ELECTROMAGNETISM

This is the production of a magnetic field by current flowing in a conductor.

The magnetic effect of current was discovered by Ousted in 1820. The verified magnetic effect
of current by the following simple experiment.

Figure below shows a conducting wire AB Above a magnetic needle parallel to it.

So long as there is no current in the wire, the magnetic needle remains parallel to the wire i.e.
there is no deflection in the magnetic needle.

As soon as the current flows through the wire AB, the needle is deflected.

Magnetic needle

When the current in wire AB is Reversed the needle is deflected in the opposite direction

This Deflection is a convincing proof of the existence of a magnetic

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field around a current carrying conductor.

On increasing the current in the wire AB the deflection of the needle is increased and vice versa.

This shows that magnetic field strength increases with the increase in current and vice
versa

It is clear from Worsted’s experiment that current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field
around it.

The larger the value of current in the conductor the stronger is the magnetic field
and vice versa.

Magnetic field
Is the region around a magnet where magnet effect can be experienced.
OR
Is the space around a current carrying conducting (magnet) where magnetic effects can be
experienced.

The Direction of a field at a point is taken to be the direction in which a north magnetic pole
would move more under the influence of field if it were placed at that point.
The magnetic field is represented by magnetic lines of force which form closed loops.

The magnetic field disappears as soon as the current is switched off or charges stop morning.

Magnetic flux Φ
is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing through the region.
The unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb)
The flux through an area A on figure below the normal to which lies at angle
𠜃 to a field of flux density B

Is a quantity which measures the strength of the magnetic field

It is sometimes called magnetic

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 It is a vector quantity
The SI unit of Magnetic flux density is Tesla (T) or Wb/m2

Magnetic flux density is simply called magnetic field B

B = θ/A

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Consider a positive charge +Q moving in a uniform magnetic field with a velocity
Let the Angle between and be θ as shown

It has been found experimentally the magnetic field exerts a force F on the charge.
The magnitude F of this force depends on the following factors
(i) F α θ
(ii)F α B
(iii)
Combining the factors we get

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 Where K is a constant of proportionality
The unit of B is so defined that K = 1

Equation (a) can be written in a vector form as:-

F = the force of the particle (N)

B = the magnitude of the magnetic flue density of the field T
Q = the charge on the particle
V= the magnitude of the velocity of the particle

Definition of
From
F = BQVsinâ ¡θ
If V = 1, Q = 1, θ= 90 then

F = Sin90
F=B

Magnetic field ( ) at a point in space is equal to the force experienced by a unit charge moving
with a unit velocity perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field at that point

Right Hand Grip Rule

Grip the wire using the right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of
the current the other fingers unit point in the direction of the field.

- For an electron (negatively charged) entering the magnetic field as shown below

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 The Direction of positive charge will be exactly opposite. Applying Right hand Grip Rule it is
clear that Direction of force on the electron will be vertically upward

For a positively charged particle, it will be vertically downward

Direction of magnetic field means from N –pole to S-pole.

SOME CASES OF MAGNETIC FORCE F

Consider an electric charge Q moving with a velocity V through a magnetic field B. then the
magnetic force F on the charge is given by

F = BQV

(i) When = 0o or 1800

F = BQV

F= BQVSin00 or F = BQV

F= 0

Hence a charged particle moving parallel(or Anti parallel) to the direction of magnetic field
experiences no force

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 (ii) When =900

F = BQV

F = BQV
=1

F = BQV

Hence a force experienced by charged particle is maximum when it is moving perpendicular to

the direction of magnetic field.

(iii) When V=O, the charge particle is at rest.

F = BQV

F=BQ(0)

∴F=O

If a charged particle is at rest in a magnetic field it experiences no force.

(iv) When Q = O

F = BQV
F=0

Hence electrically neutral particle (eg neutron) moving in a magnetic field experiences no force.

The magnetic force F acts perpendicular to velocity V (as well as B)

This means that a uniform magnetic field can neither speed up nor slow down a moving
charged particle; it can charge only the Direction of V and not magnitude of V

Since the magnitude of V does not charge the magnetic force does not
change the kinetic energy of the charged particle.

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UNITS AND DIMENSIONS OF

The SI unit of magnetic field B is Tesla

Now

F = BQV

If Q = 1C, V =1m/s, Q= 900 F= 1N

B = 1T

Hence the strength of magnetic field at a point is 1T if a charge of 1C when moving with
a velocity of 1m/s at right angles to the magnetic field, experiences a force of 1N
at that points.

Magnetic field of earth at surface is about 10 – 4T. On the other hand, strong electromagnets can
produce magnetic fields of the order of 2T.

Dimensions of

Worked Examples
1. A proton is moving northwards with a velocity of m/s in a magnetic field of
0.1Tdirected eastwards. Find the force on the proton. Charge on proton = 1.6 x 10 -19C.

Solution
F = BQV

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 B= 0.1T
V= m/s
F=0.1 X 1.6 X 10-19 X 5 X 106X Sin 90
Q = 1.6 X 10-19C
= 900

2. An electron experiences the greatest force as it travel at 3.9 x105 m/s in a magnetic field
when it is moving westward. The force is upward and is of magnitude N what is
the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field.

Solution

The conditions of the problem suggest that the electron is moving at right angles

To the direction of the magnetic field

F = BQV , F = 8.7 x 10 -13N

Q= 1.6 X10 -19C

V=3.9X105m/s

B = 13.14T

By right hand rule per cross product, the direction of the magnetic field is towards
northward.

3. An α - particle of mass 6.65 x 10-27 kg is travelling at right angles to a magnetic field

with a speed of 6x105m/s. The strength of the magnetic field is [Link] the force on
the - particle and its acceleration.

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 Solution
Force on α – particle F = BQV
M = 6.65 X10-27Kg
V = 6 x 105m/s
B = 0.2T
= 900
F = BQV
= (0.2 x 2x 1.6x10-19) x x Sin90Ëš

Acceleration of α – particle

F= mɑ

É‘= =

4. A copper wire has 1.0 x 1029 free electrons per cubic meter, a cross
sectional area of 2mm2 and carries a current of 5A . The wire is placed at right angle to
a uniform magnetic field of strength 0.15T. Calculate the force the acting on each electron.

Solution

I = neA

Drift velocity =

n= 1x1029m-3 e = 1.6x10-19c A= 2mm2 = 2x10-6m2

I = 5A

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Force on each electron F= BQ Sin

Q= 1.6 x 10-19c

B= 0.15T

Q=900

BIOT –SAVART LAW

The Biot – Savart law states that the magnitude of magnetic flux density dB at a
point P which is at a distance r from a very short length dl of a conductor carrying a
current I is given by.

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where is the Angle between the short length dl and the line joining it to point P

K is a constant of proportionality its value depends on the medium in which the conductor
is situated and the system of units adopted.

For free space vacuum or air

This equation is known as Biot –Savart Law and gives the magnitude of the magnetic field at a
point due to small current element

Current element

Is the product of current (I) and length of very small segment ( ) of the current
carrying conductor.

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Current element =

Current element produces magnetic field just as a stationary charge produces an electric field
the current element is a vector.

Its Direction is Tangent to the element and acts in the direction of current flow in
the conductor

Biot -Savart law holds strictly per steady currents

Direction of B

The direction of is perpendicular to the plane containing and by right

hand rule for the cross product the field is directed inward.

Special cases

(i) When = 00 or 1800

i.e Point P lies on the axis of the conductor

Hence there is no magnetic field at any point on the thin current carrying conductor minimum
value.

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 (ii) When = 900

When point P lies at a perpendicular position w .r. t current element

Hence magnetic field due to a current element is maximum in a plane passing through the
element and perpendicular to its axis.

Important point about Biot – Savant law

(i) Biot – Savant law is valid per symmetrical current distributions.

(ii) Biot – Savant law cannot be proved experimentally because it is not possible to
have a current carrying conductor of length dl

(iii) Like coulomb’s law in electrostatics, Biot- Savant law also obeys inverse
square law

(iv) The Direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing and

(v) This law is also called Laplace’s law and inverse square law’

BIOT – SAVART LAW VERSUS COULOMB’S LAW IN ELECTROSTATICS

According to coulomb’s law in electrostatics, the eclectic field due to a charge element
dQ at a distance r is given by

According to Biot – Savart law the magnetic field due to a current element at a distance r
is given by

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From the above two equations we note the following points of Similarities and Dissimilarities.

Similarities
(i) Both laws obey inverse square law
(ii) Both the fields(magnetic field and Electro static field) obey superposition principles
(iii)Both the fields are long range fields.

Dissimilarities
(i) The Electric field is produced by a scalar source i.e. Electric charge . However the
magnetic field is product by a vector source i.e. current
(ii) The Direction the Electric field is along the displacement vector i.e. The line joining the
source and field point. However the direction
of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing current element
and displacement vector
(iii) In Biot –Savant law the magnitude of magnetic field dB α Sin Where is
the Angle between current element and displacement vector However
there is no angle dependence in coulomb’s law for electrostatics

MAGNETIC FIELD AT THE CENTER OF CURRENT CARRYING CIRCULAR COIL

Consider a circular coil of radius r and carrying current I in the Direction shown in figure

Suppose the loop lies in the plane of paper it is desired to find the magnetic
field at the centre O of the coil

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 Suppose the entire circular coil is divided into a large number of current elements each
of length

According to Biot – Savant law, the magnetic field at the centre O of the coil due to
current element is given by

……………

The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane of the coil and is Directed inwards

Since each current element contributes to the magnetic field in the same direction,
the total magnetic field B at the centre O can be found by integrating equation…………(i)

L- Total length of the coil = 2 r

If the coil has N turns each carrying current in the same direction then contribution of all turn
are added up.

B=

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MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITELY LONG CONDUCTOR

The flux density dB at P due to the start length dl given by equation as

From the figure (A)

r=

= a cot

= -a

Substituting for and gives

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 The total flux density B at P is the sum of the flux densities of all the short lengths and can be
found by letting d →O and integrating over the whole length of the conductor.

The limits of the integration are and 0 because these are values of 𠜃 at the ends of
the conductor

FLUX DENSITY AT ANY POINT ON THE AXIS OF A PLANE CIRCULAR

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Circular coil with its plane perpendicular to that of the paper

The flux density dB at p due to the short length dl of the coil at X, where X
is in the plane of the paper, is given by equation as

By symmetry, when all the short lengths are taken into account the components of
magnitude sum to zero.

Each short length produces a component of magnitude Sin α parallel to the axis and all
those components are in the direction shown

The total flux density is therefore in the direction of Sin α and its magnitude B
is given by

The radius vector XP of each small length is perpendicular to it, so that =900 and there pore
Sin = 1

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Since,

=2 (the circumference of the coil)

, But =

For a coil of N Turns

When S= r

Also from the figure

AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW

States that the line integral of magnetic field around any closed path in vacuum/air is equal to
times the total current (I) enclosed by that path

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 I = current enclosed by that path.

Ampere’s law is an alternative to Biot - Savart law but it is useful

for calculating magnetic field only in situations with considerable symmetry.

This law is true for steady currents only.

In order to use law it is necessary to choose a path for which it is possible to determine
the value of the line integral

It is because there are many situations where there is no such path that the law is
of limited use.

Hence the application of ampere law

(i) Magnetic field due to constraining conductor carrying current
(ii)Magnetic field due to solenoid carrying current
(iii)Magnetic field due toroid

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO STRAIGHT CONDUCTOR CARRYING CURRENT

Consider a long straight conductor carrying current I in the direction as shown in the figure
below

It is desired to find the magnetic field at a point p at a perpendicular distance r for the conductors

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Applying Ampere’s circuital law to this closed path

SOLENOID

Is a long coil of wire consisting of closely packed loops

Or

Is a cylindrical coil having many numbers of turns

By long solenoid we mean that the length of the Solenoid is very large as compared
to its Diameter.

Figure below shows the magnetic field lines due to an air cored solenoid carrying current

Inside the solenoid the magnetic field is uniform and parallel to the solenoid axis.

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 Outside solenoid the magnetic field is very small as compared to the field inside and may
be assumed zero.

It is because the same no of field line that are concentrated inside the solenoid spread
out into very faster space outside

Magnetic flux density due to an Axis of an in finely long Solenoid

Consider the magnetic flux density at P due to a section of the solenoid of length

n = number of turns per unit length.

N= number of turns the section can be treated as a plane circular coil of N

turns in which case dB is given by

Since dx is small, the section can be treated as a plane circular coil or N turns in which case dB is
given by

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From the figure

Also

Substituting for and dx gives,

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The flux densities at P due to every section of the Solenoid are all in
the same direction and therefore the total flux density B can be found by letting dB→o
and integrate over the whole length of the solenoid.

The limits of integration are and 0 because these values of β at the end of the solenoid.

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If the Solenoid is Iron-cored of relatively permeability magnitude of magnetic field inside the
Solenoid is

From

At points near the ends of an air cored Solenoid, the magnitude of magnetic field is

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The magnetic field outside a solenoid is zero

Also in a current carrying long solenoid the magnetic field produced does not depend upon
radius of the Solenoid.

TOROID
Toroid is a solenoid that bent into the form of the closed ring.
The magnitude field B has a constant magnitude every where inside the toroid while it is zero in
the open space interior and exterior to the toroid.
If any closed path is inside the inner edge of the toroid then ther is no current enclosed.
Therefore, by Ampere's circular law B=0.

Magnetic field due

to toroid
Consider the diagram below

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Let r = mean radius of toroid
I = Current through toroid
n = number of turns permit length
B = magnitude of magnetic field inside the toroid

Page 27 of 158
Then

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC

FIELD
We know that a moving charge in a magnetic field experiences a force

Now electric current in a conductor is due to the drifting of the force electrons in a definite
direction in the conductor

When such a current carrying conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field, each free
electron experiences a force.

Since the free electrons are constrained in the conductor, the conductor itself experiences a
force.

Hence a current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field experiences a force F.

Consider a conductor of the length L and area of cross- section a placed at an angle 𠜃 to the
direction of uniform of magnetic field B.

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 - is the angle between the plane of the conductor. The magnetic force experienced by the
moving charge in a conductor is F = BQV Sin

For steady current I=

Q =I t

F=

The velocity for direct current is constant

V=

F=BIt

F= Force on the conductor (N)

B= Magnitude of the magnetic flux density of the field (T)

I = Current in the Conductor (A)

L= length of the conductor (M)

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 The current in the conductor I

Special cases

Thus if current carrying conductor is placed parallel to the direction of the magnetic field of the
conductor will experience no force.

ii.)

F = BIL

Hence current carrying conductor will experience maximum force when it placed at right angles
to the direction of the field.

One Tesla

Is the magnetic flux density of a field in which a force of IN acts on a 1M length of

a conductor which is carrying a current of IA and is perpendicular to the field.

B = Tesla

The Direction of the force

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 Experiment shows that the force is always perpendicular to the plane which contains both
the current and the external field at the site of the conductor

The direction of the force can be found by using Fleming’s left hand rule

Fleming’s left hand rule

States that if the first and the second fingers and the thumb of the left hand are placed
comfortably at right angles to each other, with the first finger pointing in the direction of the
current then thumb points in the direction of the force i.e. Direction in which Motion takes place
If the conductor is free to move.

Maxwell’s Corkscrew rule

States that if a right handed corkscrew is turned so that its point travels along the direction, the
direction of rotation of corkscrew gives the direction of the magnetic field.

FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL CONDUCTORS CARRYING CURRENTS

When two parallel current carrying conductors are close together, they exert force on each
other.

It is because one current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field of the other

If currents are in the same direction the conductor attract each other and If currents are in the
opposite directions conductors repel each other

Thus like currents attract, unlike currents repel.

Consider two infinitely long straight parallel conductors X and Y carrying currents I1 and I2
respectively in the same direction.

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Suppose the conductors are separated by a distance rin the plane of the paper.

As each conductor is in the magnetic field produced by the other, therefore each conductor
experiences a force

The current carrying conductor Y is placed in the magnetic field produced by conductor X

Therefore force act on the conductor Y. The magnitude of the magnetic field at any point P on
the conductor Y due to current I, in the conductor X is

By right hand grip rule ; the direction of B is perpendicular to the place of

the paper and is directed inwards.

Now conductor Y carrying current is placed in the magnetic field produced by conductor
X

Therefore force per unit length of conductor Y will experience a force given by

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 According to FLHR, force on conductor Y acts in the place of the paper perpendicular to Y
and is directed towards to the conductor X.

Similarly, the Force on conductor X per unit length is = ByI1L

But

Hence when two long parallel conductors carry currents in the same direction they attract each
other. The force of attraction per unit length is

This shows that the attraction between two parallel straight conductors carrying currents in the
same direction in terms of magnetic field lines of conductors

It is clear that in the space between X and Y the two fields are in opposition and hence they
tend to cancel each other

However in the space outside X and Y the two fields assist each other. Hence
resultant field distribution will be

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If two straight current carrying conductors of unequal length are held parallel to each
other then force on the long conductor is due to the magnetic field of the short conductor

I1 = Current through short conductor

l = Length of short conductor

I2 = Current through long conductor

L = Length of long conductor

If r is the separation distance between these parallel conductors

Force on Long conductor = force on short conductor

Force on each conductor is the same in magnitude but opposite in direction (Newton's third law)

DEFINITION OF AMPERE

Force between two current currying conductors per unit length

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If And r =1m then

Ampere

Is that steady current which when it is flowing in each of two infinitely long, straight
parallel conductors which have negligible areas of cross – section and are 1m apart in a
vacuum, causes each conducts to exert a force of N on each mete of the other.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. The plane of a circular coil is horizontal it has 20 turns each of 8cm radius A
current of 1A flows through it which appears to be clockwise from a point
vertically above it. Find the Magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the coil.

Solution
The magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the coil carrying current is given by,

As the currents appears to be clockwise from appoint vertically above the coil the direction of the
field will be vertically downward (By R.H.G.R)

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 2. A wire placed along the South-North direction carries currents of 5A from South to North.
Find the magnetic field due to a 1cm piece of wire at a point 200cm North-East from the place.

Solution

By RHGR, The field is vertically vertical downwards

3. A coil of radius 10cm and having 20 turns carries a current of 12A in a clockwise direction
when seen from east. The coil is in North – South plane. Find the magnetic field at the centre of
the coil.

Solution
The magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the coil

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 The electron of hydrogen atom moves along a circular path of radius 0.5 x 10-10 with the
uniform speed of 4 x 106 m/s. Calculate the magnetic field produced by electron at the centre (
e= 1.6 x 10-9c)

Number the revolution made by the electron in 1 second is

Current =

I = 1.27 X 1016 X 1.6 X10-19

1S

I= 2.04 X 10-3A

Magnetic field produced by the electron at the centre is

5. A circular coil of 100 turns has a radius of 10cm and carries a current of 5A
Determine the magnetic field
(i) At the centre of the coil
(ii) At a point on the axis of the coil at a distance of 5cm from the centre of the coil.

Solution

(i) Magnetic field at the centre of the coil is

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 = 4 x 10-7 TA -1

N = 100 turns

I = 5A

r = 10x10-2m

B = 4 x 10-7x 100 x S

2 X 0.1

B= 3.14 X10-3 T

The magnetic field of the centre of the coil = 3.14 X10-3 T

(ii) Magnetic field on the axis of the coil at a distance X from the centre is

= 4 x 10-7 TA -1
N = 100 turns
I = 5A
r = 10 x 10-2
x = 0.05m

6. An electric current I is flowing in a circular wire of radius at what dose from

the centre on the axis of circular wire will the magnetic field be 1/8th of
its value at the centre?

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Solution
Magnetic field B at the centre of the circular coil is

Suppose at a distance X from the centre on the axis of the circular coil the magnetic field is

7. In Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom the electron circulates around nucleus on a path of
radius 0.51Å at a frequency of 6.8x is rev/second calculate the magnetic field
induction at the centre of the orbit.
Page 39 of 158
Solution

The circulating electron is equivalent to circular current loop carrying current I given by

I = 1.6

I = 1.1 A

Magnetic field at the centre due to this current is

= 14T

8. A long straight wire carries a current of 50A. An electron moving at 107ms is 5cm
from the wire

Page 40 of 158
Find the Magnetic field acting on the electron velocity is directed

(i) Towards the wire

(ii) Parallel to the wire

(iii) Perpendicular to the directions defined by I and ii

Solution

The magnetic field produced by current carrying long wire at a distance r

The field is directed downward perpendicular to the plane of the paper

( i) The velocity V1 is towards the wire. The angle between VI and B is 900
force on electron

F= BQV

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 F = 2x 10-4 x 1.6x10-19x107x Sin 900
F = 3.2 x 10-16 N

(ii) When the electron is moving is moving parallel to the wire

,angle between V2 and B is again 90Ëš Therefore, force is again
3.2x10-16N

(iii) When the electron is moving perpendicular to the directions defined

by (i) and (ii) the angle between V and B is O

F=O

9. A solenoid has a length of 1 .23 m and inner diameter 4cm it has five layers
of windings of 850 turns each and carries a current of 5.57A. what is the magnitude of
the magnetic field at the centre of the solenoid

Solution

The magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of a solenoid is given by

But

10. A to void has a core ( non - ferromagnetic) of inner radius 20cm and over radius 25cm
around which 1500 turns of a wire are wound. If current in the wire is 2A

Calculate the magnetic field

(i) Inside the to void

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 (ii) Outside the to void

Solution

( i) The magnitude of the magnetic field inside the toroid is given by

B = 0.003T

(ii)The magnetic field outside the toroid is Zero. It is all inside the toroid.

11. A solenoid 1.5m long and 4cm in diameter possess 10 turns cm. A current of 5A is flowing
through it. Calculate the magnetic induction

(i) Inside and

(ii) At one end on the axis of the solenoid

Solution

n= = =

(i) Inside the solenoid , the magnetic induction is given by

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 B=

B=4

B=

(ii) At the end of the solenoid the magnetic induction is given by

12. (a) How will the magnetic field intensity at the centre of a circular loop carrying current
change, if the current through the coil is doubled and the radius of the coil is halved?

(b) A long wire first bent in to a circular coil of one turn and then into a circular

coil of smaller radius having n turns, if the same current passes in both the cases,
find the ratio of magnetic fields produced at the centers in the two cases.

(c) A and B are two concentric coils of centre O and carry currents IA and IB as shown in figure

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If the ratio of their radii is 1:2 and ratio of flux densities at O due to A and B is 1:3, find the

value of

Solution

(a) Magnetic field at the centre of circular coil

( b)Suppose r is the radius of one turn coil and the r1 is the radius of n-turn coil. Then
N

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 First case Second case

Solution
C. Magnetic field at the centre of circular coil

13. A helium nucleus makes a full rotation in a circle of radius 0.8m in two seconds. Find the
value of magnetic field at the centre of the circle.

Solution
The charge on helium nucleus
Q= e
Q= 1.6 X10-19c

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 Current produced I =
I = 2 x 1.6 x 10-19
2
I =1.6 x10-19A

Magnetic field at the centre of the circle orbit of the helium is,

B=

B= 1.256 x
10-25T

14. A soft Iron ring has a mean diameter of 0.20m and an area of cross section 5x10-4m2 it is
uniformly wound with 2000turns carrying a current of 2A and the magnetic flux in the iron is 8x
10-3Wb. What is the relative permeability of iron?

Solution
Length of ring l
l=2
l=2 x 0.10m

Number of turns per unit length n

n= =

If M is the absolute permeability of iron, then magnetic flux density of iron ring is
B=

B=

Magnetic flux

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 Magnetic flux = BA

Relative permeability of Iron μr

15. Two flat circular coils are made of two identical wires each of length 20cm
one coil has number of turns 4 and the other 2. If the some current flows though the wire
in which will magnetic field at the centre will be greater?

Solution

For the first coil

For second coil

Page 48 of 158
 Therefore, magnetic field will be greater in coil with 4 turns

16. A plat circular coil of 120 turns has a radius of 18cm and carries currents of 3A. What is the
magnitude of magnetic field at a point on the axis of the coil at a distance from the centre equal
to the radius of the coil?

Solution
Number of turns n = 120

Radius of the coil r = 0.18 m

Axial distance x = 0.18m

Current in coil I = 3A

B = (4 x 10-7) x 120 x3 x0.182

2(0.182 + 0.182) 3/2

B= 4.4 x 10-4T

17. A current of 5A is flowing upward in a long vertical wire. This wire is placed in a uniform
northward magnetic field of 0.02T. How much force and in which direction will this field exert
on 0.06 length of the wire?

Solution

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 B = 0.02T

I = 5A

L = 0.06

= 900
F= 0.02 X 5 X 0.06Sin900
F = 0.006N

By Fleming’s Left hand rules the force is directed towards West

18. A straight wire of mass 200g and length 1.5m carries a current of 2A. It is suspend
in mind air by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B. What is the magnitude of the
magnetic field?

solution

M = 200 X 10-3 kg

I = 2A

l = 1.5m

B =?
F=BIL

Mg = BIL

B = Mg = 200 x 10-3 x 9.8

IL 1.5 X 2

B = 0.65T

19. Two long horizontal wires are kept parallel at a distance of 0.2cm apart in a vertical
plane . both the wires have equal currents in the same direction the lower wire
has a mass of 0.05kg/m if the lower wire appears weightless
what is the current in each wire ?

Solution

Page 50 of 158
 Let I amperes be the current in each wire the lower wire is acted upon by two forces.

Since the lower wire appears weightless the two forces were equal over 1m length
of the wire

10-4I2 = 0.49

20. The horizontal component of the earth magnetic field at a certain place is 3 x 10-5
and the direction of the field is from the geographic south to the geographic North A
very long straight conductor is carrying a steady current of 1A. what is the force per unit
length on it when it is placed on a horizontal table and the direction of the current is
(a) East to West
(b) South to North

Solution

(a) When current is flowing from east to west 900

Page 51 of 158
 Force on the conductor per unit

(b) When current is flowing from south to north = 00

Force on the conductor per unit length

21. A horizontal straight wire 5cm long of mass 1.2gm-1 placed perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field of 0.6T if resistance of the wire is 3.85cm-1 calculate the P.d that has to
be applied between the ends of the wire to make it just self supporting

Solution

The current (i) in the wire is to be in such a direction that magnetic force acts
on it vertically upward. To make the wire self supporting its weight should be equal to
the upward magnetic force.

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Resistance of the wire

R = 0.05 x 3.8

= 0.19

Required P. (I) V = IR

V = 19.6X10-3 X 0.19

V = 3.7 X 10-3V

22. A conductor of length 2m carrying current of 2A is held parallel to an infinitely

long conductor carrying current of 10A at a distance of 100mm.
find the force on small conductor

Solution

II = 2A

I2 = 10A

r = 100 x 10-3m

l = 2m

Force on unit length of short conductor by the long conductor is give by

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 Force on length l = 2m of short conductor by the long conductor is

The force will be attractive if the direction of current is the same in two
conduction and it will be repulsive if the conductors carry current in
the opposite directions.

23. In the figure below, determine the position between two wire which experience zero
resultant force due to charge Q placed at that point

Solution
The force unit length acting in each wire of the parallel wire is given by

Page 54 of 158
Let be the force per unit length in the wire carrying a current of 14A

Since F1 and F2 have the same magnitude but they are acting in opposite direction
for resultant force to be zero

Assume that the charge Q is placed at a distance X from the wire carrying the

Page 55 of 158
 The charge Q is placed 4m from the either wire.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

All substances are affected by magnetic field some attain weak magnetic properties
and some acquire strong magnetic properties and some acquire strong magnetic properties.

The magnetic properties of the substances are explained on the basis of modern
atomic theory.

The atoms that make up any substance contain electrons that orbit around the central
nucleus.

Since the electrons are charged they constitute an electric current

and therefore produce magnetic field .

Thus an atom behave as a magnetic dipole and possesses magnetic dipole moment.

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 The magnetic properties of a substance depend
upon the magnetic moments of its atoms.

IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN MAGNETISM

The following terms are used in describing the magnetic properties of the materials:

(i) Magnetic flux density (B)

Is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines

passing per unit area of the material.

The greater the number of magnetic field lines passing per unit are of
the material

(ii) Magnetic permeability

Is a measure of its conductivity for magnetic field lines

The greater the permeability of the material the greater is

its conductivity for the magnetic field line and vice versa

Since magnetic field strength B is the magnetic field lines passing per unit area of
the material, it is a measure of magnetic permeability of the material.

Suppose magnetic flux density in air or vacuum is . If vacuum/air is replaced by a material,

suppose the magnetic flux density in the material becomes B

Then ratio B/ called the relative permeability . of the material.

(i) Relative permeability .

Is the ratio of magnetic flux density B in that material to
the magnetic flux density that would be if the material were replaced
by vacuum/ air .

Clearly is a pure number and its value per vacuum/air is 1

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 Relative permeability of a material may also be defined as the ratio of absolute
permeability of the material to absolute permeability of vacuum/air.

(ii) Magnetizing force/ Magnetic intensity

Is the number of ampere - turns flowing per unit length of the toroid.

The SI Unit of magnetizing force H is Ampere – turns per meter (AT/m)

Consider a toroid with n turns per unit length carrying a current I. if

the absolute permeability of toroid material is M, then magnetic flux density B in
the material is

The quantity is called magnetizing force or magnetic intensity

Therefore, the ratio in a material I is from

; B=

Thus if the some magnetizing force is applied to two identical air cored and iron
cored toroid, then magnetic flux density produced inside the toroid is

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 (iii) Intensity of magnetization ( ) is the magnetic moment developed per unit volume of
the material.

When a magnetic material is subjected to a magnetizing force ,

the material is magnetized

Intensity of magnetization is the measure of the extent to which the material is a

magnetized and depends upon the nature of the material

where:

= magnetic moment developed in the material

V= volume of the material

If m is the pole strength developed,

is the area of X – section of the material and 2l is the magnetic length. Then

Hence Intensity of magnetization of a material may be defined as

the pole strength developed per unit area of cross – section of the material.

Thus the SI unit of I is Am-1 which is the same as the SI unit of H

Magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of intensity of magnetic on I developed in

the material to the applied magnetizing force H

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The magnetic susceptibility of a material indicates how easily the material can be magnetized.

The unit of I is the same as that of H so that is a number

Since I is magnetic moment per volume is also called volume susceptibility

of the material .

Consider a current carrying toroid having core material of relative permeability

The total magnetic flux density B in the material is given by

Where

= magnetic flux density due to current in the coils.

= magnetic flux density due to the material (Magnetization of the material)

.....................(i)

.....................(ii)

Here I is the intensity of magnetization induced in the toroid material

B= +

Now,

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Equation (iii) give the relation between relative permeability (μr ) and magnetic susceptibility
(Xm).

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

All materials or substances are affected by the external magnetic field. Some attain weak
magnetic properties and acquire strong magnetic properties.

On the basis of their behavior in external magnetic field , the various substance classified into the
following three categories
(i)Diamagnetic materials
(ii)Paramagnetic materials
(iii)Ferromagnetic materials

(i) DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL

When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field in the magnetic field lines prefer to
passs through the surrounding air rather than through the substance.

Diamagnetic materials are materials which can not be affected by the magnetic field.

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 They are repelled by magnetic field e.g. lead, silver, copper, zinc, water, gold bismuth
etc.

These substances when placed in a magnetic field are weakly magnetized in a direction
opposite to that of the applied field.

PROPERTIES OF DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. A diamagnetic substance is feebly repelled by a strong magnet.

2. The magnetic susceptibility ( ) of a diamagnetic substance has a small negative

value.

3. The relative permeability ( ) of a diamagnetic substances is slightly less than 1

4. When a rod of diamagnetic substances is suspended freely in a uniform magnetic

field, the rod comes to rest with its axis perpendicular to the direction of the applied
field.

See figure below

This gives the relation between relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility of the
material.

(ii)PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

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Are materials which when placed in a magnetic field are weakly magnetized in the direction of
the applied field

The paramagnetic substances include the Aluminum antimony , copper sulphate, Crown grass
etc

Since the weak induced magnetic field is in the direction of the applied field, the resultant
magnetic field in the paramagnetic substance is slightly more than the external field

Hence the magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is positive having

It clear that the relative permeability for such substances will be slightly more than 1

=1+

Paramagnetic substance loses its magnetism as soon as the external magnetic field is removed

BEHAVIOR OF PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES IN AN EXTERNAL MAGNETIC

FIELD

When a paramagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field the dipoles are partially
aligned in the direction of the applied field.

Therefore the substance is feebly magnetized in the direction of the applied magnetic field. This
result into a weak attractive force on the substances.

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 In the absence of the external magnetic field the dipoles of the paramagnetic substances are
randomly oriented and therefore the net magnetic moment of the substance is zero.

Hence the substance does not exhibit Para - magnetism

PROPERTIES OF PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

1. The relative permeability of a paramagnetic substance is always more than 1

The result field B inside a paramagnetic substance is more than the external field Bo

2. The magnetic susceptibility of the paramagnetic substance has small positive value

It is because and

3. The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic material varies inversely as the absolute

temperature

Paramagnetism is quite sensitive to temperature. The lower the temperature the stronger is the
paramagnetism and vice versa

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4. A paramagnetic substance is feebly attracted by the strong magnet. It is because a
paramagnetic substance develops weak magnetization in the direction of the applied external
magnetic field

5. When a paramagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic field lines of force
prefer to pass through the substance rather than through air.

Therefore the resultant field B inside the substance is more than the external field Bo

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Are the materials which when placed in a magnetic field are strongly magnetic in
the direction of the applied field.

Ferromagnetic substances includes

· Iron

· Cobalt

· Nickel

· Fe2O3

· Gadolinium

Since the strong induced magnetic field is in the direction of the applied magnetic field, the
resultant magnetic field inside the ferromagnetic substance is very large compared to external
field

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It is clear that ferromagnetism is very stronger form of magnetism. When external field
(magnetic field) is removed some ferromagnetic substances retain magnetism

PROPERTIES OF FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCES

1. The relative permeability ( ) of the ferromagnetic substance is very large

Now

The resultant field B inside a ferromagnetic substance is very large as compared to the
external filed Bo

2. The magnetic susceptibility ( ) of a ferromagnetic substance is positive has a very

high value.

It is because =1 and 1 for this reason, ferromagnetic substance can be

magnetized easily and strongly.

3. A ferromagnetic substance is strongly attracted by a magnet

4. When a rod of ferromagnetic substance is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, it

quickly aligns itself in the direction of the field.

5. They retain their magnetization even when their magnetizing force is removed.

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 6. When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field the magnetic field
lines tend to crowd into the substance

DOMAIN

Is the region of the space over which the magnetic dipole movements of the atoms are aligned in
the same direction.

(i) In the absence of the external magnetic field the domain of the ferromagnetic materials
are randomly oriented as shown below.

In other words, within the domain all the magnetic moments are aligned in the same direction
but different domains are oriented randomly in different direction.

The result is that one domain cancels the effect of the other so that the net magnetic moment in
the material is zero.

Therefore a ferromagnetic material does not exhibit magnetism in the normal state

(ii) When a ferromagnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field a net magnetic
moment develops the substance.

This can occur in two ways

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 (a) By displacement of boundaries of the domains i.e. the domains that already
happen to be aligned with the applied field may grow in size whereas those
oriented opposite to the external field reduce in size.

(b) By the rotation of the domains i.e. the domains may rotate so that their
magnetic moments are more or less aligned in the direction of the magnetic field.

The result is that there is net magnetic moment in the material in the direction of the applied
field.

Since the degree of alignment is very large even for a small external magnetic field the
magnetic field produced in ferromagnetic material is often much greater than the external field.

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CURIE TEMPERATURE
Is the temperature at which the ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic

It is also known as Curie point of the substance

Ferromagnetism decreases with the increases in temperature

When a ferromagnetic substance is heated magnetization decreases because random thermal

motions tend to destroy the alignment of the domains

At sufficiently high temperature the ferromagnetic property of the substance suddenly

disappears and the substance becomes paramagnetic.

In a ferromagnetic substance the atom appear to be grouped magnetically into what are called
domains.

This occurs because the magnetic dipole moments of atoms of a paramagnetic substance exert
strong force on their neighbor so that over a small region of space the moments are aligned with
each other even with no external field.

Above Curie temperature these forces disappear and ferromagnetic substances become
paramagnetic.

HYSTERESIS

Is the phenomenon of lagging of flux density (B) behind the magnetic force (H) in ferromagnetic
materials subjected to cycles of magnetization.

When a ferromagnetic substance e.g. iron is subjected to cycle of magnetization (i.e. it is

magnetized first in one direction and then in the other) it is found that flux density B in the
materials lags behind the applied magnetizing force H.

This phenomenon is known as Hysteresis.

If a piece of ferromagnetic material is subjected to one cycle of magnetization the result B-H
curve is a closed loop a b c d e f a called Hysteresis loop.

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B always lags behind H, Thus at point b, H is zero but flux density B has a finite positive
value ob similarly at point e, H is zero but flux density B has a finite negative value X .

HYSTERESIS LOOP

Consider an Iron cored toroid carrying current I

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 If N is the total number of turn and l the length of toroid, then magnetizing force is

The value of H can be changed by varying current in the coil

Consider that when the Iron cored toroid is subjected to a

cycle of magnetization the resultant B- H curve traces a loop a b c d e f a called hysteresis
loop

(i) To start with the toroid is unmagnetised and its situation is represented
by point O in graph

As H is increased ( by increasing current I),B increases along and reaches

its saturation value at a this stage

(i) all the domains are aligned

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 (ii) If now H is gradually reduced by decreasing current in the toroid it is found
that curve follows the path instead of

At point b, H = O but flux density in the material has a finite value of +Br called residual
flux density

REMANENCE

Is the flux density left behind in the sample after the removal of the magnetizing force
(H). It is also called Residual magnetism or retentively.

B lags behind H. This effect is called Hysteresis

(iii) In order to reduce flux density in the material to zero, it is necessary to apply H in
the reverse direction

This can be done by reversing the current in the toroid

When H is gradually increased in the reverse direction the curve follows the path

At point C, B =O and H = -HC, the value of H needed to wipe out residual magnetism
is called coercive force it.

COERCITIVITY OF THE SAMPLE

Is the value of reverse magnetizing force required to wipe out the residual magnetism in
the sample

Now H is further increased in the reversed direction until point d is reached

where the sample is saturated in the revision direction ( ).

If the H is now reduced to zero, point e is reached and the sample again retain
magnetic flux density ( )

The remaining part of the loop is obtained by increasing current to produce H in

the original direction .

The hysteresis loop results became the domains do not become completely unaligned when H is
made zero.

The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop represents loss in energy

This energy appears in the material as heat.

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HYSTERESIS LOSS

This is the loss of energy in the form of heat when a ferromagnetic material is subjected to cycles
of magnetization.

Hysteresis loss is present in all those electrical machines whose iron parts are subjected to cycles
of magnetization.

The obvious effect of hysteresis loss is the rise in temperature of the machine.

HYSTERESIS LOOP

Is the loop traced by the resultant B-H curve when the Iron – cored toroid is subjected to a cycle
of magnetization.

The shape and size of hysteresis loop largely depends upon the nature of the material

The choice of a ferromagnetic material per a particular application often depends upon
the shape and size of the hysteresis loop

(i) The smaller the hysteresis loop area of a ferromagnetic material the smaller is
the hysteresis loss

The hysteresis loop per silicon steel has a very small area.

For this reason, silicon steel is widely used per making transformer cores
and rotating machines which are subjected to rapid reversals of magnetization

(ii) The hysteresis loop per hard steel indicates that this material has high retentivity and
Coercivity.

Therefore hard steel is quite suitable for making permanent magnets.

But due to the large area of the loop there is a greater hysteresis loss

For this reason, hard steel is not suitable for the construction of electrical machines

(iii)The hysteresis loop for wrought iron shows that this material has fairly good
residual magnetism and Coercivity.

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 Hence it is suitable for marking cores of electromagnets

APPLICATIONS OF FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

Ferromagnetic material (E.g. iron, steel nickel, cobalt etc) are widely used in a number of
applications

The choice of ferromagnetic material for a particular for a particular application

depends upon its magnetic properties such as

(i) Retentivity

(ii)Coercivity

(iii) Area of the hysteresis loop

Ferromagnetic materials are classified as being either

(i) Soft (soft iron)

(ii) Hard (steel)

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Figure below shows the hysteresis loop for soft and hard ferromagnetic materials

The table below gives the magnetic properties of hard and soft ferromagnetic materials

Magnetic property Soft Hard

Hysteresis loop narrow Large area
Retentivity High High
Coercivity low high

(i) PERMANENT MAGNETS

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The permanent magnets are made for hard ferromagnetic materials (steel, cobalt, carbon steel)

Since these materials have high relativity the magnet is quite strong

Due to their high Coercivity, they are unlikely to be demagnetized by stray magnetic field

(ii) TEMPORARY MAGNETS / ELECTROMAGNETIC

The Electromagnets are made from soft ferromagnetic materials e.g. soft iron.

Since these materials have low coercively they can be easily demagnetized.

Due to high saturation flux density they make strong magnets

(iii) TRANSFORMER CORES

The transformer cores are made from soft ferromagnetic materials

When a transformer is in use, its core is taken through many cycles of magnetization

Energy is dissipated in the core in the form of heat during each cycle. The energy dissipated is
known as hysteresis loss. And is proportional to the area of hysteresis loop

Since the soft Ferromagnetic materials have narrow hysteresis loop (smaller loop areas) they
are used for making transformer cores.

WORKED EXAMPLE
1. (a) How does a permanent magnet attract an unmagnetised iron object?

(b) Show that the unit of magnetizing force is Nm-2T-I or Jm-Iwb-I

(C) Why is electromagnets made of soft iron?

(d) An Iron ring has a cross - sectional area of 400 and a mean diameter of
25cm. It is wound with 500trns. If the relative permeability of iron is 5000 find;

(i) The magnetizing force

(ii) The magnetic flux density set up in the ring.

The coil resistance is 474 and the supply voltage is 240V

Page 76 of 158
 Solution

( a) The magnet’s field cause a slight alignment of the domains in the unmagnetised
iron object so that the object becomes a temporary magnet with its north pole facing
the south pole of the permanent magnet and viceversa. Therefore attraction results.

(b) The SI units of magnetizing (H) are Ampere/M(Am-I )

Now

Also

Page 77 of 158
 ( c) The soft Iron has very small residual magnetism and coercive force. Therefore the
material loses magnetism as soon as the magnetizing force is removed for this reason
electromagnets are made of soft iron

(d) Current through the coil I

Mean length of the ring l

l= 2

l=2 x (12.5 x 10-2)

l = 0.785m

(i) Magnetizing force H

(ii) Magnetic flux density B

From
Page 78 of 158
 B = 2.02wb/m2

2. (a) Diamagnetic is a property of a material. Discuss

(b) What is the magnetic susceptibility and permeability of a perfectly diamagnetic Substance?

(c) Why is Diamagnetism independent of temperature?

(d) The core of a toroid having 3000 turns has inner and outer radii of 11cm and 12cm
respectively. The magnetic flux density in the core per a current of 0.70A is 2.5T

What is the relative permeability of the core?

Solution

(a) Diamagnetism is a natural reaction to the applied magnetic field. Therefore it is

present in all materials but is weaker even than paramagnetism. As the result,
diamagnetism is overwhelmed by paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
effects in materials that display these other forms of magnetism

Solution
B= H+ I
B= (H+I)

For perfectly diamagnetic substance

B=O
(H+I) = O
H +I = O
I = -H

Susceptibility

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 =

Also

=1+

=1–1

=O

(c) The induced magnetic moment in atoms of a diamagnetic substance is not

affected by the thermal motion of the atoms. For this reason, diamagnetic is independent of
temperature.

(d) Solution

Mean radius of toroid

The magnetic flux density in the toroid is

Page 80 of 158
3 .(a) (i) What is a non Magnetic material?

(ii) Can there be a material which is non -magnetic?

(b) What do you mean by the greater susceptibility of a material?

(c) An iron rod of 0.1m2 area of x-section is subjected to magnetic field of 1000

Calculate its magnetic permeability. Given susceptibility of iron are 599.

(d) Which material is used to make permanent magnets and why?

Solution

(a) (i) A non –magnetic material is that which is not affected even by strong magnetic
fields.

(ii) No, every material is at least diamagnetic.

(b) From

For a given H, α Thus the greater value of the susceptibility of the material the
greater will be its intensity of magnetization i.e. more easily can be magnetized .Thus
greater value of its susceptibility for iron means that it can be easily magnetized.

(c) Solution

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 =1+

But

= (1+ )

-7
=4 (1+599)

=7.54 x 10-4TA-4M

(d) Steel it is because has high coactivity. This ensures the stay of magnetism in
steel for a longer period

4. (a) A toroid of mean circumference 50cm has 500 turns and carries a current of
0.15A

(i) Determine the magnetizing force and magnetic flux density if the toroid has an
air core

(ii) Determine the magnetic flux density and intensity of magnetization if

the core is filled with iron of relative permeability 5000

(b) Why do magnetic lines of force prefer to

(c) What is the SI unit of magnetic susceptibility?

Solution

(a) (i) given

L = 50cm = 50 x 10-2 m

N = 500 turns

I = 0.15A

Magnetizing force H

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 Magnetic flux density

(b) It is because permeability of Iron (Ferromagnetic material ) is very high as compared

to that of air .

Page 83 of 158
 Therefore, have no Units

5. (i) Figure below shows the variation of intensity of magnetization (I) versus the applied
magnetic field intensity (H) for two magnetic material A and B

(a) Identify the materials A and B

(b) For the material A, plot the variation of I with temperature.

(ii) The relative permeability of a material is

(i) 0.999

(ii) 1.001

Solution

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 The slope I-H graph gives the magnetic susceptibility of the material

For material A the slope is positive and has a small value. Therefore, material A is
paramagnetic.

For material B, the slope is position and has a large value. Therefore , material B
is ferromagnetic

(a) The intensity of magnetization of a paramagnetic material A is inversely proportional to

the absolute temperature therefore I – T graph for material A will be as shown
in figure below .

(ii) (i) Diamagnetic material

(ii) Paramagnetic material

6. (a) Graph below shows the variation of intensity of magnetization(I) versus the applied

Magnetic field intensity (H) for two magnetic material A and B

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 (i) identify the materials A and B

(ii) draw the variation of susceptibility with temperature for material B

(b)A magnetizing for of 360 produce a magnetic flux density of 0.6T in a

ferromagnetic material. Calculate

(i) Permeability
(ii) susceptibility of the material

Solutions

(a) for material A the susceptibility ( = slope of I – H graph) is small

and positive therefore material A is paramagnetic and for material B, Susceptibility is small
and Negative. Therefore , material B is Diamagnetic

iii) The susceptibility of a diamagnetic material B is independent of temperature therefore

– T graph for material B will be shown in graph below.

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(b) (i) Permeability of material

= 1.67 X 10-3 A -1Tm

(ii) Susceptibility of the material

= (1 + )

Page 87 of 158
 = 1328.62 Am -1

6. (a) What is Magnetic solution?

(b) Name two materials which have

(i) Position susceptibility

(ii) Negative susceptibility

(c) Obtain the earth’s magnetization , assuming that the earth’s field can be approximated
by a giant bar magnet of magnetic moment 8.0 x 10 22 A ? Radius of earth = 6400km

(d) A bar magnet has Coercivity of 4x103 A/m it is desired to demagnetize it

by inserting it inside a solenoid 12cm long and having 60turns. With current should be sent
through the solenoid

Solution

(a) Magnetic saturation

Is the maximum magnetization that can be obtained in the material when all
the domains of a ferromagnetic material are in the direction of
the applied magnetic filed

(b) (i) paramagnetic material e.g. Aluminum and Antimony

(ii) Diamagnetic materials e.g. Copper and Zinc

(c) magnetic moment M = 8 x 1022Am2 radius of the earth Re = 6400km

Magnetization of the earth is given by

Page 88 of 158
 The bar magnetic has a Coercivity of 4 i.e. it needs a magnetic
intensity H = 4 to get magnetized

7. (a) Define hysteresis loop

(b)What does the area of hysteresis loop indicate?

(c) What is the use of hysteresis loop?

(d) Why is soft iron preferred in making the core of a transformer?

Solution

(a) hysteresis loop

Is the resulting B – H curve (Closed loop) obtained when a ferromagnetic material

is subjected to one circle of the magnetization

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 (b) the area of hysteresis loop is a measure of energy wasted in a sample when
it is taken through s complete of magnetization

(c) The hysteresis loop of a material tells us about hysteresis loss retentively
and Coercivity. This knowledge helps us in selecting materials for making
electromagnetic permanent magnets cores of transformer

(d) The area of hysteresis loop for soft iron is small. Therefore energy dissipated in the
core for cycle magnetization is small. For this reason, the core of a transformer
is made of soft iron

8. (a) state curie law

(b) Give the graph between I and B/T

(c) What happens if an Iron magnet is melted?

(d) Copper Sulphate is paramagnetic with a susceptibility of 1.68x10-4 at 293K. What is the
susceptibility of copper at 77.4K if it fellows curie law?

Solution

(a) Curie law

States that intensity of magnetization (I) if a paramagnetic substance is

directly proportional to the external magnetic field (B) and inversely proportional
to the absolute temperature(T) of the substance.

Combining these two factors, we have

where

C is a constant of proportionality and is called curie constant

Page 90 of 158
This law is physically reasonable As B increase the alignment of magnetic moments
increases and therefore I increases

If the temperature is increased the thermal motions will make alignment difficult thus
decreasing I

The curve law is found to hold good so long as does not become too large

Since

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 (b) The temperature of molten iron 7700C is above the Curie temperature i.e. On
malting the iron becomes paramagnetic. Therefore it loses its magnetism

Solution

According to curie law the susceptibility depends inversely on the temperature

10. (a) A solenoid 0.6m long is wound with 1800 turns of copper wire. An iron rod having a
relative permeability of 500 is placed along the axis of the solenoid. What are the magnetic
intensity H and field B when a current of 0.9A flows through the wire? What is the intensity of
magnetization I in the iron? Find the average magnetic moment per iron atom. Density of iron is
7850 Kg/m3.

(b) An Iron sample having mass 8.4Kg is repeadly taken over cycle of magnetization at
a frequency of 50cyles per second it is found that energy equal to 3.2
x J is dissipated as heat in the sample in 30Minutes if the density of the
iron is 7200kg/m3 find the energy dissipated per unit volume per cycle in the iron sample.

(c) A domain in ferromagnetic iron is in the form of a cube of side length 1μM.
Estimate the number of Iron atom in the domain and the maximum
possibility dipole moment and magnetization of the domain and the maximum
possible dipole moment and magnetization of the domain. The molecular mass of
Iron is 55g/mole and its density is 7.9g/cm2 assume that each Iron atom has a dipole
moment of 9.27 x 10-24 Am2

Solution

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H = 2700A/m

I = 1.35 X 106A/m

One Kilo mole (55.85Kg) of Iron has 6.2 x1026 atoms. Therefore, number of atoms in 1 m3 of
Iron

Average magnetic moments per iron atoms

Page 93 of 158
 =1.59 x 10-23 Am2

Solution

f =50 HZ

cycle

Page 94 of 158
Length of cubic domain l

=1 M = 10-6M

Volume of Domain

3
V=

V = (10-6)3

V = 10-18M3

Mass of domain

=Volume X Density

=10-12cm x7.9g

= 7.9 x10 -12g/cm

It is given that 55g of Iron contain 6.023 x1023 Iron atoms (Avogadro’s no)

Number of atoms in the domain is

N = 6.023 X 1023 X 7.9 X10-12

55

N = 8.65 X 1010atoms

The maximum possible dipole moment is achieved per the case when all the atomic
domains are perfect aligned (This condition is unrealistic)

= (8.65 x1010) x (9.27 x10-24)

= 8 x 10-13 AM2

Maximum intensity of magnetization of the Domain is

Page 95 of 158
 = =

= 8 x105 Am-1

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

1. (1)The magnetic moment of a magnet (10cm x 2cm x 1cm) is 1AM? What is the intensity of
magnetization?

I=5X A/m

2. (2)An iron rod of cross sectional area 4 is placed with its length parallel to a
magnetic flied of intensity 1600 A/M the flux through the rod is 4 x 10-4Wb what is
the permeability of the material of the rod?

μ = 0.625 x10-3 Wb A -1 m-1

3. (3) A toroid winding carrying a current of 5A is wound with 300turns/miter of core.

The core is Iron which has a magnetic permeability of 5000Mo under the given conditions

Find (i) the magnetic intensity H

(ii) Flux density B

(iii) Intensity of magnetization I

i) 1500AT/m

ii) 9.43T

iii) 7.5 X106A/m

4. (4)A specimen of Iron is uniformly magnetized by a magnetizing field of 500 A/m. if

magnetic induction in the specimen is 0.2Wb/m2, find the relative permeability
and susceptibility

Page 96 of 158
 Xm = 317.5

Mr = 318.5

5. Consider a toroid of 1000 turns and mean radius 25cm. what is the B- field in the toroid
if there is a current of 2A?

What will be the field when the toroid is filled with Iron per which μ = 100H/m?

= 1 .6 x 10 -3

B = 0.16T

6. An Iron of volume 10-4m3 and relative permeability 1000 is placed inside a

long solenoid wound with storms/cm. if a current of 0.5A is passed through the solenoid,
find the magnetic moment of the rod.

M = 25Am2

7. The flux through a certain toroid clangs from 0.65m Wb to 0.91M Wb when Air core is
replaced by another material. What are

i) The relative permeability

ii) Absolute permeability of the material

= 1. 4

μ= 5.6 x10-7H/m

8. Answer the following Questions

a) Why does a paramagnetic sample display greater magnetization (per the same
magnetizing field) when cooled?

b) Why is diamagnetism, in contrast almost independent of temperature?

c) Distinguish between a soft and a hard magnetic material,

giving an example of soft magnetic materials are those which can easily be
magnetized but do not retain their magnetism (retentively )

Page 97 of 158
 An example of soft magnetic material

Is soft Iron i.e. Iron in a reasonably pure state. It is otherwise known as wrought iron

Hard magnetic material

Are those which are difficultly to magnetic but once magnetized, can retain the magnetism
per long

These are usually used making permanent magnetic

An example of hand magnetic material is steel which consists of iron and a small %
of carbon

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE IN UNFORM MAGNETIC FILED

Consider a charged particle of charge +Q and mass M moving with a velocity V in

the plane of the paper.

Suppose this charged particle enters a uniform magnetic filed B which is perpendicular to
the plane of the paper and directed outward

Clearly the entry of the charged particle is at right angles to the magnetic field

The force i.e. magnetic force Fm on the charged particle is given by

Fm = BQV

The magnetic force Fm acts at right angle to the plane containing V and B

On entering the magnetic field at M the charged particle experiences a force of

magnitude and is deflected in the direction shown

This force is at right angle to the direction of motion of the charge particle and therefore,
cannot change the speed of charge particle it only charge its direction of motion

A moment later, then the particle reaches point N the magnitude of force Fm acting
on it is the same as it was at M but the direction of force is different (Fm
is still perpendicular to V )

Page 98 of 158
 Thus the force is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the charged particle at all
times and has a constant magnitude

The magnetic force does not change the speed or kinetic energy of the charge particle it
only charges the direction of the charged particle

When the moving charged particle is inside the uniform magnetic field, it moves along a
circular path.

When the initial velocity of the particle is parallel to the magnetic field

= 00

From

Fm = BQV

Fm = BQV

Fm = 0

Thus in this case the magnetic field does not exert any force on the charge particle

Therefore the charged particle will continue to move parallel to the magnetic
field then = 1800

Therefore, the particle will continue to the move in the original direction.

When the initial velocity of the particle is perpendicular to the magnetic field =900

Page 99 of 158
From

Fm = BQV
Max. Value Fm = BQV

PARAMETERS OF MOTION

A force of constant magnitude always acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
charged particle.

Therefore , provides the necessary centripetal force to more the charged particle in
a circular path in the circle of radius r perpendicular to the field

i) RADIUS OF PATH

The acceleration of a particle moving along a circular path of radius r is given by

Page 100 of 158

For a given charge mass and magnetic field r V. this means that fast particles
move in large circles and slow ones in small circles.

ii) TIME PERIOD

The time taken by the charged particle to complete one circular revolution in
the magnetic field is its Time period T

From

Thus Time period of the charged particle is independent of the speed (V) and the radius of
the path

It only Depends on the magnitude of B and charge to mass ratio of the particle .

FREQUENCY
Page 101 of 158
 The number of circular revolutions made by the charged particle in one second
is its frequency f

f=

f=1

There Frequency of the charged particle is also independent of speed (V) and radius (r) of the
path

ANGULAR FREQUENCY

From

=2πf

But

Then

Page 102 of 158

 Again Angular frequency of the charged particle is independent of the speed (V)
and radius (r) of the path..

Since T, f and of a charged particle moving in a magnetic field are independent of its speed
(V) and the radius (r) of the path.

In fact all the charged particles with same Q/M and moving in a uniform magnetic
field B will have the same value of T, f and w

MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLE ENTERING UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD AT

AN ANGLE

Suppose the charged particle moving with velocity V enters a uniform magnetic field B making
an angle to the direction of the field

Diagram

Page 103 of 158

The velocity V can be resolved into two rectangular components

i) V1 = V Acting in the direction of the field

ii) V2 = Vsin acting perpendicular to the direction

The perpendicular component V2 moves the charged particle in

a circular party while the horizontal component moves it in the direction
of the magnetic field

In other words, the charged particle corers circular path as well as linear path.
Consequently the charged particle will follow a helical path.

The charged particle rotates in a circle at speed V2 while moving in the direction of
the field with a speed VI

PARAMETERS OF MOTION
The perpendicular component of velocity V2 determines the parameters
of the circular motions while the horizontal component of velocity VI decides the pitch
of helix

(i) Radius of path

Page 104 of 158

 From

(ii) T, f and w

Since time period (T), frequency (f) and Angular frequency(ω) of a

charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field
are independent of speed V and radius (r) of the path, these values
remain the same

(iii) Pitch of helix (d)

It is the linear distance covered by charged particle when it completes one

Page 105 of 158

 circular revolution Or It is the linear distance covered by charged particle during
time T

d= T

d=V T.

d=V

The following points may be noted about the behavior of charged particle in a Uniform magnetic
field

(i) If a charged particle is at rest V=0 in a magnetic field, it experiences

no force

From

= BQV

= BQ
=0

(ii) If a moving charged particle enters a uniform magnetic field at right angles
to the field it describes a circular path

Page 106 of 158

 (iii) If a moving charged particle enters a uniform magnetic field. Making
an angle to the direction of the field it describes a helical path

(iv) A moving charged particle in a magnetic field experience maximum

force when angle between V and B is 900

(v) Since magnetic force does not change the speed of a charged particle it means
that K.E of the charged particle remains constant in the magnetic field.

(vi) Since magnetic force (Fm) is perpendicular to V, it does not work. Therefore
work done by the magnetic force on the charged particle is zero

WORKED EXAMPLE

1. An electron and a proton moving in a circular path at 3x106 Ms-1 in a uniform

magnetic field of magnitude 2 x 10-4T. Find the radius of the path

Solution

2. An electron and a proton moving with the same speed enter the same magnetic
field region at right angles to the direct of the field. For which of the two particles will the
radius of circular path be smaller?

Solution

From

Page 107 of 158

Since the mass of electron is less than that of the proton the radius of the circular path of
electron will be smaller.

3. (a) What will be the path of a charged particle moving along the direction of a
uniform magnetic field?

(b) A moving charged particle enters a magnetic

Solution

(a) When a charged particle moves along the direction of a uniform magnetic
field ,it experiences no force = 00 therefore the charged particle will
more along its original straight path

(b) Helical path since the velocity of the charged particle can
be resolved into two rectangular components one along the field,
and the other perpendicular to the field. The velocity component
perpendicular to the field causes the charged particle to more in
a circular path while the velocity component along the field cause
it to more it in the direction of the field. The combination
of these two motions course the charged particle to move in a helical
path.

4. A become of α-particles and of proton of the same velocity V, entries

a uniform magnetic field at right angles to the field lines. The particle
describes circular paths. What is the ratio of radii of the two paths?

Solution

Page 108 of 158

 Radius of α-particle path

Of proton path

= ……………………….

Take equation (i) equation (ii)

Therefore, radius of x - particle path is twice that of proton’s path

Note

α – particle

Charge = 2e

Mass = mass of helium nucleus

Page 109 of 158

 5. A proton with charge – mass ratio of 108 CKg -1 is moving in a circular orbit
in a uniform magnetic field of 0.5T. calculate the frequency of revolution

f = BE

2πM

F = B. e

2π M

F = 0.5 . 108

2π

6. (a) What happens when a charged particle is projected perpendicular to

a uniform magnetic field ?

(b) A beam of protons moving with a velocity of 4 x 105 M5-1 enters

a uniform field of 0.3T at an angle of 600 to the direction of
a magnetic field find

(i) The radius of helical path of proton beam

(ii) Pitch of helix

Given mass of proton = 1.67 x 10 -27 Kg charge on proton = 1.6 x 10 -19C

Solution

(a) When a charged particle is projected perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field

Page 110 of 158

 (i) Its path is circular in plane perpendicular to B and V

(ii) Its speed and Kinetic energy remain the same

(iii) The magnitude of force remains the same Fm = BQV. Only the direction of
velocity of the particle charges.

(iv) The force acting on the particle is independent of the radius of

the circular path

(v) The time period of revolution of the particle is independent if V and r

(b) (i) Solution

r = 1.2 x10-2M

(ii) Pitch of helix of d

Page 111 of 158

 d = 4.37 x10-2M

7. (a) A particle of charge 𠜃 moves in a circular path of radius r in

a uniform is P = BQr

(b) An electron emitted by a heated cathode and accelerated through a potential

difference of 2.0KV enters a region of magnetic field of 0.15 determine the trajectory of
the electron if the field
(i) is traverse to its initial velocity
(ii) makes an angle of 30 with the initial velocity

c) A proton a deuteron and an α – particle whose kinetic energies are same enter
perpendicularly to a uniform magnetic field. Compare the radii of their circular paths

(a) Solution
The magnetic force Fm provides the necessary centripetal force Fc
Fm = Fc

BQ =

Momentum P = BQr

Page 112 of 158

 (b) Solution

When an electron (e) is accelerated through a p.d of V, it acquires energy eV. IF Vis
the velocity gained by electron, then

V=

V=9X10-31
(i) Force on the electron due to transverse field is

Fm = BQr 𠜃 = 900

Since magnitude of Fm is constant and Fm is perpendicular to both V and B

the electron will move in a circle of radius r. The necessary centripetal force is
provided by Fm

r=
10-3M

(ii) When electrons enters the magnetic field making an angle 𠜃 = 300 with the field

Page 113 of 158

 r = 0.5 x10-3M

(C) Solution
Let 1, 2 and 3 be the suffix force proton, deuteron and α - particle respectively

K .E, = K.E2 = K.E3

1 MIV1 = 1 M2V2= 1 M3V3
2 2 2

If MI then M2 = 2M and M3 = 4M

MV2I = 2MV22 = 4MV23

2
VI = = 2V3

V2 = VI

Also

Radius of the path r

r = MV

BQ

If QI = Q, Then Q2 = Q and Q3 = 2Q

Page 114 of 158

 rI = MIVI = MVI

BQI BQ

r2 = M2V2 = 2M. V1

BQ2 BQ

rI: r2 : r3 = MVI : MVI : MVI

BQ BQ BQ

rI : r2 : r3 = 1 : :1

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. What is the radius of the path of an electron (mass 9 x 10-31)Kg and charge(1.6 x 10-16C)
moving at a speed of 3 x107m/s in a magnitude field of 6 x 10-4T perpendicular to it? What its
frequency? Calculate its energy in KeV(1Ev=1.6x10-19 J)

r= 0.28m

f= 1.7 x10-7 Hz

E = 2.53KeV

2. An electron after being accelerated through a p.d of 100V enters a uniform magnetic field of
0.004T perpendicular to its direction of motion. Find the radius of the path described by the
electron

r = 8.4 10-3m

Page 115 of 158

3. An α-particle is describing a circle of radius of 0.45m in a field of magnetic Induction
1.2Wb/m2. Find its speed, frequency of rotation and kinetic energy. What potential difference
will be required which will accelerate the particle so as to this much energy to it? The mass of α-
particle is 6.8 x10-27Kg and its charge is 3.2 x 10-19 C

V=2.6 X107 m/s

f= 9.2 x106 sec-1

MAGNETIC TORQUE ON RECTANGULAR COIL IN UNIFORM FIELD

Consider a rectangular conductor ABCD having length L and N-turns carrying a current I and
placed in a magnetic field between N and S-pole of bar magnets.

Since the velocities of the electrons in the sides side AB and BC are perpendicular to the magnetic
induction B then these sides will experience the maximum magnetic forces equal to F.

F= BIL

The direction of the magnetic force in these two sides is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule as
shown in the figure below.

Page 116 of 158

The two parallel and equal forces will constitute the turning of the rectangular called the
magnetic torque.

Page 117 of 158

Mathematically

The magnetic torque or couple is given by

= Total force x Perpendicular distance

τ=BIL x b

τ=BI (L x b)

Lb = cross-sectional area=A

Page 118 of 158

For the rectangular coil of N- turns

ELECTROMAGNETIC MOMENT(M)
This is the magnetic torque acting on the coil when it is parallel to a uniform field whose flux
density is one [Link] is the property of the coil is defined as the couple required to hold the coil
at right angles to
field.

Thus, in equation τ=m when B=1I

from

Page 119 of 158

Consider a rectangular coil ABCD placed at an angle to the magnetic field of flux density B

The perpendicular distance between the parallel force is and not b. Then the magnetic
force or compile is given

Page 120 of 158

Special cases

(i) When

Plane of the loop is parallel to the direction of magnetic field

Thus, the Torque on a current loop is maximum when the plane of the loop
is parallel to the direction of magnetic field is given by

(ii) when 𠜃 = 900

Plane of the loop is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field

Thus , the torque on a current loop is minimum (zero) when the plane of the loop
is perpendicular

(iii) When B = 1T

when B = 1T, then the magnetic torque is numerical equal to magnetic moment

From

B = 1T

Page 121 of 158

 MAGNETIC TORQUE AT AN ANGLE α BETWEEN THE AXIS OF THE COIL
AND NORMAL TO THE PLANE OF THE COIL

We can also express torque in another useful form. If normal to the plane of coil makes
an angle α with the direction of the magnetic field

From

Page 122 of 158

τ = BANI cos (90 – α)

τ = ANIBSin α

Since M = IAN

When a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field, torque acts on it which
tends to rotate the coil so that the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction
of magnetic field.

WORK DONE BY TORQUE

If the magnetic torque displaces the coil through the small angular displacement

The work done by the torque is given by

The total work done is obtained by integration the above equation within limits

Page 123 of 158

 If the magnetic field displaces the coil through small angular displacement the work done
by torque is given by

dw = τdα

dw = mbSinαdα

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A vertical rectangular coil of sides 5cm by 2cm has 10 turns and carries a current of 2A.
Calculate the torque on the coil when it is placed in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of 0.1T
with its plane.

(a) Parallel to the field

(b) Perpendicular to the field

(c) 600 to the field

Solution

The area of the coil

A= (5 x 10 -2) x (2 x10-2)

A= 10-3 m2

(a) From

A=10-3

Page 124 of 158

 I = 2A

N=10

B=0.1T

τ= 0.1 X10-3 X10 X2

τ = 2 X10-3NM

(b)

τ=BANI

τ= 0

(c)

τ = BANICos 𠜃

τ= 0.1 x10-3 x10x2xCos 600

τ= 10 -3NM

2. [Link] a uniform magnetic field of 100T in East to West direction and a 44cm
long wire with a current carrying capacity of at most 10A. what is the shape
and orientation of the loop made of this wire which yields maximum turning effect on
the loop?

Solution

A current carrying planar loop will experience maximum together if its area to the direction
of the magnetic field for a given perimeter , a circle has the maximum area.

If 44cm wire is bent into a circular

2πr = 44

πr = 22

Page 125 of 158

 22r = 22

r=1

R = 7cm

Area of loop = πr2

= πx72

= 154cm2
= 154x10-4m2

Magnetic toque τ

τ = BANI

τ = (154 X10-4) X 100 X100

τ = 150 T

3. A circular coil of wire of 50 turns and radius 0.05 carries current of 1A the wire is suspended
vertically in a uniform magnetic field of 1.5T. the direction of magnetic field is parallel to
the plane of the coil

(a) Calculate the Toque on the coil

(b) Would your answer charged if the circular coil is replaced by a plane coil
of some irregular shape that has the same area (all
other particulars are unaltered? )

(a) Solution

Page 126 of 158

 B = 1.5T

A = πr2 = π (0.05) M2

A = 7.85 X 10-3

N = 50

I = 1A

τ = 1.5 X (7.85 X10-3) X50X1

τ = 0.589NM

(b) Since torque on the loop is independent of its shape provide area (A)
remains the same the magnitude of the torque will remain unaltered.

4. A circular coil of 20turns and radius 10 cm is placed in a uniform

magnetic field of 0.2T normal to the coil. If current in the coil is 5A find.

(i) Total torque on the coil

(ii) Total force on the coil

(iii)
Average force on each electron in the coil due to the magnetic field. The coil is
made of copper wire of cross-sectional area 10-5m2 and force of electron density
in the wire is 1029m-3

Solution

(i) The toque on the coil is given by

Since

τ=0

Page 127 of 158

 (ii) The net force on a planar current loop in a uniform magnetic field is always zero

(iii) Magnetic force on each electron

F = BeVd

F = Be.

F=

F= 10-24N

MOVING COIL METERS

A galvanometer deflects or measures small amount of current passing through it and it gives the
direction to which that current is flowing.

In these instruments a rectangular of fine insulated copper wire is suspended in an strong

magnetic field as shown in the figure below. The field is set up between soft iron poler pierces
Ns attacked to a powerful permanent magnet.

Page 128 of 158

(i) Millimeter

The magnet field is radial to the core and pole pieces over the region which the coil can swing. In
this case the deflected coil always comes to rest with the plane parallel to the field in which it
then situated.

The moving coil galvanometer ha s has hair spring and jewel bearings. The coil is around in the
rigid but light aluminium frame which also comes to carries a pivot. The current is led in and out
of the springs.

Aluminum pointer P shows the deflection of coil, it is balanced by counter weight Q.

THEORY OF MOVING COIL GALVANOMETERS

Page 129 of 158

The rectangular coil is situated in the radia field B when the current is passed into it the coil
rotate to an angle Q which depend on the length of the spring.

No matter where the coil comes to rest, the field B in which it is situated always along the plane
of the coil because the field is radial.

It is shown that the torque T of the coil is given by T = B A N I. ie.

In equilibrium the deflecting torque T is equal to the opposing torque due to the elastic forces in
the springs. The opposing torque

Torque = CQ

Where C is the constant of the spring.

Example 1

A galvanometer coil has a coil has 100 turns which each turn having an area of 2.5cm2. If the
coil is in the radial field of 2.0 10-9Nm per degree what current is needed to give a deflection of
600?

Page 130 of 158

Example 2

A moving coil galvanometer with a coil of 15 turns and an area of 0.02m2 is suspended by a
torsion wire which has restoring constant of 9.00 10-6Nm per degree of twist if the current of
ΩMA is passed through the coil whose plane is parallel to a uniform magnetic field of 0.03T.
What will be the deflection of the coil?

CURRENT SENSITIVITY.

Therefore the greater the sensitivity is obtained with a stronger field B atom value of c that is a
week springs and greater value of N and the value of A. However the size and number of turns of
a mound increase the resistance of the meter which is not desirable

VOLTAGE SENSITIVITY

Page 131 of 158

If the resistance of a moving coil meter is R the p.d.v across its terminals where a current I flows
it. It is given by V = IR--------------- (1)

But we have BAIN = C ------------ (2)

Hence the voltage sensitivity depends on the resistance R of the meter.

Unlike the current sensitivity.

CONVERTING A MILLIAMETER TO AN AMMETER.

Moving coil meters give full scale deflection for current smaller than those generally met in
laboratory. In order to measure the current of the order of an ampere or more we connect a low
resistance s called the shunt across. The terminals of moving coil meter

The shunt turns most of the current to be measured I away from the coil.

Page 132 of 158

Suppose the coil of meter has a resistance r of 20Ω and full deflected by the current of 5MA. If
we want to convert it so that its full scale deflection is 5A; Then the shunt s must be connected
which will extra current that is (5- 0.005) A or 4.995A.

Potential difference across the shunt p.d across the coil ie.

Example

A milli ammeter has a full scale reading of 0.8MA and resistance of 75 ohms. What is the value
of a single resistor which mould a current it into an ameter capable of reading 15amps at full
scale

SOLUTION:

CONVERTING A MILLIAMETER TO VOLTIAMETER

Suppose we have a moving coil meter which requires 5MA for full scale deflection and also let
suppose that the resistance of its coil r is 20 Ω

Page 133 of 158

When this milliameter is full deflected the p.d across it is given by u = rI

= (20Ω) (510-3)

=0.1u

If the coil resistance is constant the instrument can be used as a voltimeter giving a full scale
deflection for p.d of 0.1 or 100mv so this milliameter can possess two scales for current and for
voltage as shown in (1) above.

The p.d to be measured in the laboratory is usually greater than 100mv. Therefore to measure
such a p.d we put resistor R in series of with the coil as shown in fig (2) above:

For example if we wish to measure to measure up 10v is applied between terminals CD then the
scale current of 5MA flows through the moving coil. That is

Page 134 of 158

V = (R + r) I

10 =(R + 20) 5 10-3

Or

R =2000-20

=1980Ω

Page 135 of 158

The resistance r is called a multiplier.

Many voltmeters contain a series of multiplier contains a series of multiplier of different

resistances which can be chosen by a switch…. and socket arrangement shown in fig (3) above

Example

A voltmeter whose range is 0-200v has resistance R of 1500 per volt.(fsd) what resistance should
be converted in series with it to give a range of 0-2000v.

Solution

Given

But when the resistance in series they have the same current through it

New solution:

Total resistance for this voltmeter is

=1500 200 =30 10-4Ω

Page 136 of 158

Total resistance for the new scale is

=15002000 = 30 105 Ω

Extra resistance required is

(30-3) 105 =27 105 Ω

MAGNITUDES FOR CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTORS

Laws of Biot and Savant.

It state that the flux density dB= at point P due to a small element dl of a conductor carrying

Where r is the distance from the point P to the element is the angle formed it to P.

B: FLUX DENSITY = INDUCTION OR MAGNETIC INDUCTION

Page 137 of 158

 MAGNETIC FIELD

Equation (1) can be written as

dB=KIdlsinx

Where K is the constant of proportionality and it depends on the medium in which the

B AT THE CENTRE OF A NARROW CIRCULAR COIL

Page 138 of 158

Suppose the coil is in air has a radius of r carries a steady current I and it is considered to consist
of current element of length dl. Each element is at the distance r from the centre o and it is at the

Example

A coil of wire with 15 turns of radius 6.0cm, has a current of 3.5A flowing through it. What is
the magnetic flux density at the center of the coil?

Page 139 of 158

Example

What is the magnitude of the flux density produced the center of a coil of radius 5cm carrying
current of 4A in air.

Example

A circular coil of radius 6cm consisting of 5 turns carries a current supplied from 2v accumulator
of negligible internal resistance. If the coil has a total resistance of 2Ω. Calculate the magnetic
field induced at the centre

B DUE TO A LONG STRAIGHT WIRE AT A DISTANCE d SIDE THE WIRE

Consider a very long wire YN carrying a current I. Take P to be a point outside the wire but also
this point is considered to be very near to this wire.

Page 140 of 158

THE HALL EFFECT
Is the phenomenon where by e .m. f or voltage is set up transversely or across a current
carrying conductor when a perpendicular magnetic field is applied

Consider a piece of conducting material in a magnetic field of flux density B

Suppose that the field is directed (perpendicularly) into the paper and that there is a current
flowing from right to [Link] the material is a metal the current is carried by electrons moving
from left to right

Consider the situation of one of these electrons and suppose that it has a velocity V

The electron feels a force F which by Fleming’s left hand rule, is directed downwards .

Thus in addition to the electron flow from left to right electrons are urged away from face
Y and towards face X. Anegative charged builds up on X, leaving a positive charged on Y
so that a potential difference is established between X and Y. The buildup of charge
continues until the potential difference becomes so large that it prevents any further increase
. This maximum, potential difference is called the Hall voltage

Hall voltage

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Is the potential difference created across a current carrying metal strip when the strip
is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current flow in the strip.

Actually, the magnetic field does not have to be totally perpendicular to the strip
the magnetic field only needs to have a component that is perpendicular

The flow ceases when the e .m .f reaches a particular VH called Hall voltage

MAGNITUDE HALL VOLTAGE

Suppose VH is the magnitude of the Hall voltage and d is the width of the slab
(the separation of x and y). Then the Electric field strength E set
up across the slab is numerical equal to the potential gradient.

E=

let Fv be the force exerted on an electron by the P.d between X and Y.

Therefore when the buildup of charged on X and Y has ceased

F = Fv

BeV = eE

BV = E

BV=
VH=BVd.......................(i)

Where

E = The strength of the uniform electric field between X and Y due to the Hall voltage

VH = Hall voltage

d = The separation of X and Y

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 HALL VOLTAGE
Is the potential difference created across a current carrying metal strip
when the strip is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current flow in
the strip

Actually the magnetic field does not have to be totally perpendicular to the strip
the magnetic field only needs to have a component that is perpendicular
The flow ceases when the e .m. f reaches a particular value VH called Hall voltage. It has been
shown that the current I in a material is given by I = neAV

Where

n = the number of electron per unit value

e = the charge on each electrons

v = the drift velocity of the electrons

A = the cross – sectional area of the material

V= ----------------- (ii)

Sub equation (ii) into equation (i)

From

In figure A = d t and therefore

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
An electric current create magnetic field, the reverse effects of producing electricity by

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magnetism was discovered by Faraday and is called electromagnetic induction

Induced can be generated in two ways

(a) By relative moment ( The generator effect )

if the bar magnet is moved in and out of a stationary galvanometer or small current is recorded
during the motion but not at other time movement of the coil towards or away from the
stationary magnet has the same results (figure above)
relative motion between the magnet and coil is necessary, the direction of the of induced current
depends on the direction of the relative motion. And magnitude of current is produced increase
with
i. the speed of the motion
ii. The number of turns in the coil
iii. The strength of the magnet used
(b) By changing a magnetic field (transformer effects)

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In this case two coils are arranged one inside the other (Figure below) to galvanometer

Rheostat the other called secondary is connected to galvanometer, switching the current on or off

in the primary causes impulse of and current to be induced in the secondary. Varying the
primary current quietly altering the value of rheostat has the same effect.
Electromagnetic induction thus they occurs only when there is only change in primary current
and also in magnetic fields it induces

LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

While the magnitude of the induced EMF is given by Faraday law. Its direction can be predicted
by Lenz's Law
LENZ'S LAW

The direction of induced is such that it tends to oppose the flux change which causing it and
does oppose it if induced current flows

Faraday or Newman’s laws

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The induced is directly proportional to the rate of change of the flux through the the coil.

If E = induced then

NOTE
I). The minus sign express Lenz's Law
II). Nɸ is the flux linkage in the coil

INDUCED EMF IN A MOVING ROD

Area swept in 1 second

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AB is a wire which can be moved by a force F in a contact with a smooth metal rails PQ and RS.
A magnetic field of flux density B acts downwards perpendicular to the plane of the system.

As the wire AB cuts the flux density the is produced by the current I and is in opposition to
the motion

Therefore

F= BIL ..............................................................i
Where l is the distance between two rails

And I= .....................................................................ii
Where is the resistance of the wire
If the wire is moving with a speed V then F' = F ...................iii

F’ = ……………………………4

Power = = = Force x velocity

= ……………………… 5

Also power = = = …………….6

Equating equation 5 and 6

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 I.e. E = BLV (This is the induced in a moving coil)

INDUCED EMF IN A ROTATING COIL

Consider a coil of an area A and its normal makes an angle of with the magnetic field BY

The flux linkage with the coil of n turns is expressed as

N = ………………………………………………………1

The induced emf is given by

E = = - = =

E= since

If the maximum value of emf is denoted by o

Then

E = Eo sinwt where Eo = NABw

A gain w =

Therefore

1.

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2. Eo =

Exercise 1

The magnetic flux QB through the loop perpendicular to the plane of the coil and directed into
the paper as shown in the diagram is varying according to the equation QB = 8t2 +5t +5 where
QB is measured in millimebers and t in seconds

i. What is the magnitude of induced in the loop when

ii. What is the direction of the current through R?

Solution

E=

E = 16t + 5

E = 53Mv

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 Exercise 2

What is the maximum induced in a coil of 500turns, each with an area of , which
makes 50reflections per second in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.04T?

Solution

B = 0.04T

2.5Volts

INDUCED EMF IN ROTATING DISC – DYNAMO

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Consider a copper disc which rotates between poles of magnets. Connections are made to its circle
and the circumference. An induced emf is obtained between the Centre of the disc and one edge.
We assume that magnetic field is uniform over the radius xy

The radius continuously cuts the magnetic flux between the poles of the magnet. For this straight

conductor, the velocity at the end of x is zero and that at the other end y where w is the angular
velocity of the disk

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Average velocity of is

An induced in straight conductor is given by

In this case

…………………………………………………….i)

Since ………………………………………...ii)

If the disc has the radius r1 and an axle at the Centre of radius r2 the area swept out by a rotating

radius of the metal disc is - = - in this case the induced would be

- f

The direction of the E is given by Fleming’s right hand rule

As the disc rotates clockwise the radius moves to the left at the same time as the radius moves
to right

If the magnetic field covers the whole disk, induced in the two radii would be in opposite

direction. So the resultant emf between yz would be zero. The emf between the Centre and

the rim of the disc is the maximum which can be obtained

Qn.

A circular metal disc with a radius of 10cm rotates at 10revolutions per seconds. If the disc is in a

uniform magnetic field of 0.02T at a right angle to the plane of the disc. What will be the
induced between the Centre and the rim of the disc?

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Solution

B = 0.02T

SELF INDUCTANCE (L)

An induced emf appear in the coil if the current in that coil is changed is called self-induction and

produced is called self-induced

For a given coil produced no magnetic materials nearly the flux linkage proportional to the
current I

Or

Where L is a constant proportionality which is called self-inductance of a coil

From Faraday’s law in such a coil the induced

Substitute i) in ii)

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 or

Hence the unit of inductance . A special name the Henry has been given to this combination
of units

Two coils A and B have 200 and 800turns respectively. A current 2Amperes in A produces a

magnetic flux of in each turn of A, compute:

i. Mutual inductance

ii. Magnetic flux through A when there is a current of 4.0 Ampere in B

iii. The induced when the current in A changes 3A to 1A in 0.2seconds

SELF INDUCTANCE (L) FOR THE COIL

The induced ,

(By integrating the equation we have)

Therefore

The self-inductance may be defined as the flux linkage per unit current, when is in wabers and I
is in amperes then L is in henry:

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Magnetic flux density for a long coil is given by with an iron core with a relative permeability

of

The flux density is given by since

Thus the flux linkage

(Unit for L is Henry)

ENERGY STORED IN AN INDUCTOR

Because of of the self-induction that act when the current in the coil change, electrical energy

must be supplied in setting up the current against the .

If L is the self-inductance of the inductor then the back across it is given by

…………………………i)

Hence rate at which work is done against the backward emf.

Power = EI…………………………ii)

Substitute equation i) into ii)

Then equation ii) becomes

The work done to bring the current from zero to a steady state value Io is

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Therefore

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE (M)

The may be induced by in one circuit by changing current in another. This phenomenon is
often called mutual induction and the pairs of circuits which shows it are said to have mutual
inductance

The mutual inductance m between the two circuits is defined by the following equation

Induced in B by changing = M (rate of change of current in A) i.e.

The unit of mutual inductance is Henry the same as that of self-inductance

MUTUAL INDUCTION

Since the rate of change in flux in B then

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QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY INDUCED

Consider a close circuit of total resistance R Ohms which has a total flux linkage with magnetic
field B. if the flux linkage starts to change

Induced , but current

Flux linkage will not change at a steady rate and a current will not be constant. But throughout it
changes. Its charge is being carried round the circuit. If a time t seconds is taken to reach a new
constant value the charge carried round the circuit in that time is

Where is the number of linkage at t=o and is the number of linkage time t

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Thus

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