Companion Notes
CCAC training module on:
laboratory animals used in biomedical research
Companion Notes
Slide 1 CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research ........1
Slide 2 Relevance of this Training Module.........................................................................1
Slide 3 Training Module Goals ...........................................................................................2
Slide 4 Training Module Outline .........................................................................................2
Slide 5 Animal Models Used in Biomedical Research .......................................................3
Slide 6 Types of Animal Models Used in Biomedical Research.........................................3
Slide 7 Types of Animal Models Used in Biomedical Research.........................................4
Slide 8 Choosing an Appropriate Animal Model.................................................................4
Slide 9 Factors that Influence Animal Research ................................................................7
Slide 10 Non-Experimental Factors that Influence Animal Research ..................................7
Slide 11 Animal Related Factors..........................................................................................8
Slide 12 Animal Related Factors .........................................................................................8
Slide 13 Animal Related Factors .........................................................................................9
Slide 14 Animal Related Factors .........................................................................................9
Slide 15 Physical & Environmental Factors........................................................................11
Slide 16 Physical & Environmental Factors ......................................................................12
Slide 17 Physical & Environmental Factors ......................................................................12
Slide 18 Physical & Environmental Factors ......................................................................13
Slide 19 Physical & Environmental Factors ......................................................................14
Slide 20 Physical & Environmental Factors ......................................................................14
Slide 21 Husbandry, Animal Care & Handling Factors.......................................................15
Slide 22 Husbandry, Animal Care & Handling Factors ......................................................16
Slide 23 Husbandry, Animal Care & Handling Factors ......................................................17
Slide 24 Husbandry, Animal Care & Handling Factors.......................................................17
Slide 25 Experimental Manipulation Factors......................................................................18
Slide 26 Experimental Manipulation Factors .....................................................................19
Slide 27 Experimental Manipulation Factors .....................................................................20
Slide 28 Responsibilities of Research Team Members ......................................................20
Slide 29 Principal Investigator............................................................................................21
Slide 30 Graduate Students, Post-Doctoral Students and Research Technical Staff ........21
Slide 31 Facility Manager...................................................................................................22
Slide 32 Animal Care Facility Staff.....................................................................................22
Slide 33 Laboratory Animal Veterinary Staff.......................................................................23
Slide 34 Summary..............................................................................................................23
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
CCAC training module on:
laboratory animals used in biomedical research
Companion Notes
Slide 1 CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical
research
This module provides an introductory overview of
the factors and welfare issues that relate to the use
of animals housed in vivaria in biomedical research.
The intention is that this overview be utilized in
conjunction with hands-on training. Before any re-
search is carried out, all personnel involved must
receive practical instruction, and be able to demon-
strate competence in all techniques required within
the protocol.
Slide 2 Relevance of this Training Module
This training module is relevant to all animal users
working with animals housed in vivaria (enclosed
areas such as laboratories) in biomedical research.
This training module covers rodents, rabbits, birds,
amphibians, reptiles, non-human primates and
other mammals housed in vivaria.
Note: This module does not cover fish; training ma-
terials relevant to fish users are available in the Fish
Stream. This module does not cover farm animals;
training modules relevant to farm animal users are
available in the Farm Animal Stream.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 3 Training Module Goals
At the end of this training module, the reader
should:
• understand the differences in the types of ani-
mal models used in biomedical research and the
importance of their selection
• recognize the importance of accounting for and
controlling the variables in the experimental
design
• develop a checklist of the variables that can af-
fect research programs
• describe and accept responsibility for ensuring
the successful conduct of an experiment
Slide 4 Training Module Outline
This training module will provide an overview of
the:
• use and selection of animal models for biomed-
ical research
• many variables that influence the way the se-
lected animal model will respond in an experi-
ment
• importance of controlling all the non-experi-
mental variables, including the many protocol
variables, and of monitoring and recording the
variables
• respective responsibilities of each team member
involved with a research project (principal investigators, graduate students, post-doctoral students, re-
search technical staff, facility managers, animal care facility staff and laboratory animal veterinary staff)
in controlling the variables that may alter the animal model's response
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 5 Animal Models Used in Biomedical Research
Although the term "animal model" is commonly
used, a definition may help clarify the context of the
term. The American National Research Council
Committee on Animal Models for Research and
Aging drafted the following definition: "An animal
model for biomedical research is one in which nor-
mative biology or behaviour can be studied, or in
which a spontaneous or induced pathological
process can be investigated, and in which the phe-
nomenon in one or more respects resembles the
same phenomenon in humans or other species of
animals."
Slide 6 Types of Animal Models Used in Biomedical Research
Animal models used in biomedical research, partic-
ularly those used in the study of diseases and other
conditions in humans, can be grouped as follows:
Spontaneous models or "natural"
models
These include naturally occurring animal diseases
or conditions that correspond to the same diseases
or conditions in humans. Diabetes, hypertension,
arthritis, immune deficiencies are just a few exam-
ples. Many hundreds of animal strains with inher-
ited conditions have been characterized and
conserved.
Experimental models
Experimental models are models in which a condition or disease is experimentally reproduced by the sci-
entist. Examples include producing diabetes using the chemical streptozotocin to damage the insulin pro-
ducing cells in the pancreas; using a chemical carcinogen to produce a certain type of cancer; producing a
stroke model through surgery.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 7 Types of Animal Models Used in Biomedical Research
Genetically-engineered models
Genetically-engineered models are a special group
of induced animal models, involving manipulation
of the animal's genetic code to produce the condi-
tion that the scientist wants to study. Genetically
modified animals may carry inserted foreign DNA
in their genome, or have genes replaced or removed
("knock-out" models). These models can help scien-
tists study the genetic basis of disease, susceptibility
and resistance, etc.
Negative models
Some animals are resistant to a particular condition
or disease. Examining why this is the case may pro-
vide answers to questions about disease resistance and its physiological basis. For instance, certain strains
of mice are resistant to some infectious agents while others are susceptible.
Orphan models
Orphan models are conditions appearing naturally in an animal, for which there is no known human coun-
terpart. Historically scrapie in sheep was such a model, but now is useful as a model for the human spongi-
form encephalopathies that are of so much concern (e.g., BSE, "mad cow disease" and Chronic wasting
disease in deer).
Slide 8 Choosing an Appropriate Animal Model
Before an animal model is chosen the principal
investigator must consider alternatives to the
use of live animals in his/her experiment
(alternatives of Replacement, Reduction and
Refinement).
For more detailed information on the Three Rs:
• CCAC Three Rs microsite: [Link]/en/
alternatives
• CCAC training module on: the Three Rs of humane
animal experimentation (2003). Visit the CCAC
website at [Link] to access and consult
this training module.
Replacement and species selection
In line with the CCAC guidelines on: animal use protocol review (1997), protocol forms should include a decla-
ration that before making the decision to use animals in his/her research, the principal investigator has con-
sidered non-animal alternatives, or using species that current scientific evidence indicates have a
significantly lower potential for pain perception, such as some invertebrates.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Reduction and species selection
The appropriate choice of an animal model can be considered a Reduction alternative, as it should minimize
variation in the experiment and hence the numbers of animals that are required.
Using an appropriate model can be considered a Reduction alternative when:
• the use of isogenic, or genetically identical, strains (inbred strains and F1 hybrids) results in less exper-
imental variability than would occur when outbred strains are used
• the model has been validated and shown to meet the objectives of the research and/or be predictive of
the endpoint of interest
• the model has been fully characterized so that all aspects of the animal's life cycle and their potential
impact on the experiment are understood (for example, to ensure the animal will survive long enough
to complete the experiment, or whether the rapid growth of a young animal is appropriate to model an
adult human)
• the model is being continuously improved to decrease variability and improve it's predictivity
Refinement and species selection
Using an appropriate model can be considered a Refinement alternative when:
• the research facility ensures it is able to properly house and care for the species, including accommoda-
tion of the species’ behavioural and companionship needs
• competent welfare assessments of the species can be made, including knowledge of pain and pain man-
agement in the species
• purpose-bred animals are used rather than those caught in the wild
The most obvious choice of animal species and model for a specific research program may be the same
model used by other researchers for the same research. However, with ever increasing numbers of animal
models available including new spontaneous mutations, and genetically modified animals constantly being
developed, the investigator must consider all factors when selecting the best model for his/her research.
Some of the factors that will influence which animal model the investigator selects are:
• appropriateness of the model or organ system for the proposed study
• genetic aspects of the model
• natural vs. experimentally produced models - both natural models and induced models of disease are
useful depending on the objectives of the study
• responses of the animal to procedures
• environmental aspects important to that particular animal model
• background information available on the animal and specific model
• species availability
• numbers needed, according to statistically appropriate design
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
• age and sex needed
• life span of the animal model
• size of the animal model
• cost of both the animal model and its ongoing care
• facilities required to house the chosen model appropriately
• husbandry expertise - some models require not only special housing, but also special care
Among these factors are scientific considerations as well as purely practical ones. All are important to the
success of the research program.
Additional References and Resources:
CCAC guidelines on: animal use protocol review (1997) Visit the CCAC website at [Link] to access and
consult this guidelines document.
Dell R.B., Hollerhan S., and Ramakrishnan A. (2002) Sample Size Determination. Institute for Laboratory An-
imal Research Journal 43(4): 207-213.
Festing M.F. (2010) Improving toxicity screening and drug development by using genetically defined strains.
Methods in Molecular Biology 602: 1-21.
Festing M.F.W. and Altman D.G. (2002) Guidelines for the Design and Statistical Analysis of Experiments
Using Laboratory Animals. Institute for Laboratory Animal Research Journal 43(4): 244-258.
Festing M.F.W. (2006) Animal models in research. [Link], [Link]
in_research.html
Johnson P.D. and Besselsen D.G. (2002) Practical Aspects of Experimental Design in Animal Research. Insti-
tute for Laboratory Animal Research Journal 43(4): 202-206.
Shaw R., Festing M.F.W., Peers I. and Furlong L. (2002) Use of factorial designs to optimize animal experi-
ments and reduce animal use. Institute for Laboratory Animal Research Journal 43(4): 223-232.
Wood M.W. and Hart L.A. (2008) Selecting appropriate animal models and strains: making the best use of
research information and outreach. Alternatives to Animal Testing and Experimentation 14:303-306.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 9 Factors that Influence Animal Research
When conducting research, investigators want ex-
perimental and control groups to be exactly the
same, except for the variable they are interested in.
However, laboratory animals are influenced by
many non-experimental factors that might poten-
tially affect the outcome of the study. Those factors
should be identified and accounted for at all stages
to ensure they do not increase the variability or ad-
versely affect the outcome of the experiment.
Additional References and Resources:
Lipman N.S. and Perkins S.E. (2002) Factors that
May Influence Animal Research. In: Laboratory An-
imal Medicine, 2nd ed. (Fox J.G., Anderson L.C.,
Loew F.M. and Quimby F.W., eds) Orlando FL: Ac-
ademic Press, Chapter 29. pp. 1143-1184.
Slide 10 Non-Experimental Factors that Influence Animal Research
The many non-experimental factors that can influ-
ence the response of the animal model in an exper-
iment can be grouped as:
• animal related factors
• physical / environmental factors
• husbandry, animal care, and handling factors
• research manipulation factors
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 11 Animal Related Factors
Some of the factors affecting research results are
related to the animals themselves. These factors
include:
• age, sex and reproductive status
• genetic make-up
• microbial flora
• biological (circadian) rhythms
• disease
Slide 12 Animal Related Factors
1. Age, sex and reproductive status
The age of the research animals is an important
variable to control because younger animals can
have different responses than older animals. For ex-
ample, white blood cell counts, immune responses,
and enzyme activity can vary with the age of the an-
imal. Gender can also be a variable. For example,
liver biotransformation of certain chemicals tends
to be slower in females than in males, which means
that the toxicity of some compounds may be differ-
ent between the sexes, and different doses of anes-
thetics or therapeutic drugs may be required.
Reproductive status is another variable, since the
physiology of females that are pregnant or lactating
is obviously different from those that are not. Like-
wise, hormonal variations that occur during different stages of the estrus cycle can influence responses of
females.
2. Genetic make-up
The genetic make-up of the animals is another important consideration. Are the animals inbred or outbred?
All individuals in an inbred strain are essentially genetically identical, although it is important to realize
that there may be subtle differences between animals of the same inbred strain obtained from different com-
mercial suppliers. In most cases, inbred strains of research animals are preferred to outbred stocks, since
this reduced genetic diversity means that smaller numbers of animals can be used to obtain statistically sig-
nificant results. But inbred animals tend to be smaller and less robust than their outbred counterparts.
Are the animals genetically modified? Genetic manipulation can affect more than just the gene of interest,
and may alter the phenotype of the animal in unexpected ways that can affect research results.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 13 Animal Related Factors
3. Microbial flora
Most research animals carry a mixed microbial pop-
ulation that depends in part on housing conditions,
diet, exposure to microbes, and other factors. These
microbes may be a source of variability between an-
imals housed in different facilities, and can influ-
ence parameters such as nutritional requirements
and drug metabolism. In addition, the microbial
flora can influence the phenotype of genetically
modified animals.
4. Biological (circadian) rhythms
Biological or circadian rhythms can also influence
research results. The animal’s metabolism varies
with the time of day, according to a circadian rhythm that is entrained by the light cycle. Nocturnal animals
such as rodents are more active during the dark phase, and their metabolic rate is increased at this time as
well. This means that drugs, such as anesthetics for example, can have a variable effect depending on the
time of day they are administered. Thus it is very important to perform research manipulations at the same
time of day for all animals.
Slide 14 Animal Related Factors
5. Disease
Clinical disease
Disease is one of the most important variables that
interfere with research. Disease in research animals
can be clinical, meaning that it is readily apparent,
and the animals actually look sick. These sick ani-
mals are clearly not good research subjects, since
their responses will be influenced by the presence
of disease.
Example 1: Infection causing disease
Fur mites (Myocoptes musculinus, Myobia musculi,
Radfordia affinis) infestation in mice is an infectious
disease of the skin which causes alopecia, pruritus and ulcerative dermatitis. Interference with research:
Animals with mites and severe clinical signs such as ulcerative dermatitis are not suitable for use in research.
For example, mice may have an increased IgE response, an increase in the formation of secondary amyloid,
hypoalbuminemia, and a decreased mean hemoglobin concentration.
Example 2: Ordinary bacteria causing disease in immune deficient models
Immune deficient or immune compromised models (e.g., nude or severe combined immunodeficiency
(SCID) mice) are very susceptible to ordinarily non-pathogenic organisms such as Corynebacterium spp. Spe-
cial caging and care procedures are vital to minimizing such infections. Inadvertent infections in these special
models can not only cause serious disease, but they will also interfere with the animal's immune response
during research.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Subclinical disease
More commonly however, laboratory animal disease can be subclinical or silent, meaning that the animals
may appear outwardly healthy despite the presence of infectious organisms. These subclinical infections
can nonetheless interfere with research results by causing changes in immune response, drug metabolism,
behaviour, and reproduction. Two examples of silent infections affecting research results are presented
here:
Example 1:
Mouse parvovirus (MPV) is a clinically silent infection. In mice with normal immune systems the infection
lasts up to 6 months, while in immunodeficient or immunosuppressed mice, infection and shedding of the
virus may be lifelong. MPV persistently infects the lymphoid tissue and causes changes in immune system
responses. Infected T cells may not grow properly when cultured in vitro. Parvoviruses may also interfere
with cancer research; T cells from infected mice may have diminished cytolytic capacity.
Example 2:
Pasteurellosis is a disease of rabbits caused by the bacteria, Pasteurella multocida. Many infected rabbits
show clinical signs such as nasal discharge, conjunctivitis or abscesses. However, in other cases healthy rab-
bits can harbor the bacteria in their upper respiratory tract without any outward signs. These unapparent
carriers can shed the pathogen and infect other rabbits. When infected rabbits are subjected to stress, as
from experimental manipulation, they may suddenly become sick or even die unexpectedly. These unan-
ticipated animal losses cost researchers time and money, and also have a high ethical cost. The use of specific
pathogen free rabbits that do not carry this disease is an example of Reduction.
From these four examples, it should be obvious that infections, even subclinical ones causing no overt dis-
ease signs, can significantly affect the results obtained in a study. The efforts of many people, at many levels,
to eliminate such infections from the laboratory animal models, have contributed to minimizing this un-
wanted variable in biomedical research that uses animal models.
Knowing the health status of the animals and documenting it are a very important part of the
records that must be kept by the principal investigator, as part of defining the animal model in
the publications arising from the research.
Additional References and Resources:
CCAC training module on: infectious diseases (2010). Visit the CCAC website at [Link] to access and con-
sult this training module.
Charles River Laboratories. (2009) Technical sheet. Fur, Skin, and Ear mites. [Link]
Documents/rm_ld_r_mites.pdf
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 15 Physical & Environmental Factors
In addition to the animal-related factors, there are
many factors in the environment that can influence
an animal’s response to experimental manipulations.
These physical and environmental factors include:
• room temperature
• relative humidity
• ventilation
• lighting
• noise
• feed and water
• bedding
For more detailed information on physical and environment factors:
Canadian Council on Animal Care (1993) The Environment. In: CCAC Guide to the Care and Use of Experi-
mental Animals, vol. 1, 2nd ed. Ottawa ON: CCAC, Chapter III. pp. 52-65. Visit the CCAC website at
[Link] to access and consult this guide.
Additional References and Resources:
Castelhano-Carlos M.J. and Baumans V. (2009) The impact of light, noise, cage cleaning and in-house trans-
port on welfare and stress of laboratory rats. Laboratory Animals 43(4):311-27.
Gonder J.C. and Laber K. (2007) A renewed look at laboratory rodent housing and management. Institute
for Laboratory Animal Research Journal 48 (1):29-36.
Hessler J.R. and Hoglund U. (2003) Laboratory Animal Facilities and Equipment for Conventional, Barrier,
and Containment Housing Systems. In: Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (Hau J. and Van
Hoosier G.L. Jr., eds.) Boca Raton FL: CRC Press, Chapter 8. pp. 127-172.
Johnson N.A. and Nevalainen T. (2003) Impact of the Biotic and Abiotic Environment on Animal Experi-
ments. In: Handbook of Laboratory Animal Science, Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (Hau J. and Van Hoosier G.L. Jr., eds.) Boca
Raton FL: CRC Press, Chapter 13. pp. 311-326.
Lipman N.S. (2007) Design and Management of Research Facilities for Mice. In: The Mouse in Biomedical Re-
search, Vol. 3, 2nd ed. (Fox J.G., Barthold S.W., Davisson M.T., Newcomer C.E., Quimby F.W. and Smith A.L.,
eds.) New York NY: Academic Press, Chapter 9. pp. 271-320.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 16 Physical & Environmental Factors
1. Room temperature
Small laboratory animals respond to temperature
variations by changes in behaviour (e.g., shivering,
huddling) and metabolic rate (including increased
food consumption if they require more body heat
production). These changes could affect several
metabolic processes including drug metabolism.
Daily animal room temperature fluctuations should
therefore be limited (by good heating/ventilation
design) to +/- 2°C. Daily temperature fluctuations
should be monitored and recorded.
For some studies it may be necessary to measure
cage parameters, and not just room environment.
The temperature in an individual cage may be sig-
nificantly warmer than the overall room temperature, especially if the cage houses a large number of animals
and is placed on the top of a rack. The temperature within static microisolator cages will likely be higher
than in open cages or individually ventilated cages.
Slide 17 Physical & Environmental Factors
2. Relative humidity
The relative humidity of the animal’s immediate en-
vironment (microenvironment) is another factor
that can impact research animals. It can affect ther-
moregulation, food consumption, activity level, and
disease transmission.
Most species do well at a relative humidity of 40-
60%. The humidity level should be chosen as ap-
propriate for the species, and should be kept
consistent (+/- 5%). Prolonged low levels of relative
humidity can cause ringtail in young, unweaned
rats, and result in respiratory irritation.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 18 Physical & Environmental Factors
3. Ventilation
Animal housing requires high air exchange rates to
remove animal generated heat, ammonia, carbon
dioxide, and airborne particles (dust and allergens).
The environment within the cage may be quite dif-
ferent from that of the room, depending on the
type of caging used. For example, static microiso-
lator cages may contain high levels of ammonia
and carbon dioxide despite good ventilation rates
in the room itself. Air pressure gradients from an-
imal rooms to corridors or between zones in an an-
imal facility are also important for containment of
micro-organisms.
Within a laboratory animal holding room there can be significant variations in ventilation, and levels of am-
monia and CO2, as well as air flow. Randomizing the location of animals in different treatment groups in a
rack or in the room may help to avoid bias in the results due to these factors.
4. Lighting
The lighting cycle for the animals has several aspects; the day/night cycle, the intensity of the lights, and
the wavelength.
Timer control of day/night cycle is necessary to maintain a consistent diurnal rhythm in the animal's meta-
bolic state. Exposure to even brief periods of light during the dark phase of the cycle can disrupt the diurnal
rhythm and affect reproduction and metabolism, which in turn can affect research results. For example, ex-
posure to low light levels during the dark phase can alter the growth rate of tumors in rats.
The sudden onset of lights in the morning affects some hormone levels - effects that may last for several
hours. The use of dusk/dawn lighting systems, which gradually change light intensity between dark and
light phases is encouraged.
The intensity and wavelength are also important to animals. Albino rodents in particular experience retinal
damage when room light intensities are above 300 Lux. Wavelength has been shown to influence organ
weights and estrus cycle length in mice.
The amount of light perceived by animals in cages will depend on the cage type, the proximity of the cage
to the light source, the presence of opaque environmental enrichment devices such as tunnels or houses, as
well as the age of the light bulbs and the reflectivity of room surfaces. For studies where the light levels
might influence the research results, randomizing the location of animals in different treatment groups on
a holding rack may be useful in avoiding a light-induced bias in the results obtained.
Additional References and Resources:
Dauchy R.T., Sauer L.A., Blask D.E. and Vaughan G.M. (1997) Light Contamination During the Dark Phase
in "Photoperiodically Controlled" Animal Rooms: Effect on Tumor Growth and Metabolism in Rats. Labo-
ratory Animal Science 47(5):511-518.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Memarzadeh F., Harrison P.C., Riskowski G.L. and Henze T. (2004) Comparison of Environment and Mice
in Static and Mechanically Ventilated Isolator Cages with Different Air Velocities and Ventilation Designs.
Contemporary topics in laboratory animal science 43(1):14-20.
Slide 19 Physical & Environmental Factors
5. Noise
The impact of noise on the behaviour or responses
of laboratory animals in biomedical research has re-
ceived too little study. The fact that loud "buzzer"
noises may induce seizures in young rodents (this
has been used to create a model of audiogenic
seizures) is well known.
Both intensity and sound frequency are important.
Rodents and some other animals are particularly
sensitive to ultrasonic frequencies, ones that we
may not even be aware of since they are beyond the
range of the human ear. Low frequency noises, for
example from nearby construction, may also dis-
turb the animals. Noise can impact many different
types of research. For example, studies in lab animals have shown that noise affects food and water con-
sumption, reproduction, blood pressure, immune response, white blood cell counts, plasma cholesterol lev-
els, and learning ability.
Slide 20 Physical & Environmental Factors
6. Feed and water
A consistent and reproducible diet that meets the
animal’s nutritional needs is an important part of
animal research. Purified diets with minimal nutri-
ent variation are necessary for many types of re-
search, since seasonal and batch-to-batch variation
in components can affect the animal’s physiology
and metabolism. Many laboratory animal diets are
also “certified” not to exceed maximal amounts of
known contaminants or chemical residues that
might affect research.
Laboratory animals should be provided with water
that meets the standards set for human consump-
tion. This is only a minimum requirement however,
since there can be a significant amount of variation in quality of potable water from different sources. Water
can contain impurities, including bacteria, heavy metals and trace chemicals such as pesticides that can
affect research. Furthermore, the amounts of these contaminants can vary depending on the time of year or
local weather conditions. For this reason, the use of reverse osmosis to purify water for laboratory animals
is becoming the standard. In some facilities water is treated by acidification or chlorination to reduce bac-
terial growth. However, both of these processes can affect research. For example, acidification of water can
lead to leaching of chemicals from the rubber stoppers used in water bottles, and by-products of chlorination
may cause alterations in hematological parameters.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
7. Bedding
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) in most animal facilities include provision of regular bedding ma-
terials for that facility. Any special bedding requirements have to be specified by the principal investigator.
The phenomenon of resins in softwood bedding (e.g., cedar shavings) activating some of the hepatic enzyme
systems (P450 enzymes) is well known. This may complicate results if the experimental outcome is related
to hepatic enzyme activity.
Additional References and Resources:
Barnard D.E., Lewis S.M., Teter B.B. and Thigpen J.E. (2009) Open- and Closed-Formula Laboratory Animal
Diets and their Importance to Research. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science
48(6):709-713.
Lauer A.M., May B.J., Hao Z.J. and Watson J. (2009) Sounds levels in modern rodent housing rooms are an
uncontrolled environmental variable with fluctuations mainly due to human activities. Laboratory Animals
38(5):154-160.
Slide 21 Husbandry, Animal Care & Handling Factors
Stress from many different sources can affect the an-
imal's physiology, biochemistry and behaviour.
Sources of stress in the handling and care of the ani-
mals include transportation, housing, and the han-
dling and manipulations done by animal care and
research staff. For more detailed information on hus-
bandry, care, and handling of laboratory animals:
Canadian Council on Animal Care (1993) Labora-
tory Animal Facilities. In: CCAC Guide to the Care and
Use of Experimental Animals, vol. 1, 2nd ed. Ottawa
ON: CCAC, Chapter II. pp. 44-51. Visit the CCAC
website at [Link] to access and consult this
guide.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 22 Husbandry, Animal Care & Handling Factors
1. Transportation
Laboratory animals are rarely used in the same lo-
cation where they are raised, so usually they are
transported to the facility where the research will
be done. A number of studies have shown that ani-
mals experience varying degrees of stress as a result
of the transport, and that it takes some time upon
arrival at the research facility to return to a normal
physiological state. Eating, drinking and growth
tend to return to normal levels in about a week after
delivery to the new location. Some subtle physio-
logical and immunological changes may last longer.
Institutions should have SOPs for conditioning an-
imals upon receipt that take into account the species
and background of the animals.
2. Housing
Caging
The amount of space per animal, and the number of animals per cage may influence an animal's response
in an experiment. Identical caging should be used for all animals in a study, to ensure that the space per an-
imal and number of animals per cage remains consistent within a study. Cage design is also an important
consideration, since there are significant differences in temperature, humidity and air quality, as well as
noise and vibration levels between different cage types (open, static microisolator or individually ventilated
cages).
Studies have shown that the number of rodents per cage affects the stress level (either isolation or crowding),
and their growth. As a general rule small rodents should be housed in small groups to minimize stress, and
for social enrichment. If the research requires individual housing, this should be scientifically justified to
the institutional animal care committee.
Additional References and Resources:
Castelhano-Carlos M.J. and Baumans V. (2009) The impact of light, noise, cage cleaning and in-house trans-
port on welfare and stress of laboratory rats. Laboratory Animals 43(4):311-27.
Lawlor M. (1990) The size of rodent cages. In: Guidelines for the Well-Being of Rodents in Research. (Guttman
H.N., ed.).Bethesda MD: Scientists Center for Animal Welfare, pp.19-28.
Swallow J., Anderson D., Buckwell A., Harris T., Hawkins P., Kirkwood J., Lomas M., Meacham S., Peters
A., Prescott M., Owen S., Quest R., Sutcliffe R. and Thompson K. (2005) Guidance on the transport of labo-
ratory animals: report of the Transport Working Group established by the Laboratory Animal Science As-
sociation (LASA). Laboratory Animals 39(1):1-39.
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
Slide 23 Husbandry, Animal Care & Handling Factors
2. Housing (continued)
Environmental enrichment
The value of providing an enriched environment in
improving the well-being of the animals must be
emphasized. In the context of controlling research
variables however, it must be noted that any
changes (improvements) to the cages will have be-
havioural, physiological and anatomical effects,
some of which result in permanent changes to the
animal. Therefore any improvements or enrich-
ments should be uniformly and consistently pro-
vided to all animals for the duration of an
experiment. Changes in the cage's physical environ-
ment should only be made following consultation
with the investigator.
For more detailed information on environmental enrichment:
• CCAC training module on: environmental enrichment (2003). Visit the CCAC website at [Link] to ac-
cess and consult this training module.
• Three Rs microsite: [Link]
Additional References and Resources:
Laber K., Veatch L.M., Lopez M.F., Mulligan J.K. and Lathers D.M. (2008) Effects of housing density on
weight gain, immune function, behavior, and plasma corticosterone concentrations in BALB/c and C57BL/6
mice. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 47(2):16-23.
Slide 24 Husbandry, Animal Care & Handling Factors
3. Routine (daily/weekly) animal care,
husbandry and handling
The daily routines of the animal care staff may have
a profound impact on the way an animal responds
in an experiment. As a general principle all animals
should be handled the same way, and at the same
time of day; if this is impossible, a randomized de-
sign should be used. Handling must be gentle, and
consistent. Most animals quickly become familiar
with their regular caretakers and their stress level
rises when unfamiliar people handle them.
The kind of handling each animal receives may in
fact alter its behaviour or physiology, and thereby
affect its response in a study. One example of this
comes from a handling study conducted in pigs. Hemsworth and co-workers published a paper in 1987 de-
scribing a study in which the responses of pigs to three kinds of handling; pleasant handling, unpleasant
CCAC training module on: laboratory animals used in biomedical research
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Companion Notes
handling and minimal handling, were compared. The pigs exposed to pleasant handling approached people
more quickly. The females receiving pleasant handling were different with respect to age at first estrus and
sexual receptivity when bred, and had a significantly higher pregnancy rate than the other two groups. Al-
though not a statistically significant results, the males receiving pleasant handling reportedly had larger
testicles. Consistent handling, by animal care staff, by research technicians, and by the investigators, will
ensure that this source of variability is minimized.
The weekly routine in any animal room must also be understood by the investigator. In many facil-
ities, animal cages are cleaned on specific days. Taking samples just after the cages have been cleaned may
result in altered results because of the disturbance of the animals at that time. In addition, it must be noted
that weekend and holiday animal care routines are generally different than regular week day routines. This
may alter the animals' responses on weekend days if sampling is scheduled then.
Additional References and Resources:
Balcombe J.P., Barnard N.D. and Sandusky C. (2004) Laboratory routines cause animal stress. Contemporary
topics in laboratory animal science 43(6):42-51.
Duke J.L., Zammit T.G. and Lawson D.M. (2001) The effects of routine cage-changing on cardiovascular and
behavioral parameters in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Contemporary topics in laboratory animal science 40(1):17-
20.
Hemsworth P.H., Barnett J.L. and Hansen C. (1987) The influence of handling by humans in the behaviour,
reproduction and corticosteroids of male and female pigs. Applied Animal Behavioural Science. 17(3): 245-252.
Slide 25 Experimental Manipulation Factors
In addition to the many non-experimental variables
that must be considered and controlled to ensure
that the fewest animals need to be used and that the
results are valid, there are the many research or pro-
tocol variables that the investigator and all research
personnel must consider, and control.
For some studies such as the surgical induction of
cerebral ischemia (stroke) in a rodent model, there
may be many variables to control; duration and
depth of anesthesia, body temperature during sur-
gery and during recovery, duration of the applica-
tion of the ischemia, timing of the analgesia,
post-operative care and monitoring, etc. All of these
may influence the outcome of the ischemia.
It is recommended that for each specific research procedure a SOP be written and observed by
everyone involved, to standardize as much as possible each and every animal manipulation.
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Companion Notes
Slide 26 Experimental Manipulation Factors
1. Time and duration of manipulation
The normal biological diurnal rhythms in an ani-
mal's biochemistry and physiology alter its re-
sponses depending on the time of day that
treatments are applied or samples are taken. Thus
efforts should be made to take repeated samples at
the same time of day, every day.
For each animal, the duration of the manipul-
ation(s) should also be kept as consistent as possi-
ble. Biochemical and hematological changes start
happening when an animal is taken from its cage.
Studies have shown that some of these changes last
for minutes to hours and will be reflected in the re-
sults obtained. For each animal in all treatment
groups including control groups, time to sampling (from removing the animal from the cage) should be
consistent.
Ordinary animal husbandry procedures such as moving rats to a clean cage can induce transient, but sig-
nificant, cardiovascular and behavioural changes. Investigators and animal care staff should recognize that
such routine procedures could confound experiments conducted shortly thereafter.
2. Experimental stressors
An animal learns from experience what will be happening to it when it is handled. Animals very quickly
learn handling routines and procedures. Assuming the handling is competently done, not only will an an-
imal's stress level be reduced, it will be much more likely to accept the manipulation being done.
During the conditioning period before an experiment begins, animals should be exposed to the routines
that will be part of the study. This is particularly important if the study will involve special restraint, use of
devices such as collars or jackets containing emerging catheters (e.g., rats with tethers for brain recordings;
sheep in a metabolism crate). Familiarizing the animal to manipulations or restraint before a project
starts is important for both welfare and scientific reasons.
Rewards for good behaviour are an excellent way to enhance a cooperative attitude in an animal. Rewards
such as Gummi Bears or Fruit Loops are enjoyed by rats. Other examples are, giving a dog a dog biscuit,
giving a cat a treat, giving a non-human primate a special treat. Of course these would need to be acceptable
to the research project.
Additional References and Resources:
CCAC training module on: analgesia (2003). Visit the CCAC website at [Link] to access and consult this
training module.
CCAC training module on: pain, distress and endpoints (2010). Visit the CCAC website at [Link] to access
and consult this training module.
Conour, L.A., Murray A. and Brown M.J. (2007) Preparation of Animals for Use in the Laboratory, Institute
for Laboratory Animal Research Journal 47(4): 283-293.
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Companion Notes
Slide 27 Experimental Manipulation Factors
3. Pain
Pain can also be an important variable in animal re-
search, since untreated pain affects many as-
pects of an animal’s biology and physiology.
The amount of pain an individual animal experi-
ences as a result of the experimental manipulations
will depend on many different factors such as the
choice, dose and time of administration of analgesic
agents used; the skill of the surgeon or handler; the
previous experiences of that animal; and the added
presence of fear or stress. For more detailed infor-
mation on pain:
• CCAC training module on: analgesia (2003)
• CCAC training module on: anesthesia (2003)
• CCAC training module on: pain, distress and endpoints (2010)
Slide 28 Responsibilities of Research Team Members
The various members of the biomedical research
team have different and important responsibilities
in controlling both the non-experimental and exper-
imental variables.
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Companion Notes
Slide 29 Principal Investigator
Responsibilities of the principal investigator include:
• considering all pertinent non-experimental
variables
• outlining the need for controlling pertinent vari-
ables to all team members
• ensuring that all experimental variables are con-
trolled or conducted using SOPs
• ensuring monitoring and recording of controls
on variables (through SOPs)
• ensuring animal health quality before purchase
• assuring health monitoring is done according to facility rules
• observing all facility SOPs established to limit disease introduction
Slide 30 Graduate Students, Post-Doctoral Students and Research
Technical Staff
Graduate students, post-doctoral students and re-
search technical staff should:
• monitor and record controls on all variables
• conduct all experimental procedures according
to SOPs
• employ skilled animal handling and manipula-
tion techniques
• observe all facility SOPs established to limit dis-
ease introduction
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Companion Notes
Slide 31 Facility Manager
Responsibilities of the facility manager include:
• understanding demands for controls on non-ex-
perimental variables for all research underway
• ensuring consistent facility environmental
operations
• ensuring high level of animal care training and
expertise
• ensuring animal health quality before purchase
• ensuring health monitoring is done according to
facility rules
• implementing SOPs for all animal facility operations
Slide 32 Animal Care Facility Staff
Animal care facility staff should conduct all daily
animal facility routines in a consistent manner, ac-
cording to SOPs and conduct all animal care han-
dling and manipulations in a consistent, gentle, and
humane way.
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Companion Notes
Slide 33 Laboratory Animal Veterinary Staff
Responsibilities of the laboratory animal veterinary
staff include:
• advising on and ensuring health status of all
animals
• effecting procedures that will maintain animal
health quality
Slide 34 Summary
The importance of accomplishing both scientific
and ethical goals by using the fewest animals to
generate valid and reproducible scientific data was
emphasized in this module. Animal models must
be carefully selected with the Three Rs in mind.
Animals are affected by different factors (and in turn
this affects experimental results). These include:
• animal related factors
• physical and environmental factors
• husbandry, animal care and /handling factors
• research manipulation factors
All members of the research and animal care teams have a role to play in recognizing and controlling these
variables. Investigators and other animal users should strive to achieve their scientific goals in line with the
best possible animal welfare standards.
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