60 ScTS 11: Science, Technology and Society

Maybe once in your life, you thought of something out of the ordinary or
improving the appearance or characteristic of something. With the advent of
emerging technologies, all these interests can be realized with the modern
tools of science. Genetic engineering also known as genetic modification is
one such tool. In this lesson, we will understand the science of these
technologies and their historical roots.

At the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to:

1. Differentiate biotechnology, genetically modified organism (GMO) and,

nanotechnology
2. Briefly recall the history of GMOs and nanotechnologies
3. Outline the processes of these technologies

Do you think genetic modifications and developing

nanotechnologies are relevant and significant during these times?
Why? Why not?

How are these technologies defined?

To give us a start-up knowledge of these technologies. Let us get ourselves

familiar with how these technologies are defined which will also help us as
most of these terms will be used as we go along in this module.
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) refers to any living organism that
possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use
of modern biotechnology. GMO also refers to living modified organisms as
defined by the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
Biosafety is a condition in which the probability of harm, injury, any damage
resulting from the intentional and unintentional introduction and/or use of a
regulated is within acceptable and manageable levels (National Academy of
Science and Technology, 2009).
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Nanotechnology by definition is “a science, engineering, and technology

conducted at the nanoscale (1 to 100 nm), where unique phenomena enable
novel applications in a wide range of fields, from chemistry, physics, and
biology, to medicine, engineering, and electronics” (Bayda et al., 2020).

A brief history of GMOs

First let us briefly know the roots of these technologies, the individuals who
pioneered in this science, and how such methods became what it is today.
For over 2,000 years of the theoretical gestation of genetics until the advent
of cellular biology in the 19th century, it was only in the first part of the 20th
century that the mechanism of genetic coding is finally cracked in 1965 and
that the terms deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are
formally named. In the 1950s, the efforts of James Watson, Francis Crick,
Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin paved the way to the discovery of the
double-helix structure of DNA and gave DNA and RNA final recognition as the
containers of genetic information in living systems. This discovery earned
them a Nobel Prize in 1962.
Fast forward to 2003 which marked the completion of the Human Genome
Project (HGP). This gave rise to greater heights in molecular methods after 2
millennia of constant inquiries and discoveries in the field, one of which is the
genetic modification or genetic engineering (Psyche Medical Laboratory
Software, 2018). Since then, this technology has been highly explored and
utilized in various fields for improvements in microbial ecologies,
environment, health care, and agriculture, particularly in food production.
From the genetic engineering of one bacterial DNA into another up to the
genome editing of soybean for oil production, genetic modification has been
highly considered of great potential.

The Process of Genetic Engineering

Now to give you a birds-eye view of genetic engineering or genetic

modification, let us discuss the general steps involved in this process. The
following steps are referenced based on examples of technologies developed
from major biotech companies that are publicly made available (Powell,
2015). How is this being done? that it could be so useful yet also have sparked
public debates and many social concerns?
1. Identification of the trait of interest

We have previously learned in our biology classes that we are made

up of DNA and that this carries our genetic information that makes up
our genes. Now, this information is coded using the universal genetic
code that transcribes bases into RNA (transcription) and later on
translated into proteins (translation). This series of processes is what
we call the central dogma of molecular biology. This is the principle
that is shared by all of us living organisms despite the diversity and
this dictates how genes in every cell of an organism are expressed
into different traits for every function and appearance.

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Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
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and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No. 01-ScTS11-DBS-IM2020
 62 ScTS 11: Science, Technology and Society

The first step of genetic engineering or genetic modification involves

the selection or identification of the gene of interest or the trait that
you want to express in an organism. This first step is crucial as it
involves critical thinking and one must consider the potential
significance or impact of that trait to the organism and its
environment.

Figure 7. 1. Identification of the trait of interest

(Source:” botani” is licensed under CC0 1.0)

2. Isolation of the gene of interest

Through various methods in molecular biology such as comparative

analysis, an organism’s genetic make-up is decoded and screened for
the gene of interest. The genome of the species with the trait of
interest is compared to the species which does not carry the said trait.
Available database of information of an organism’s genome is helpful
in this method if there are any otherwise the scientist will perform the
so-called “knock-out” to screen and isolate the gene that leads to the
specific trait.

Figure 7. 2. Isolation of the gene of interest

(Source: “botani” and “dna” is licensed under CC0 1.0)

3. Insertion of the gene of interest into a new genome

This step mainly involves the incorporation of the isolated gene of
interest into a new organism. This is achieved through various
methods such as the use of gene-gun, Agrobacterium tumefaciens,
and plasmids. We will not dig deeper into these methods but for those
who are interested, you can do further readings on the suggested
references at the end
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Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
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and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
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Figure 7. 3. Insertion of the gene of interest into a new genome

(Source: "File: Chromosome DNA Gene [Link]" by Thomas
Shafee is licensed under CC BY 4.0

4. Growing the GMO

Do you just grow them anywhere? Of course, no! This step follows after
successful insertion of the gene of interest and the genotype is
constantly monitored by scientists or researchers upon growing to
ensure they are propagating the ones that carry a certain trait. They
are grown in climate-controlled growth chambers, greenhouses, and
other controlled sites.

Figure 7. 4. Growing GMO in a climate-controlled chamber

(Source: "delicate" is licensed under CC0 1.0)

What about Nanotechnology?

The presence of nanoparticles dates back to the colored glass by Romans

during the 4th century AD. The Lycurgus cup was recognized as the oldest
synthetic nanomaterial after being studied by scientists in 1990. Italians are
also said to have employed and contain nanoparticles in their Renaissance
pottery during the 16th century. However medieval artists and forgers did not
know yet the cause and effect of these materials of the time.
It was in 1959 that the concept of nanotechnology and the first formal
discussion took place. American physicist Richard Feynman in his speech
entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” described the futuristic
potential of machines to construct smaller machines down to the molecular
level. He described how physical phenomena change the manifestation with
the size and scale of the material. In 1974, the term “nanotechnology” was
first used and defined by a Japanese scientist Norio Taniguchi in his paper
(Bayda et al., 2020).

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Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
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and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No. 01-ScTS11-DBS-IM2020
 64 ScTS 11: Science, Technology and Society

Since then developments in molecular nanotechnology leading to

nanosystems machinery manufacturing gained its pace until the late 1990s
and early 2000s that almost all industrialized nations made nanotechnology
initiatives.

Methods in nanotechnology

The concept of Feynman on the new field of research that sparked interest in
many other scientists led to the development of two general approaches in
the synthesis of nanostructures; the bottom-up and the top-down
approaches. The concept of these two approaches is described in the
illustration.

Figure 7. 5. Two general approaches in nanostructure synthesis

(Source: Bayda et al., 2020)

The top-down approach involves the patterning of bulk materials either by

subtractive or additive methods to obtain nano-sized structures. To simply
analyze this approach, you can compare this with a lego that has been
formed already into a certain shape or object, and in different ways, you can
break it into smaller parts obtaining multiple and small different pieces of
different shapes and sizes that made up the whole structure. Methods using
these approaches include photolithography, scanning lithography, colloidal
lithography, laser machining, soft lithography, nano-contact printing,
nanosphere lithography, colloidal lithography, scanning probe lithography, ion
implantation, diffusion, and deposition (Kumar et al., 2018).

The Bottom-down approach, on the other hand, involves manufacturing or

fabricating nanostructure by building it from single atoms or molecules into
the desired nanostructure. Going back to our lego example, it is just the other
way around. From single small pieces into building the desired shape or
structure. New methods using this approach include plasma arcing, chemical
vapor deposition process, metal-organic decomposition, laser pyrolysis,
molecular beam epitaxy, sol-gel method, wet synthesis, and self-assembly
processes.
Page 64 of 131
Vision: A globally competitive university for science, technology, and environmental conservation.
Mission: Development of a highly competitive human resource, cutting-edge scientific knowledge TP-IMD-02
V0 07-15-2020
and innovative technologies for sustainable communities and environment.
No. 01-ScTS11-DBS-IM2020