottle caps, and ball point pens. There are many other examples
of screws including the grooves on a jar or soda bottle lids, the end of light
bulbs,
water faucets and hoses, bottle caps, some ink pens, gas tank caps on cars, and
many others. As with all simple machines like the screw, they are designed to
help make work easier to do.
It is because cranes are equipped with pulleys and cables.
The pulley helps make it possible for the crane to lift heavy loads without having
to put additional stress on the arm by forcing it to do all of the work.
The pulley is a modified wheel and axle that is combined with a rope,
chain, or other cord to allow moving something up and down or back and forth.
It can also make moving something such as a flag up the pole convenient
to do from the ground. It changes the direction of the force necessary to do the
work. It is used to lifts loads, apply forces, and transmit power

Kinds of Pulley
A FIXED PULLEY is generally hung, making the wheel
stationary in position. It can lift an object easier by changing the
direction of the effort. A fixed pulley is usually seen in flagpoles
or part of the wheel that pulls a bucket.

BLOCK AND TACKLE is a combination of a movable

and fixed pulley. This block and tackle combine the direction-
changing ability of the fixed pulley and the force-multiplying
ability of the movable pulley. Block and tackle are usually
used in construction areas.

An inclined plane is a flat supporting surface tilted at an angle, with one end
higher than
the other. It is used in raising and lowering a load.
An inclined plane lessens the effort exerted over a distance and changes the
direction – from
straight up to along the angle of the plane – of the effort applied. The lesser the
angle of the
inclined plane, the longer the distance and the lesser the effort needed.

The longer the ramp of the inclined plane, the less force you have
to use to move the box but more distance will be covered.

The shorter the ramp means more force is needed to move

the box although it is in a shorter distance.

Inclined planes are widely used in form of ramps to load and unload goods on ships,
trucks,
and airplanes. Wheelchair ramps allow people in wheelchairs to get through
obstacles
without exceeding their strength.
Ramps (wheelchair ramp, moving truck ramp, skateboard ramp, exit ramp on the
highway),
stairs, slides, anthills, slanted roofs, escalators are examples of inclined plane.

Wedge
A wedge is a modified inclined plane. It is made up of two inclined planes fitted
to form a
sharp edge. It is used to cut, split, or pierce objects, lift an object or hold an
object in place. A
wedge works by breaking apart an object. A wedge can also be used to keep things
together or
secure things from movement. Some examples of wedges include axe, a saw, and an ice
pick.
Wedges can also hold things together as in the case of a staple, push pins, nail,
or a doorstop.
The thinner the wedge is, the lesser effort is needed to cut objects.
A wedge is simply a triangular tool, often made of metal, wood, stone, or plastic.
Force is applied
to the thick end of the wedge that causes the object to split apart. The narrower
the wedge (or
the sharper the point of a wedge), the easier it is drive it in and push or cut
things apart.

A lever is a simple machine made up of a bar and a

fulcrum.
It is used for lifting or moving heavy things. Can openers, scissors, hammers,
brooms,
shovel, baseball bat, and spoon are examples of levers.
When you sit on one end of a seesaw, you apply a push. The push is the force that
makes one end of the seesaw go down. The push is called the effort force. When one
end of
the seesaw is down, the other end is up. The end that is up is called the load
force. The
distance from the effort force to the fulcrum is called the force arm. The distance
from the
load force to the fulcrum is called the load arm.
A lever has three(3) parts, the load, effort and the fulcrum.
Load- weight of object being lifted
Effort- force applied to lift the load
Fulcrum- the fix point of a lever

The three classes of levers vary in the placement of the effort, resistance, or
load, and the
fulcrum along the bar.
In a First Class Lever , the fulcrum is between the effort and the load or
resistance as
in a seesaw. (Resistance-Fulcrum-Effort /RFE or the Effort-Fulcrum-Resistance/ EFR)

With a Second Class Lever, the fulcrum lies at one end, the effort is applied at
the other end,
and the load is in the middle, as in a wheelbarrow. (Fulcrum-Resistance- Effort
/FRE or the
Effort-Resistance-Fulcrum/ERF)

For a Third Class Lever, the fulcrum is at one end, but the load is at the other
end, and the
effort is applied in the middle, as in human forearm. (Resistance-Effort- Fulcrum/
REF or
the Fulcrum-Effort-Resistance/FER)

4TH QUARTER

Let us take a quick view on Earth’s interior layer. According to geologists,

Earth’s interior
is divided into three layers.
The crust – is the outermost and thinnest layer of Earth ranging from 5 to 100 km
thick. It is
where people, other living things and non – living things found. It is divided
into: continental
crust and oceanic crust.
The mantle – is the thickest layer of Earth between the crust and the core. It is
where molten
rocks (magma) located

It has three layers:

- the uppermost layer (the lower part of the lithosphere)

- the asthenosphere (is a weak layer, the reason why the plates
on the lithosphere above it slide each other causing different
tectonic activity)
- the lowermost layer

Earthquake is the shaking and trembling of Earth’s crust that result from the
faulting of
rocks (tectonic earthquakes) and erupting volcanoes (volcanic earthquakes). It
happens
everywhere. This natural occurrence is studied in the field of seismology. The
groups of
scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists. They monitor
earthquakes,
determine how strong an earthquake is, and describe the location and seismic waves
of
earthquakes. However, they cannot predict when and where an earthquake occurs.
Earthquake happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another. The
surface they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The location below the
earth’s surface
where earthquake starts is called the hypocenter (focus), and the location directly
above it
on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.

Earthquake varies in strength and in depth at which it originates. The measure of

energy released by an earthquake is called magnitude. Scientists measure magnitude
of an
earthquake using the instrument seismograph.

seismograph
(this records the shaking
of the ground as wavy
lines on paper)

seismogram
(a record of wavy lines)

Note: When the recorded waves

are larger, the shaking is greater.

The height of the tallest wavy lines in the seismogram is used to calculate the
strength
of the earthquake on the Richter Scale. The scale was created by Charles Richter
and Beno
Gutenberg in 1935, both were Californian seismologists.
Take a look and study the following modified version of the Richter Scale.
Magnitude Estimated Effects
2.0 Can be detected only by seismographs
3.0 Can be felt at the epicenter
4.0 Felt by most people in the area
5.0 Causes damage at the epicenter
6.0 Causes widespread damage
7.0 Causes great, widespread damage

Earthquakes have effects. They result to landslides, fissures on the ground,

liquefaction,
uplifting of landforms and tsunamis which cause death of people and destruction of
their
properties. The measure of the effects of an earthquake in a particular place is
called intensity.
The intensity scale consists of a series of certain key responses such as people
awakening,
movement of furniture, damage to chimneys, and finally - total destruction.
Note: The intensity of an earthquake depends on the distance of a certain place
from the
epicenter since the shaking of Earth’s surface lessens as it goes farther from the
epicenter.
The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) uses PHIVOLCS
Intensity Scale. This scale is based on the Rossi – Forrel Scale, one of the first
seismic scales to
reflect earthquake intensities which was developed by Michele Stefano Conte de
Rossi of Italy
and Francois – Alphonse Forrel of Switzerland in the late 19th century.
Note: PHIVOLCS is a service institute of the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST),
dedicated to provide information on the activities of volcanoes, earthquakes, and
tsunamis.

Several devastating earthquakes occurred

around the world especially in the areas along the
Pacific Ring of Fire. The Pacific Ring of Fire is a circle
of belt along the Pacific Ocean where the plate
boundaries are and where a lot of earthquakes and
active volcanoes occur.

There are three main types of plate boundaries

[Link] boundaries (Reverse Fault)

where two plates are colliding. This is also known as subduction zones. These
occur when one or both of the tectonic plates are composed of oceanic crust.

2. Divergent boundaries (Normal Fault) where two plates are

moving apart. The space created can also fill with new crustal
material sourced from molten magma that forms below. Divergent
boundaries can form within continents but will eventually open up
and become ocean basins.

[Link] boundaries
(strike – slip fault)
where plates slide passed each other. The relative
motion of the plates is horizontal. They can occur
underwater or on land, and crust is neither destroyed nor created.

Note: Because of friction, the plates cannot simply glide past each other. Rather,
stress builds up in both
plates and when it exceeds the threshold of the rocks, the energy is released –
causing earthquakes.

[Link] boundaries (Reverse Fault)

2. Divergent boundaries (Normal Fault)
3. Transform Boundaries (Strike-slip fault)

Do you know about volcano?

A volcano is a landform, may be a hill, a mountain,
a plateau, or just a fissure on Earth’s crust through which
molten rock from beneath reaches the surface.
How are volcanoes formed?
Due to tremendous pressure and extreme temperatures,
the hot molten rock (magma) beneath the Earth is
constantly moving and accumulated to form a reservoir
called magma chamber. The magma in the reservoir
continues to move up through the surface until it
erupts through an opening called vent. At the top
a volcano is a funnel–shaped pit or depression
called crater. A crater that becomes very large
as a result of the collapse of its walls is called
caldera. When magma reaches Earth’s surface,
it becomes lava. A lava cools and hardens, and a
cone- shaped structure (volcanic mountain), a flat plain, or a
low elevated landform may be formed.

Note: Magma is a liquid

composed of numerous
fragments, crystals, and gases
that include silicon, oxygen,
aluminum, manganese, iron,
and magnesium

Note: Lava turns into igneous

and magnetic rocks

Volcanic eruptions have beneficial and harmful effects to the environment. The
beneficial
effects are the following: it can provide cement, a source of geothermal energy,
household items
like volcanic soap and silverware. Volcanic soil can increase the fertility of the
land. Volcanic
eruptions have negative impacts to social aspect such as loss of lives, loss of
belongings, loss of
livestock, endangering the lives of animals, shortage of food supply, drinking
water polluted,
communication and infrastructure destroyed. They have also negative effects to
environmental
aspect like loss of forest resulting to loss of animals’ habitat, air pollution due
to rain of ashes,
cities wiped out and buried in thick ashes, land pollution as a result of mudflow
due to ashes
and rain, harmful gases like Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides rise into the air.
Acid rain of
harmful gases kills marine lives (fishes) and destroys historical statues. Volcanic
eruptions affect
local fish production, land for agriculture, industrial activities, repairing and
rebuilding costs,
air flights travel, and local businesses resulting to economic downfall in a
certain place.

Weather is the condition of the atmosphere in a particular place in a short period

of time. That is why, you should always know the weather forecast. The weather
forecast is a statement of the expected weather conditions in a given region over a
period
of from one hour to a few days advance. The weather forecast is studied and
determined
through the different weather instruments by the meteorologists or called
weathermen.
In the Philippines, the agency in charge of observing, recording, studying, and
releasing
the weather forecast is Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical
Services
Administration (PAGASA). Weather forecast is helpful in warning people of an
approaching weather disturbance. With the warning, people will prepare and know how
to protect themselves from the effects of the weather disturbance.
Have you read a weather report on a newspaper, Facebook, or watch the report on a
YouTube or television? A weather report describes the weather condition. There are
terms used by PAGASA to describe the weather conditions. Some of the terms are
listed
below:
• Fine weather or sunny- no precipitation or no clouds expected.
• Fair weather – favorable weather for regular activities, only small amount of
precipitation in a short duration of time is expected.
• Warm – temperatures expected to exceed at 32°C.
• Cool- temperatures expected to be below 21°C.
• Windy or gusty – winds expected to blow about 18km/h or faster.
• Stormy weather – strong winds of 60km/h or more accompanied with heavy
rain.
• Rainy weather – rain over the area for the whole day.
• Rain shower – rain of short duration over a small area.
• Thunderstorms – heavy rain accompanied by thunder and lightning.

Weather Elements
Weather is affected by the weather elements. These include the following:
✓ Temperature – This refers to hotness or coldness of the air around us. It differs
from place to place. Places near the equator receive the direct rays of the sun and
experience high temperatures while places that are farther away from the equator
receive less radiant energy and have low temperatures. Temperature of the area
is measured by a thermometer.

✓ Air pressure – The amount of force exerted by air on Earth’s surface. The amount
of air pressure depends on the density of the air above a certain point on Earth’s
surface. The temperature of the place, water vapor and the elevation affect the
density of the air. Air pressure is measured by a barometer.

✓ Humidity – The amount of moisture or water vapor in the air. This is affected by
temperature. The higher the temperature the greater the humidity level. Humidity
is high when our body feels warm and sticky. It is measured by psychrometer or
hygrometer.

✓ Wind- A moving air. It is caused by the unequal heating of Earth’s surface. When
air is heated, it rises, and its density decreases and forms a low pressure. The
cooler air becomes denser and moves below the heated air thus causing a high
pressure.

✓ Cloudiness – This refers as cloudy, partly cloudy, and clear. Clouds are tiny
droplets of water suspended in the air. They are formed as warm air rises and
cools. There are types of clouds (cirrus, cumulus, stratus, and nimbus) and can
be classified according to shapes and altitude.

✓ Precipitation – It refers to the amount of water that falls to Earth in solid

form
like hail or sleet or liquid form like rain. The amount or rainfall is measured by
a
rain gauge.

The Earth is our home planet and it is the only planet that supports life. Do you
know how it
moves? It spins and turns around which moves similarly as the globe does. When you
spin
the globe completely, it reaches where it started. This movement is called
rotation; coming
from the root word “rotate” which means to spin. The earth rotates from west to
east and it
is counterclockwise as seen above the North Pole. Although we cannot feel the Earth
spinning,
it makes one complete turn around its axis once a day. According to NASA, “Earth's
graceful
24-hour rotation rate is one of the traits that makes our planet so friendly to
life, allowing
most parts of Earth to stay a nice, comfortable temperature as they are bathed in
sunlight
during the day and darkness at night.”

Just like the clock, the Earth is continuously rotating in its axis without
stopping. It takes
24 hours or one day to complete the Earth’s rotation around its axis. The Earth
tilts on its
axis at an angle of 23 1⁄2 degrees. Its tilted axis allows for having a well-
balanced temperature
on Earth. Compared with other planets, Earth’s tilt allows for seasons that are not
too
extreme but are well balanced. If it had to stay in its perfect position, one side
of the Earth
would be either too hot or too cold at a time. More details on this will be
discussed further in
the next lesson.

Earth’s Rotation
The Earth spins around its axis once a day. The period of one complete rotation to
be exact,
takes 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds. Its axis is not perpendicular to the
plane of its
orbit but it is tilted moving in counterclockwise as seen above North Pole (See
diagram
below).

The speed of Earth’ rotation is very fast about 1,000 miles or 1600
kilometers per hour. “We do not feel any of this motion because these
speeds are constant. The spinning and orbital speed of Earth stay the
same so, we do not feel any acceleration or deceleration. You can only
feel motion if your speed changes.” (Cool Cosmos)

What Causes Day and Night

1. The whole part of the earth faces the sun at the same time.
2. This side of the Earth facing the sun experienced daytime
and nighttime.
3. The part of the earth that is away from the sun is
experiencing nighttime.
4. Only half of the Earth receives sunlight and the other half is dark.
5. The sun rises in the east and sun sets in the west.

Earth’s Rotation Affects the Flow of Air and Water on Earth.

The speed of rotation of the Earth also affects the movement of

the wind and currents. If the earth was not spinning, the wind
would always blow straight from the south in the Southern
Hemisphere, and from the north to the Northern Hemisphere.
When the Earth rotates on its axis, wind cannot move in a
straight line toward north and south from the equator. Due to
rotation, winds and the ocean currents deflect to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere.

This turning of the earth has a very important effect on the wind. The
force, called the “Coriolis Effect”, causes the reaction of winds and
ocean currents to be deflected. Because the Earth is continuously
spinning, surface air and waters move in a clockwise direction in the
Northern Hemisphere and in a counterclockwise direction in the
Southern Hemisphere.

1. Earth’s rotation may result to the occurrence of day and night.

2. The daily raising and setting of the sun, stars, and the moon are the pattern of
motion visible in the sky due to earth’s rotation.
3. Earth’s rotation affects the movement of the wind and ocean current of the
Earth.

The Earth makes two movements. It spins on its axis called rotation or the daily
motion of
the Earth and at the same time also orbits or revolves around the sun. This is
called the
annual motion of the Earth called revolution. Revolution is the movement of an
object
around the bigger object. The Earth follows a definite path called orbit. Its orbit
around the

sun is in the form of a slightly flattened circle called an ellipse. It does not
leave the orbit
because of gravity. The Earth completes its travel around the sun in 12 months or
one year.
One complete revolution of the Earth is 356.24 or 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes,
and 46
seconds

The Earth tilts as it spins. Due to this cycle, the solar energy
reaching different parts of the planet is not constant but varies
during the year. We can think that the Earth has two regions, the
top part and the bottom part called hemispheres. The top of the
Earth is the Northern Hemisphere and the low part is the
Southern Hemisphere.

Earth revolves around the sun as it rotates, or

spins on its axis. The sun is not at the center of
the orbit, but it is lightly off to one side. This
explains why Earth’s distance from the sun varies
according to its position in its elliptical orbit. It is
farthest from the sun at 152 million kilometers
when it is in its orbit’s APHELION. When the Earth
is closest to the sun at 147 million kilometers, it
is in its orbit’s PERIHELION.

THE SEASONS OF THE EARTH

Seasons are caused by the Earth’s tilt on its
axis as it cruises around the sun. Earth's axis
is always pointed in the same direction, so
different parts of Earth get the Sun's direct
rays throughout the year. At a particular time
the Northern Hemisphere gets more direct
sunlight and is leaning towards the sun
causes summer in the region. Temperatures
are warmer, days are longer, nights are
shorter. While in the Southern Hemisphere it
gets indirect sunlight experienced cold
temperature, days are shorter and nights are
longer. It is winter in this region. When the
sun faces right at the center of the Earth, we
have spring and fall. It’s the reason why we
have different seasons in a year. The seasons
are opposite in the Northern Hemisphere and
Southern Hemisphere. The north pole is in
darkness for 6 months because it is tilted
away from the sun. In south pole, it has 6
months of day because it is tilted towards the
sun.

RESULTS FROM EARTH’S REVOLUTION

Occurrence of seasonal change. The seasons change through the year; the length of
days
varies; and the temperature may range from cold to hot depending upon on the
latitude where
you live. The annual changes are the result of Earth’s orbital motion about the sun
called
revolution.
Seasons are short periods of climatic changes caused by the changes in the amount
of solar
radiation an area receives. This is a period of the year that is distinguished by
special climate
conditions. Each has its own light, temperature, and weather patterns that repeat
yearly. The
four seasons are caused by the tilting of Earth’s axis and the revolution of the
Earth. Places
in the temperate zone experiences the four seasons; WINTER, SPRING, SUMMER and
FALL.
Our seasons are created by this orbital tilt and by Earth’s orbital motion around
the sun.
Each season last for three months.
Near the equator, solar radiation is constant. The tropics do not have much
seasonal
temperature change. However, they experience dry and wet seasons.

SOLAR SYSTEM
The sun is the center of the solar system. It is the
brightest and nearest star from these planets and all of them
have orbit that revolves around the sun. Let’s find out the
characteristics of each planet.
The sun is 140,000 kilometer in diameter. The sun is a
middle-aged star that makes it color yellow. It’s about 6000
degrees Celsius in surface temperature and 13 000 000
degrees Celsius inside. The very high temperature in the inside
makes nuclear reaction possible. This nuclear reaction is
called thermonuclear reaction since the sun is about 80 %
hydrogen, 18% helium, and 2% other element that form
helium nuclei. The sun is simply a large ball of hot gases.

The planet mercury is the closest planet from the

sun. It’s hot during the day and cold during night. It takes
88 earth days to complete one revolution around the sun.
Mercury has many craters but has no natural satellite.
Mercury consists of 70 % metallic and 30% silicate
materials. Based on Mariner 10 mission and Earth based
observation, mercury’s crust is 100-300 km. thick. Mercury
is named after the swiftest of the ancient Roman gods
Mercury - the god of commerce (messenger of gods).

The brightest planet in the solar system is named

after the Roman goddess of love and beauty - Venus. It is
also the hottest planet because its atmosphere composed
mainly of carbon dioxide with clouds of sulfuric acid
droplets. The surface temperature reaches 470 degrees
Celsius. It is considered the twin planet of Earth because of
their similar size, mass, and gravity. Venus takes 225
Earth days to orbit around the sun and it rotates clockwise
(east to west) comparing to Earth counterclockwise (west to
east).

The only planet with water, land, and atmosphere

which is essential to human. The atmosphere composed of
gases-oxygen, carbon, sulfur, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
others which helps the plants and animals to sustain their
lives. The moon is the only natural satellite of Earth. It
revolves around Earth as the Earth revolves around the sun.
Earth’s revolution is 365 and 1/4 days.

It was named after the Roman god of war. The future

Earth as they say, but it takes a long journey to prove that.
As of now different missions has sent to probe that life could
exist in Mars. Mars has no atmosphere. If you tried to stand
with no space suit, you will die immediately. But Mars have
water. NASA’s spacecraft detected a huge deposit of water
underneath the surface in the form of ice.
Mars has red craters due to volcanic activities of the
largest volcano, Olympus Mons. Mars has a rocky body
about half the size of Earth.

The largest planet known in the solar system. It has

one small faint dust ring and has permanent storm called
the Great Red Spots that has been around for 350 years. It
has 66 natural satellites revolves around it and one of its
satellite has volcano. The composition of Jupiter’s
atmosphere is similar to that of the sun mostly hydrogen and
helium.

The most beautiful planets because of its many

rings around it. But actually, those rings are made of
different gases that surround around the planets. This
second largest planet has 60 natural satellites. Saturn is
the second largest planet and least dense of all the planets
being only 0.7 times of that water. Like Jupiter, Saturn is
made mostly of hydrogen and helium. Saturn is named
after Roman god of Agriculture.

Uranus is the third largest planet. It has 11 rings

that surrounds around its equator. Its axis of rotation is
tilted toward 82 degrees that made it rotates clockwise
instead of counterclockwise. The atmosphere of Uranus is
composed of helium and hydrogen with traces of methane,
water, and ammonia. It has 21 natural satellites and the
largest is named Titania which made of deep valleys and
craters. Uranus is named after Greek god of the sky.
Uranus is named after Greek god of the sky.

The planet located through mathematical

prediction rather than regular observation in the sky.
Nearly 4.5 billion kilometers from the sun, Neptune orbits
the sun once in every 165 years. Neptune’s blue color is
the result of methane in the atmosphere. It has an
elliptical orbit and 21 natural satellites. It was named
after Roman god of sea.

Pluto- was categorized as dwarf planet by NASA

but it was rediscovered by China in 2015. Pluto's rotation
period is 6.387 days, the same as its satellite Charon.
Pluto rotates with its poles almost in its orbital plane.
Pluto's rotational axis is tipped 122 degrees.

1. The sun is the center of the solar system.

2. Mercury is the closest planet.
3. Venus is the brightest planet.
4. Earth is the only planet life exist.
5. Mars is the red planet.
6. Jupiter is the largest planet.
7. Saturn is the most beautiful.
8. Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are terrestrial, rocky, inner planets.
9. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are Jovian, gas giants, outer planets.

The Sun is in the center of the solar system. The planets that surround it differ
in sizes.
They have different distances from the sun. Mercury, Venus Earth, Mars are called
inner
planets because they are nearest to the sun, terrestrial because they are solid,
rock-like
and dense. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are outer planets. They are far
away
from sun, and they are gaseous planets.

Sizes of Planets

PLANET DIAMETER
Mercury 4880 km
Venus 12 103 km
Earth 12 756 km
Mars 6780 km
Jupiter 139 892 km
Saturn 116 600 km
Uranus 50 724 km
Neptune 49 248 km

Distance of Planets from the Sun

PLANET DISTANCE
Mercury 58 million km
Venus 108 million km
Earth 150 million km
Mars 228 million km
Jupiter 778 million km
Saturn 1427 million km
Uranus 2869 million km
Neptune 4498 million km

You have seen the sun and the moon. You might have also observed some of the
planets.
To get a good look at the solar system from the earth, a telescope is needed. The
planets
are the most massive bodies in the Solar System. In ancient times the motion of
these
objects relative to the sphere of fixed stars was noted by the Greeks, who gave
them the
name of 'wandering stars' (planets). Nine are known at present: Mercury, Venus,
Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The sun is a star at the center of
these
group of planets. Earth and some planets have moons that revolve around them. The
sun, the planets and their moons and other objects like asteroids, meteoroids, and
comets make up the solar system.

Four Major Characteristics of the Solar System

1. Large bodies in the solar system have orderly motions

o All planets and most satellites have elliptical, often nearly circular, orbits
in nearly the same plane and revolve in the same sense (counterclockwise
when looking down on the North Pole).
o The predictable nature of the orbits is traditionally described by Kepler's
laws.
o The Sun and most of the planets rotate in this same sense as well. (In
other words, the rotation axis is roughly perpendicular to the orbital plane.
The deviation of the spin axis from the perpendicular is called tilt or, more
formally, obliquity.)

2. Planets fall into two main categories:

o Terrestrial--small, solid, near the Sun
o Jovian--large, gaseous, farther out
3. Swarms of asteroids and comets populate the solar system.
o Asteroids are concentrated in the asteroid belt and to a much lesser extent
in Jupiter's orbit (Trojans).
o Comets populate the Kuiper belt.
o Pluto is now considered a member of the Kuiper belt rather than a planet.
4. Several notable exceptions to the general trends:
o Planets with unusual tilt (Venus, Uranus, Pluto).
o Surprisingly, large moons and moons with unusual orbits.