BEEI 

3433 
ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Chapter 3
Electrical Energy
System

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 1

 Introduction
Electric power supply system in a Malaysia comprises of:
 generating units that produce electricity
 high voltage transmission lines that transport
electricity over long distances
 distribution lines that deliver the electricity to
consumers
 substations that connect the pieces to each other
 energy control centers to coordinate the operation
of the components.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 2

 Cascade Efficiency

Generation

Efficiency of Transmission
and Distribution system Step-up Station
from output of the power (99.5%)
plant to the end user,
typically around 87% EHV
Transmission &
Station (99.0%)

HV Transmission
& Station (97.5%)

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 3

 Introduction

Sub-transmission
(96%)

Cascade efficiency in Distribution

the Transmission & Station
Distribution system (99.5%)

0.995 x 0.99 x
0.975 x 0.96 x Primary
0.995 x 0.95 Distribution
= 87% (95.0%)

End Users

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 4

 Introduction
End User
 At the end user premises, again the plant network
elements like transformers at receiving sub-station,
switchgear, lines and cables, load-break switches,
capacitors cause losses, which affect energy efficiency.
 Losses in such systems are unavoidable but must be
properly managed to minimize losses.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 5

 Introduction

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 6

 Transformer Losses
Core/Iron loss due to
2 parts of losses
hysteresis and eddy
current

Pcore  Vo I ocosΦ o

From OC test

Copper loss(winding loss) Pcopper  I 1  R 1  I 2  R 2

2 2

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 7

 Transformer Efficiency

 Core loss is also called no-load loss is the power

consumed to sustain the magnetic field in the
transformer's steel core.
 Core loss occurs whenever the transformer is
energized
 Core loss does not vary with load.
 Hysteresis and eddy current losses.
 Hysteresis loss is that energy lost by reversing the
magnetic field in the core as the magnetizing AC
rises and falls and reverses direction.
 Eddy current loss is a result of induced currents
circulating in the core.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 8

 Transformer Efficiency

 Copper loss (also called load loss) is associated with

full-load current flow in the transformer windings.
 Copper loss is power lost in the primary and
secondary windings of a transformer due to the
ohmic resistance of the windings.
 Copper loss varies with the square of the load
current. (Ploss = I2R)

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 9

Transformer Efficiency

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 10

 Transformer Efficiency
 For a given transformer, the manufacturer can
supply values for no-load loss, PNO-LOAD, and load
loss, PLOAD.
 The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any load level
can then be calculated from:

PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD + (% Load/100)2 x PLOAD

Where transformer loading is known, the actual

transformers loss at given load can be computed as:

𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑜_𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙_𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑘𝑉𝐴

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 11

Transformer Efficiency

Transformer loss vs % of Load

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 12
 Transformer Efficiency
Example

A 500kVA transformer has a full load loss of 4kW and core

iron loss of 2kW. Find:
a) the transformer’s efficiency at full load
b) the transformer’s efficiency at half load

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 Transformer Efficiency

What is the no-

load loss of this
transformer?

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 14

 Transformer Efficiency

Find:
a. the transformer’s
efficiency at full load
b. the transformer’s
efficiency at half load

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 15

 Cable Losses

 A factor that is usually little considered in energy

efficiency is "cable loss".
 All electrical cables have electrical resistance, albeit it
small.
 This means that some amount of energy are lost
between one end of cables and the others.
 The power is lost as heat in the cables
 In small installations such as houses, shops and small
factories, cable runs between the supply and the
appliances or "electrical loads" are short, so cable
losses are usually small.
 But in large factories and - especially - farms,
electrical loads may be hundreds of metres away from
the incoming supply and electricity meter. Power
losses can be quite significant.
BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 16
 Cable Losses
Resistivity

 Electrical resistivity is a measure of how strongly a

material opposes the flow of electric current.
 A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows the
movement of electrical charge. The SI unit of electrical
resistivity is the ohm meter.
 Resistivity or Rho is intrinsic property of material,
independent of its shape or size
 Electric resistance R of a wire is directly proportional to its
length L but inversely proportional to its cross-sectional
area A.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 17

 Cable Losses

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 18

 Cable Losses

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 19

 Cable Losses
Example

Calculate the resistance, R value for below wires;

a. 300 meter of Gage 15 Copper wire
b. 500 meter of Gage 10 Aluminium wire

If 15A current were to flow in these wires, calculate the power

loss in those wires.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 20

 Lighting System
Introduction
 Lighting is an essential service in all commercial and
industrial facilities
 The power consumption by lighting varies between 10 to
20% of the total power depending on the type of facility
 There are many types of lighting products including light
bulbs, lamps, ballasts, fluorescent lamps and fluorescent
fixtures, troffers, track lights, emergency fixtures,
batteries, incandescent lighting, high intensity discharge
(HID) lamps and fixtures, rope lights, mercury lamps,
dimmers and other products for area lighting

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Introduction
 Innovation and continuous improvement has given rise to
tremendous energy saving opportunities in this area
 Major energy efficiency is at the design stage, by
incorporation of modern energy efficient lamps, luminaires
and gears, apart from good operational practices

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Lamps
Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most
commonly used lamps are described briefly as follows:
Incandescent lamps
 Incandescent lamps produce light by heating a filament to
incandescence by the flow of electric current through it.
 The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also known as
GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the
bulb, the fill gas and the cap.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Lamps
Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most
commonly used lamps are described briefly as follows:
Reflector lamps:
 Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a
high quality internal mirror, which follows exactly the parabolic
shape of the lamp.
 The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus making the lamp
maintenance free and output efficient.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Gas discharge lamps
 The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the
excitation of gas contained in either a tubular or elliptical outer
bulb
 The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:
 Fluorescent tube lamps (Pendaflour)
 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
 Mercury Vapour Lamps
 Sodium Vapour Lamps
 Metal Halide Lamps

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
LED lamps:
 An LED lamp is an electric light or light bulb for use
in light fixtures that produces light using light-
emitting diodes (LEDs).
 LED lamps have a lifespan and electrical
efficiency which are several times greater
than incandescent lamps, and are significantly more
efficient than most fluorescent lamps.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Luminaire
 Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light
emitted from one or more lamps.
 The luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing and
protecting the lamps, except the lamps themselves.
 Luminaires also include the necessary circuit auxiliaries, together
with the means for connecting them to the supply.
 The basic physical principles used in optical luminaire are
reflection, absorption, transmission and refraction.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Control Gear
The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows:

 Ballast
 A current limiting device, to counter
negative resistance characteristics of any
discharge lamps
 In case of fluorescent lamps, it aids the
initial voltage build-up, required for starting
 Magnetic or electronic type
 Ignitor
 These are used for starting high intensity
Metal Halide and Sodium vapour lamps.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Control Gear

 LED Driver
 LED driver is the power supply for an LED system,
much like a ballast is to a fluorescent or HID
lighting system
 LED drivers may be constant voltage types
(usually 10V, 12V and 24V) or constant current
types (350mA, 700mA and 1A)

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms

Illuminance (Brightness)

 The total luminous flux incident on a surface, per unit

area.
 It is a measure of the intensity of the incident light,
wavelength-weighted by the luminosity function to
correlate with human brightness perception.
 The lighting level produced by a lighting installation is
usually qualified by the illuminance produced on a
specified plane of the tasks in the interior and is
commonly called the working plane.
 The illuminance provided by an installation affects both
the performance of the tasks and the appearance of
the space.
BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency
 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Lux (lx)
 The SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance
 Illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lumen,
uniformly distributed over a surface area of one m2
 One lux is equal to one lumen per m2

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Luminance distribution
The luminance distribution in the field of view controls the
adaptation level of the eyes, which affect task visibility. A
well-balanced adaptation luminance is needed to increase:
 visual acuity (sharpness of vision)
 contrast sensitivity (discrimination of small luminance
differences)
 efficiency of the ocular functions (such as
accommodation convergence, pupillary contraction,
eye movements, etc

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Luminance distribution
Diverse luminance distribution in the field of view also
affects visual comfort and should be avoided:
 too high luminance can give rise to glare
 too high luminance contrasts will cause visual fatigue
due to continuous re-adaptation of the eyes
 too low luminance and too low luminance contrasts
result in a dull and non-stimulating working
environment
 attention should be given to adaptation in moving
from zone to zone within a building.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Basic Terms
Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)
 lm is a figure of merit for light sources
 The ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the
power consumed by the lamp
 It is a reflection of efficiency of energy conversion from
electricity to light form.
Colour Rendering Index (RI)
 RI is a quantitative measure of the ability of a light
source to reproduce the colors of various objects
faithfully in comparison with an ideal or natural light
source
 Light sources with a high CRI are desirable in color-
critical applications such as photography and
cinematography
BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency
 Lighting System
Lamp Types and Features
Luminous performance Characteristics of Commonly Used Luminaries
Lumens/Watt Color
Typical Life
Type of Lamp Rendering Typical Application
Range Avg. (Hours)
Index
Homes, restaurants, general
Incandescent 8–18 14 Excellent 1000
lighting, emergency lighting
Good w.r.t.
Fluorescent Lamps 46-60 50 Offices, shops, hospitals, homes 5000
coating
Compact fluorescent
40-70 60 Very good Offices, shops, hospitals, homes 8000-10000
lamps (CFL)
High pressure General lighting in factories,
44-47 50 Fair 5000
mercury (HPMV) garages, car park, flood lighting
Display, flood lighting, stadium,
Halogen lamps 18-24 20 Excellent exhibition ground, construction 2000-4000
area
High pressure General lighting in factories,
67-121 90 Fair 6000-12000
sodium (HPSV) SON ware house, street lighting
Low pressure sodium Roadways, tunnels, canal, street
101-175 150 Poor 6000-12000
(LPSV) SOX lighting
LED 80-150 100 Good Offices, shops, hospitals, homes 50000

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Recommended Illuminance Levels for Various
Tasks / Activities / Locations

Space Type Recommended Max. lighting

Illuminance (Lux) power (W/m2)
Office 300-400 20
Public Area 100 10
Lecture Room 300-500 18
Laboratory 300-500 18
Corridor/Stairs/ 100 10
Washroom/Store

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Recommended Illuminance Levels

The values given in previous table are the maintained

illuminance over the task area on the reference surface which
may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. The average
illuminance for each task shall not fall below the values given
regardless of the age and condition of the installation. The
values are valid for normal visual conditions and take into
account the following factors:
 requirements for visual tasks
 Safety
 psycho-physiological aspects such as visual comfort
and well-being
 Economy
 practical experience.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Recommended Illuminance Levels
The value of illuminance may be adjusted, by at least
one step on the scale of illuminance, if the visual
conditions differ from the normal assumptions.
The illuminance should be increased when:
 unusually low contrasts are present in the task
 visual work is critical
 errors are costly to rectify
 accuracy or higher productivity is of great
importance
 the visual capacity of the worker is below normal.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Recommended Illuminance Levels
The required maintained illuminance may be decreased
when:
 the details are of an unusually large size or high
contrast
 the task is undertaken for an unusually short time
In areas where continuous work is carried out, the
maintained illuminance shall not be less than 200 lux.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Illuminance of immediate surrounding
The illuminance of immediate surrounding areas shall be:
 related to the illuminance of the task area
 should provide a well-balanced illuminance distribution
in the field of view
 rapid spatial changes in luminance around the task
area may lead to visual stress and discomfort.
The maintained illuminance of the immediate surrounding
areas may be lower than the task illuminance but shall not be
less than the values given in the table below.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Lighting Design Criteria
Good lighting practice for workplace is more than just
providing good task visibility. It is essential that tasks are
performed easily and in comfort. Thus, the lighting must
satisfy the quantitative and qualitative aspects demanded
by the environment. In general, lighting is to ensure:
 visual comfort, where the workers have a feeling of
well-being
 visual performance, where the workers are able to
perform their visual tasks, speedily and accurately,
even under difficult circumstances and during long
periods
 visual safety, to see one’s way around to detect
hazards.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Lighting System
Lighting Design Criteria
Accordingly, to have a good lighting design, the following
criteria should be taken into consideration:
 Luminous environment
 Luminance distribution
 Illuminance
 Glare
 Directionality of light
 Colour aspects of light and surfaces
 Flicker
 Daylight
 Maintenance

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Motor

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Motor
 Electromechanical device that converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy.
 Mechanical energy used to :
 Rotate pump impeller, fan, blower
 Drive compressors
 Roller, belt and movers
 Lift and move materials and people
 1hp to 100,000hp electric motors are available to
meet any industrial need
 Motors in industries consumed 70% of
electrical energy.
BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency
 Motor
 For an electric motor, efficiency is the ratio of
mechanical power delivered by the motor (output) to
the electrical power supplied to the motor (input).
 Thus, a motor that is 92.4% efficient converts
92.4% of the electrical energy input into mechanical
energy.
Efficiency = (Mechanical Power Output / Electrical
Power Input) x 100%
 The remaining 7.6 percent of the electrical energy is
dissipated as heat, evidenced by a rise in motor
temperature.
 Energy efficient electric motors utilize improved motor
design and high quality materials to reduce motor
losses
BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency
Motor Losses

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Motor
Key features of High Efficiency Motor
 Energy efficient
 Higher power factor
 Run cooler and less susceptible to voltage and
load fluctuations
 Longer lifespan and fewer breakdowns
 Produce less waste heat and noise.

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Motor
Key design features of High Efficiency Motor
 Improved fan design - Reduces windage losses
and improves air flow
 Better slot design - Improves both efficiency and
power factor
 Improved core design - Lowers flux density and
increases cooling capacity, reducing magnetic
and load losses
 Optimised air gap - Reduces current
requirements and stray load losses

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Motor
 Motors are classified according to European
Committee of Manufacturers of Electrical
Machines and Power Electronics (CEMEP) in
efficiency classes:

– IE1 (Standard efficiency motors)

– IE2 (High efficiency motors)
– IE3 (Premium efficiency motors)
– IE4 (Super Premium efficiency motors)

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

 Motor
CEMEP Classification for Motor Efficiency levels (4-pole)

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency

BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 51
BEEI 3433 Energy Efficiency 52