NOTES

Preface
1. A notable example of a recent shift from viewing professional virtues
solely as tendencies to meet professional duties to encompassing the full richness
of the inner life of motives, emotions, and reasoning is the difference between
the first two and next two editions of Tom L. Beauchamp and James F. Childress's
classic text, Principles of Biomedical Ethics (New York: Oxford University Press,
1979,1983,1989,1994).
2. Thinkers who have recently paid attention to ideals include Nicholas
Rescher, Ethical Idealism: An Inquiry into the Nature and Function of Ideals (Berke-
ley. University of California Press, 1987); Albert Flores, ed., Professional Ideals
(Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1988) (although his emphasis is on generic pro-
fessional ideals); and Wibren Van Der Burg, "The Importance of Ideals," The
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Journal of Value Inquiry 31 (1997): 23-37.

Chapter i
1. David Hilfiker, Not All of Us Are Saints (New York: Ballantine Books,
1994), 19.
2. The case for paying greater attention to religion in thinking about profes-
sionalism is made in Michael Goldberg, ed., Against the Grain: New Approaches to
Professional Ethics (Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity Press International, 1993); Stephen
E. Lammers and Allen Verhey, eds., On Moral Medicine, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1998); Eric Mount, Jr., Professional Ethics in Context:
Institutions, Images and Empathy (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster/John Knox Press,
1990); and Stephen V. Monsma, ed., Responsible Technology: A Christian Perspective
(Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1986).
3. Bernard Williams, "Persons, Character and Morality," in Bernard Williams,
Moral Luck (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 1-19. In many addi-
tional essays and books, Williams argues for the relevance of personal commit-
ments in ethical theory. Surprisingly, he fails to connect those discussions to
professional ethics in the one essay devoted to that topic: "Professional Morality
and Its Dispositions," in Making Sense of Humanity (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1995), 192-202.

219
Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 4. Rescher, Ethical Idealism, 115.
5. John Kultgen, Ethics and Pmj'essionalism (Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1988), 347.
6. Albert Flores, "What Kind of Person Should a Professional Be?" in Pro-
fessional Ideals, (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1988) 9. Italics deleted.

Chapter 2
1. Akira Kurosawa. Ikiru (the movie script for To Live), ed. Donald Richie
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968), 48.
2. Adam Smith, An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,
R. H. Campbell and A. S. Skinner, eds., (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976),
26-27.
3. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, D. D. Raphael and A. L.
Macfle, eds., (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 267.
4. Smith, Wealth of Nations, 456.
5. George Bernard Shaw, The Doctor's Dilemma [1913].
6. Smith, Wealth of Nations, 123.
7. Ibid., 454.
8. Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 235; and specifically on seeking
wealth, 83.
9. Ibid., 137.
10. See Patricia H. Werhane, Adam Smith and His Legacy for Modern Capital-
ism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
11. Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 184, 236.
12. Milton Friedman, "The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its
Profits," The New York Times Magazine (September 13, 1970); reprinted in most
business ethics anthologies, including Joseph R. Des Jardins and John J. McCall,
eds., Contemporary Issues in Business Ethics, 3d ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth,
1996), 8-12. Friedman adds several elusive caveats, in particular that business
should maximize profits within the bounds of law and "ethical custom," notions
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

that seemingly imply respect for persons and the wider community. For alterna-
tive ways of interpreting Friedman, see Thomas Carson, "Friedman's Theory of
Corporate Social Responsibility," Business and Professional Ethics Journal 12
(1993): 3-32. Norman Bowie identifies the self-defeating aspect of narrow profit
seeking in "The Profit Seeking Paradox," in N. Dale Wright, ed., Ethics of Ad-
ministration (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1988).
13. Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 184-85.
14. Robert Nozick, The Examined Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989),
287.
15. Albert Schweitzer, The Philosophy of Civilization [1923], trans. C. T. Cam-
pion (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus, 1987), 79.
16. Ibid., 321; Albert Schweitzer, Out of My Life and Thought, trans. A. B.
Lemke (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 91, and Reverence for Life: Sermons 1900-
1919, trans. Reginald H. Fuller (New York: Irvington Publishers, 1993), 141. On
p. 255 of The Philosophy of Civilization he writes: The ego which has reached the
farthest heights of willing and representing enlarges itself by over-lapping other
human existences. Self-devotion [i.e., devotion to others] is, therefore, not a
surrender of the self, but a manifestation of its expansion.
17. Henry Clark, The. Ethical Mysticism of Albert Schweitzer (Boston: Beacon
Press, 1962), 70. Cf. Schweitzer, The Philosophy of Civilization, 304. Also see Os-

220 NOTES TO PAGES 5-17

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 kar Kraus, Albert Schweitzer: His Work and His Philosophy (London: Adam and
Charles Black, 1944), and Gabriel Langfeldt, Albert Schweitzer: A Study of His Phi-
losophy of Life (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1960).
18. Schweitzer, Out of My Life and Thought, 157.1 develop and defend my in-
terpretation of Schweitzer in "Rethinking Reverence for Life," Between the
Species 9 (1993): 204-13; and "Good Fortune Obligates: Gratitude, Philanthropy,
and Colonialism," Southern Journal of Philosophy 37 (1999): 57-75.
19. Albert Schweitzer, Memoirs of Childhood and Youth, trans. C. T. Campion
(New York: Macmillan, 1961), 60-61.
20. Schweitzer, Out of My Life and Thought, 82.
21. Herbert Spiegelberg, "Good Fortune Obligates: Albert Schweitzer's Sec-
ond Ethical Principle," Ethics 85 (1975): 229. Spiegelberg offers little argument
for his view.
22. Schweitzer, The Philosophy of Civilization, 320.
23. Schweitzer, Reverence for Life, 141.
24. Albert Schweitzer, "On the Edge of the Primeval Forest," in The Primeval
Forest, trans. C.T. Campion (New York: Pyramid Books, 1961), 128-30.
25. Schweitzer, Reverence for Life, 139.
26. Schweitzer, The Philosophy of Civilization, 9.
27. Having sketched the contrasts between Schweitzer and Smith rather
starkly, I should note some similarities. Not only were they both somewhat un-
conventional Christians; both were enormously influenced by Stoics such as
Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, and Cicero. This influence is clear in Smith's
emphasis on prudence, self-command, and frugality (The Theory of Moral Sen-
timents, 5-10). It is equally clear in Schweitzer's view that ethics centers on
self-perfection, albeit through humanitarian concern. Indeed, sometimes he mis-
takenly portrays the motive for helping others as a concern for self-perfection: "It
is not from kindness to others that I am gentle, peaceable, forbearing, and friendly,
but because by such behaviour I prove my own profoundest self-realization to be
true" (The Philosophy of Civilization, 315). Smith and Schweitzer also share the
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Stoics' convictions that morality is rooted in natural dispositions of empathy and

sympathy and that each of us is a citizen in a world of shared humanity.
28. Brian O'Connell, Introduction to America's Voluntary Spirit, ed. Brian
O'Connell (New York: Foundation Center, 1983), xi.
29. Madeleine M. Kunin, Living a Political Life. (New York: Vintage Books,
1994), 78.
30. Ibid., 79-80.
31. Sharon Bertsch McGrayne, Nobel Prize Women in Science (New York: Birch
Lane Press, 1993), 297.
32. Ibid., 299.
33. Sara Lawrence-Lightfoot, I've Known Rivers: Lives of Loss and Liberation
(New York: Penguin, 1994), 21.
34. Robert MacNeil, The. Right Place at the Right Time (New York: Penguin,
1992), 312.
35. Meryle Secrest, Frank Lloyd Wright (New York: HarperPerennial, 1993);
and Frank Lloyd Wright, An Autobiography (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce,
1943).
36. Anthony T. Kronman, The Lost Lawyer: Failing Ideals of the Legal Profes-
sion (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), 371-74.
37. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1971), 426.

NOTES TO PAGES 17—22 221

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 38. Robert Nozick, Philosophical Explanations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1981), 597.
39. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery
and Invention (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), 110-13, and Flow: The Psychol-
ogy of Optimal Experience (New York: HarperCollins, 1990).
40. Michele Lament, Money, Morals, and Manners: The Culture of the French and
the American Upper-Middle Class (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 69.
41. Ibid., 72.
42. Denise Hamilton, "Fighting Abuse Is Job, Pet Project," Los Angeles Times
(August 27,1996), Ei and £4.
43. Gregory S. Kavka, Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1986), 64-65. Kavka also offers an extensive criticism
of psychological egoism.
44. See Alfie Kohn, The Brighter Side of Human Nature (New York: Basic Books,
1990); Morton Hunt, The Compassionate Beast (New York: William Morrow,
1990); and Lawrence Kohlberg, The Psychology of Moral Development, vol. 2 of
Essays on Moral Development (New York: Harper and Row, 1984).
45. Mary Midgley, Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature, rev. ed. (New
York: New American Library, 1995), 331.
46. Daryl Koehn, The Ground of Professional Ethics (New York: Routledge,
1994), 120.
47. Ibid., 119.
48. Ibid., 118.
49. Albert Camus, The Fall, trans. Justin O'Brien (New York: Vintage,
1956), 84.
50. JohnKekes, TheExaminedLife(Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press,
1988), 161-73.
51. Robert N. Bellah, Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler,
and Steven M. Tipton, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in Amer-
ican Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 66.
52. Stephen L. Darwall, Impartial Reason (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Press, 1983), 164-65; cf. Jeffrey Blustein, Care and Commitment: Taking the Per-
sonal Point of View (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 47-48; and Victor
E. Frankl, "Self-Transcendence as a Human Phenomenon," in Anthony J. Su-
tich and Miles A. Vich, eds., Readings in Humanistic Psychology (New York: Free
Press, 1969), 113-25.
53. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974),
42-45-
54. Charles Taylor, The Ethics of Authenticity (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1992), 28-29. Also see Lawrence A. Blum, Vocation, Friendship,
and Community: Limitations of the Personal-Impersonal Framework (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1994), 98-123, and Alan Gewirth, Self-Fulfillment
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University, 1998).
55. Cf. Alasdair Maclntyre, Dependent Rational Animals (Chicago: Open Court,
1999), 119.

Chapter 3
i. However, I agree with Jeffrey Stout's assessment that moral disagreements
are not as extensive as the Tower-of-Babel metaphor suggests. Ethics after Babel:
The Languages of Morals and Their Discontents (Boston: Beacon Press, 1988).

222 NOTES TO PAGES 23—35

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 2. Randall Collins, The Credential Society (New York: Academic Press, 1979).
3. John A. Robertson, "Eggs, Embryos, and Professional Ethics," The Chron-
icle of Higher Education (January 5, 1996), A64. Subsequent related scandals
raise worries about entrenchment of lax ethical standards: Goldie Blumenstyk,
"U. of California at Irvine Is under Fire Again over Research Ethics," The Chron-
icle of Higher Education (January 8,1999), A52.
4. Some may prefer to follow Alan Gewirth in speaking of "rational moral-
ity" rather than "ordinary morality," as a way of emphasizing that the relevant
standards are morally justified rather than merely customary. See "Professional
Ethics: The Separatist Thesis," Ethics 96 (1986): 287. But it is clear that writers,
including myself, who have used the expression "ordinary morality" in this con-
text intend to refer to justified principles. See Mike W. Martin, "Rights and the
Meta-Ethics of Professional Morality" and "Professional and Ordinary Morality:
A Reply to Freedman," Ethics 91 (1981): 619-25, 631-33.
5. People v. Beige, 376 N.Y.S.2d 771 (4th Dept. 1975). The case became clas-
sic, owing to Monroe H. Freedman's spirited defense of the attorneys in Lawyers'
Ethics in an Adversary System (Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1975), 1-8.
6. Daryl Koehn, The Ground of Professional Ethics (New York: Routledge,
1994), 56, also 153.
7. Ibid., 54-56, 61-67.
8. Ibid., 63. Koehn prefaces this claim with the remark that individuals can-
not lessen their responsibilities "by saying, 'My colleagues may be bound by this
pledge, but I personally never swore an oath to act for the benefit'" of clients.
This statement is inconsistent with her earlier emphasis on individual pledges
as the ground of professional duties.
9. Koehn notes that public trust in professionals must be established, at least
tentatively, before clients seek services from professionals. Yet she never explains
how a pledge that clients know nothing about can play that role. Ibid., 38.
10. Ibid., no.
11. Michael Davis, "Thinking Like an Engineer: The Place of a Code of Ethics
in the Practice of a Profession," Philosophy and Public Affairs 20 (1991): 153. Also
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

see his Thinking Like an Engineer (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
12. Michael Davis, "The Special Role of Professionals in Business Ethics,"
Business ana* Professional Ethics 7 (1988): 55. Also see "Do Cops Really Need a Code
of Ethics?" Criminal Justice Ethics TO (1991): 14-28.
13. John Kultgen, Ethics andProfessionalism (Philadelphia: University of Penn-
sylvania Press, 1988). For an example of how codes can be misused, see Edwin
T. Layton, "Engineering Ethics and the Public Interest: A Historical View," in Al-
bert Flores, (ed.), Ethical Problems in Engineering, 2nd ed. (Troy, N.Y.: Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, 1980), 26-29. Davis's inversion of priorities—emphasiz-
ing fairness to colleagues more than duties to the public—has some puzzling
consequences. For example, he writes that a code enables a practitioner to pur-
sue the goals of her profession at "minimal cost to herself and those she cares
about (including the public, if looking after the public is part of what she cares
about)." ("Thinking Like an Engineer," 161) Why the if? Why not instead because
professionals should care directly about the persons affected by their work?
14. See, e.g., Zaudererv. Office of Disciplinary Counsel, 47i U.S. 626 (1985) and
Peel v. Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission of Illinois, no [Link]. 2281
(1990).
15. Michael Davis, "The Moral Authority of a Professional Code," in J. Roland
Pennock and John W. Chapman, eds., Authority Revisited: NOMOS XXIX (New

NOTES TO PAGES 33—39 223

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 York: New York University Press, 1987), 332. Davis begins this essay with a false
dilemma: Either codes state what all decent persons know (and hence have no
moral authority of their own), or they go beyond ordinary morality (and hence
violate universal moral requirements). But "moral authority" need not mean
creating new moral requirements. It can also refer to official interpretations (by
professional societies and organizations) that accurately identify what ordinary
morality requires with regard to professional contexts. In "Is There a Profession
of Engineering?" Davis goes some way toward remedying the problems I see in
his earlier essays. He stipulates that there are moral constraints on the conven-
tions (codes of ethics) that groups of professions may adopt, but he does not re-
tract the earlier work and even refers to is as clarifying his view. In this essay
his concern is to rule out the possibility of gross immorality, as among a group
of thieves or Nazi engineers. To do so he stipulates that "Professional standards
are always morally permissible" and that professions serve a moral ideal "in a
morally-permissible way" (Science and Engineering Ethics 3[i997]: 417,419). These
stipulations, however, again raise concerns about idealizing what a profession
is, just as before he conflated ideal with actual codes. My point is that any actual
profession and code can have specific aspects that are morally objectionable and
hence that professional ethics must make reference to moral values beyond what
any actual group of professionals sets forth as its standards.
16. Ibid., 321, 325, 332. Cf. Davis, "Thinking Like an Engineer," 157, i&3ff.
His use of "rational persons" is ambiguous between (i) morally responsible and
(2) self-interested. His interest in sense (2) is indicated by his endorsement of a
version of psychological egoism—"people act only to maximize their own wel-
fare"—although he construes personal welfare as enlightened self-interest that
links one's good to that of others. Michael Davis, "The Use of Professions," Busi-
ness Economics 22 (October 1987): 6.
17. Paul F. Camenisch, Grounding Professional Ethics in a Pluralistic Society
(New York: Haven, 1983), 58-61; also 91-109.
18. Ibid., 104.
19. See Robert Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 1986), and Charles E. McClelland, The Ger-
man Experience of Professionalization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1991).
20. Camenisch admits as much at the end of Grounding Professional Ethics in
a Pluralistic Society, 136-37.
21. Of course, differences arise at the level of detail, but those details shape
variations within each type of ethical theory, as much as different types of the-
ories. Thus, David Ross's version of duty ethics set forth in The Right and the
Good (Oxford: Clarendon, 1930) is in many ways closer to Richard Brandt's rule-
utilitarianism in A Theory of the Good and the Right (Oxford: Clarendon, 1979)
than to Kant's absolutistic version of duty ethics; A. I. Melden's rights ethics in
Rights and Persons (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977) has less in
common with libertarian rights theories than it does with John Rawls's A Theory
of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971); John Stuart Mill's
version of utilitarianism in On Liberty [1859], ed. Elizabeth Rapaport (Indi-
anapolis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing, 1978) (though not in Utilitarianism) is closer
to libertarian rights ethics than it is to many other utilitarian theories. Cf. Mike
W. Martin. Everyday Morality, 3rd ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2001), ch. 2.
22. Examples of this general approach include Alan H. Goldman, The Moral
Foundations of Professional Ethics (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980);

224 NOTES TO PAGES 39-41

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 and Gewirth, "Professional Ethics." The issue of the relationships between pro-
fessional and ordinary morality should not be reduced to whether the ethics of
everyday personal life is the source of professional ethics, since more general
moral principles may govern both personal and professional life. In my view,
they do. For example, principles of justice apply to both everyday personal rela-
tionships and also enter into the justification of professional ethics, but with
different implications because of relevant differences in context. Cf. Thomas
Nagel, "Ruthlessness in Public Life," in Stuart Hampshire, ed., Public and Private
Morality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 79; and Peter A. French,
Ethics in Government (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1983), 19.
23. Koehn, The Ground of Professional Ethics, 148.
24. Melden, Rights and Persons 122-65.
25. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice. The inevitability of moral pluralism in
thinking about goods is emphasized, among others, by Michael Philips, Between
Universalism and Skepticism: Ethics as Social Artifact (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1994).
26. Relevant excerpts of the American Bar Association's "Model Rules of
Professional Conduct" are printed in Rena A. Gorlin, ed., Codes of Professional Re-
sponsibility, 3rd ed. (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs, 1994), 471-91.
27. Tarasoffv. [Link] University of California, California Supreme Court,
i July 1976.131 California Reporter, 14-33.
28. Anthony T. Kronman, The Lost Lawyer: Failing Ideals of the LegalProfession,
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993), i. Also see David Luban,
Lawyers and Justice: An Ethical Study (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
1988), esp. ch. 8. For an insightful discussion of differences among attorneys
regarding the custody case, see Rand Jack and Dana Crowley Jack, Moral Vision
and Professional Decisions: The Changing Values of Women and Men Lawyers (New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), esp. 78-85.
29. Robert M. Veatch, "Is Trust of Professionals a Coherent Concept?" in Ed-
mund D. Pellegrino, Robert M. Veatch, and John P. Langan, eds., Ethics, Trust, and
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

the Professions: Philosophical and Cultural Aspects (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown

University Press, 1991), 168.
30. The quote and the case are taken from Suzanne Gordon, "Hippocratic or
Hypocritic Oath?" Los Angeles Times (January 21,1996), MS.
31. For an interesting personal anecdote, see Gene Moriarty, "Ethics, Ethos
and the Professions: Some Lessons from Engineering," Professional Ethics 4, no. i
(1995): 75-93-
32. Cf. Mike W. Martin, Virtuous Giving: Philanthropy, Voluntary Service, and
Caring (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 73-80.
33. Glenn G. Griener makes this point in a related context, "Moral Integrity
of Professions," Professional Ethics 2, nos. 3 and 4 (1993): 15-38.

Chapter 4
1. I offer a fuller rationale for this definition in Virtuous Giving: Philanthropy,
Voluntary Service, and Caring (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 7-14.
2. Hippocrates, Precepts, trans. W. H. S. Jones (Loeb Classical Library), ch. 6.
3. David Luban, Lawyers and Justice: An Ethical Study (Princeton, N.J.:
Princeton University Press, 1988), 277-89.
4. Eliot Wigginton, Sometimes a Shining Moment: The Foxfire Experience
(New York: Anchor Books, 1985).

NOTES TO PAGES 42-54 225

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 5. Studs Terkel, Working (New York: Avon, 1975), 694-95.
6. Bill Berkowitz, Local Heroes (New York: D. C. Heath, 1987), 61-77.
7. Kent Mellerstig, "Medical Missionary Experience in Ecuador," in Bill
McMillon, Volunteer Vacations, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1989),
75-83.
8. Anne Colby and William Damon, Some Do Care: Contemporary Lives of
Moral Commitment (New York: Free Press, 1992), 230-58.
9. Robert L. Payton, Philanthropy: Voluntary Action for the Public Good (New
York: Macmillan, 1988), 119-21.
10. Ibid., 41.
n. Ibid., 32.
12. Cf. Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1988); Brian O'Connell, ed., America's Voluntary Spirit (New
York: Foundation Center, 1983); and Susan J. Ellis and Katherine H. Noyes, By
the People: A History of Americans as Volunteers, rev. ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass, 1990).
13. Cf. James T. Bennett and Thomas J. DiLorenzo, Unhealthy Charities (New
York: Basic Books, 1994).
14. Robert L. Payton, Philanthropy: Voluntary Action for the Public Good, 71-88.
15. Colby and Damon, Some Do Care: Contemporary Lives of Moral Commit-
ment, 139.
16. J. 0. Urmson, "Saints and Heroes," in A. I. Melden, ed., Essays in Moral
Philosophy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1958), 198-216.
17. Michael S. Pritchard, "Good Works," Professional Ethics I (1992): 155-77.
18. Gregory Mellema, Beyond the Call of Duty: Supererogation, Obligation, and
Offence (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991).
19. David Heyd, Supererogation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1982).
20. Martin, Virtuous Giving, 62-93.
21. Marcia W. Baron, Kantian Ethics Almost without Apology (Ithaca, N.Y.:
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Cornell University Press, 1995); Susan C. Hale, 'Against Supererogation," Amer-

ican Philosophical Quarterly 28 (1991): 273-85.
22. Owen Flanagan, Varieties of Moral Personality: Ethics and Psychological
Realism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).
23. W. D. Falk, "Morality, Self, and Others," in Hector-Neri Castaneda and
George Nakhnikian, eds., Morality and the Language of Conduct (Detroit, Mich.:
Wayne State University Press, 1965), 25-67.
24. Albert Schweitzer, Out of My Life and Thought, trans. A. B. Lemke (New
York: Henry Holt, 1990), 82.
25. A. I. Melden, "Saints and Supererogation," in Ilham Oilman, ed., Philos-
ophy and Life: Essays on John Wisdom (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1984).

Chapter 5
1. Jeffrey Blustein, Care and Commitment: Taking the Personal Point of View
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 160.
2. Ibid., 159.
3. Albert Camus, The Fall, trans. Justin O'Brien (New York: Vintage,
1956), 48.
4. Jeffrey Blustein, Care and Commitment, 160.
5. Ibid., 158.

226 NOTES TO PAGES 54-72

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 6. Ibid.
7. Peggy Anderson, Nurse (New York: Berkley Publishing, 1979), 100-103.
8. Edmund D. Pellegrino and David C. Thomasma, The Virtues in Medical
Practice (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 76.
9. Herbert Kohl, Growing Minds: On Becoming a Teacher (New York: Harper
Torchbooks, 1988), 64-66.
10. Lawrence A. Blum, Moral Perception and Particularity (New York: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1994), 109.
n. Cf. ibid., 103-104.
12. Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's De-
velopment (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982). The discussion
of Jake and Amy is on p24~63, and the quote from Jake on 26. Also see Nel Nod-
dings, Caring (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); and Sara T. Fry,
"The Role of Caring in a Theory of Nursing Ethics," in Helen Bequaert Holmes
and Laura M. Purdy, eds., Feminist Perspectives in Medical Ethics (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1992), 93-106.
13. Cf. Owen Flanagan, Varieties of Moral Personality: Ethics and Psychologi-
cal Realism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 204-17; Joan
C. Tronto, Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care (New York:
Routledge, 1993), 138.; and Lawrence A. Blum, Moral Perception and Particu-
larity, 215-67.
14. Carol Gilligan, "Moral Orientation and Moral Development," in Eva Feder
Kittay and Diana T. Meyers, eds., Women and Moral Theory (Totowa, N.J.: Row-
man and Littlefleld, 1987), 19-33.
15. Cf. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty [1859], ed. Elizabeth Rapaport (Indianapo-
lis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing, 1978).
16. William K. Frankena, "Moral-Point-of-View Theories," in Norman E.
Bowie, ed., Ethical Theory in the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century (Indianapo-
lis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing, 1983), 74.
17. A. I. Melden, Rights andPersons (Berkeley: University of California Press,
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

1977), 145-
18. Herbert Kohl, Growing Minds, 66.
19. Michael D. Bayles, Pro/essiona/Ethics, 2nded. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth,
1989), 70.
20. Ibid., 79.
21. Cf. Virginia L. Warren, "Feminist Directions in Medical Ethics," Hypatia
4 (1989): 73-87.
22. Michael D. Bayles, Professional Ethics, 88.
23. The distinction is set forth by Stephen L. Darwall in "Two Kinds of Re-
spect," reprinted in Robin S. Dillon, ed., Dignity, Character, and Self-Respect (New
York: Routledge, 1995), 181-97.
24. Robin Dillon, "Care and Respect," in Eve Browning Cole and Susan
Coultrap-McQuin, eds., Explorations in Feminist Ethics: Theory and Practice (Bloom-
ington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 73.

Chapter 6
i. Insightful studies of excessive detachment under the influence of au-
thority include Stanley Milgram, Obedience to Authority (New York: Harper and
Row, 1974), and Robert Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psy-
chology of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 1986).

NOTES TO PAGES 72-82 227

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 2. Perri Klass, A Not Entirely Benign Procedure: Four Years as a Medical Stu-
dent (New York: Plume, .1994), 76.
3. Thomas Nagel, "Ruthlessness in Public Life," in Stuart Hampshire, ed.,
Public and Private Morality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 77.
4. Klass, A Not Entirely Benign Procedure, 149.
5. Nagel, "Ruthlessness in Public Life," 76.
6. E.g., Gerald J. Postema, "Self-Image, Integrity, and Professional Respon-
sibility," in David Luban, ed., The Good Lawyer: Lawyers'Roles and Lawyers'Ethics
(Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1983), 286-314, esp. 291-93, 301-302.
7. Edward Bullough, '"Psychical Distance' as a Factor in Art and an Aes-
thetic Principle," in George Dickie and Richard J. Sclafani, eds., Aesthetics (New
York: St. Martin's Press, 1977), 759.
8. Allan Casebier, "The Concept of Aesthetic Distance," in Dickie and
Sclafani Aesthetics, 794.
9. Robert Klitzman, In a House of Dreams and Glass: Becoming a Psychiatrist
(New York: Ivy Books, 1995), 95.
10. Melvin Konner, Becoming a Doctor (New York: Penguin Books, 1987),
365.
IT. Anton Chekhov, "Ward No. 6," in Seven Short Novels by Chekhov, trans.
Barbara Makanowitzky (New York: W. W. Norton, 1963), 113.
12. R. S. Lazarus, "Cognitive and Coping Processes in Emotion," in A. Monat
and R. S. Lazarus, eds., Stress and Coping (New York: Columbia University Press,
1977)-150.
13. Howard J. Curzer, "Is Care a Virtue for Health Care Professionals?" Jour-
nal of Medicine and Philosophy 18 (1993): 63, also 55.
14. Lawrence Blum, Friendship, Altruism, and Morality (London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1980), and A. J. Vetlesen, Perception, Empathy, and Judgment
(University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1994).
15. Jacqueline Zalumas, Caring in Crisis: An Oral History of Critical Care Nurs-
ing (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995), 101, 113, 128, 139,
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

151-
16. Peggy Anderson, Nurse (New York: Berkley Publishing, 1979), 39. This is
a theme, too, in Ruth Purtillo and Amy Haddad's excellent discussion of distance
in Health Professional and Patient Interaction, gth ed. (Philadelphia: W. B. Saun-
ders, 1996), 230-49.
17. Eric J. Cassell, The Nature of Suffering and the Goals of Medicine (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1991), 74.
18. Samuel Gorovitz, Doctors' Dilemmas: Moral Conflict and Medical Care (Ox-
ford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 198.
19. Cf. Robert Coles, The Call of Stories: Teaching and the Moral Imagination
(Boston: HoughtonMifflin, 1989), 102-29, esp. 109-10. Similar slipperiness and
ambiguity surround detachment in other contexts, including aesthetics and re-
ligion where value differences may also be involved. Consider religion: Hindus,
Muslims, Christians, Stoics, and Buddhists disagree about how much detachment
from worldly concerns is desirable. For example, Theravada Buddhists under-
stand religious detachment and enlightenment as leading to a separation from
the world, whereas Mahayana Buddhists see the goal of detachment as deepen-
ing compassionate service to humanity. Note, too, that Mahayanas illustrate
how selective detachments further rather than threaten compassion and caring.
See Hsueh-li Cheng, "Buddhist Ethics," in Lawrence C. Becker, ed., Encyclopedia
of Ethics, vol. i (New York: Garland, 1992), 103-109.

228 NOTES TO PAGES 83-90

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 20. John Kultgen develops a scalar concept in Autonomy and Intervention:
Parentalism in the Caring Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
21. Frederic G. Reamer, Social Work Values and Ethics (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1995), 35. To my horror I read as this book goes to press that
my personal physician humiliated a lesbian patient. According to a Los Angeles
Times article (June 21, 1999, pp. Si and S8), while performing a routine physi-
cal, which included a pelvic exam, the doctor learned from the patient she was
gay. At the end of the exam, the doctor suggested that she make her next ap-
pointment with one of the other doctors in the office. When questioned why,
"the doctor told her he didn't approve of her gay 'lifestyle.'" The patient is now
suing the doctor and his health maintenance organization. The case reminds us
that when and how health professionals make referrals can matter greatly as
they exercise their personal "consciences." In my view, the case also illustrates
the need for physicians to receive continuing education sessions on appreciat-
ing diversity. Certainly we might hope that of all professionals, physicians would
avoid the homophobia that the American Psychiatric Association officially re-
nounced over two decades ago.
22. "Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers," printed
in Reamer, Social Work Values and Ethics, 190-99.
23. Cf. Marc A, Rodwin, Medicine, Money, and Morals: Physicians' Conflicts of
Interest (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
24. Cf. Elizabeth Wolgast, Ethics of an Artificial Person: Lost Responsibility in
Professions and Organizations (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992),
20-21.
25. Gerald J. Postema, "Moral Responsibility in Professional Ethics," New
York University Law Review 55 (1980): 73.
26. Rand Jack and Dana Crowley Jack, Moral Vision and Professional Decisions:
The Changing Values of Women and Men Lawyers (New York: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 1989), 78.
27. David Luban, Lawyers and Justice: An Ethical Study (Princeton, N.J.: Prince-
ton University Press, 1988).
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

28. Wolgast, Ethics of an Artificial Person, 144.

29. On the two dimensions of honesty see Mike W. Martin, "Honesty with
Oneself," in Mary I. Bockover, ed., Rules, Rituals, and Responsibility: Essays Dedi-
cated to Herbert Fingarette (La Salle, 111.: Open Court, 1991), 115-36.
30. William Broad and Nicholas Wade, Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and De-
ceit in the Halls of Science (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982). Also see William
Maker, "Scientific Autonomy, Scientific Responsibility," and Joan C. Callahan,
"Professions, Institutions, and Moral Risk," both in Daniel E. Wueste, ed., Pro-
fessional Ethics and Social Responsibility (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield,
1994), 219-41, 243-70; Robin Levin Penslar, ed., Research Ethics: Cases and
Materials (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); and Deni Elliott and
Judy E. Stern, eds., Research Ethics: A Reader (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of
New England, 1997).
31. EdmundGosse, FatherandSon [1907] (New York: Penguin, 1983), 102-3.
Lorraine Code provides an illuminating discussion in Epistemic Responsibility
(Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1987), 23.
32. David E. White, "Objectivity as a Journalistic Virtue," Journal of Social Phi-
losophy 16 (fall 1985): 13-19.
33. Stephen Klaidman and Tom L. Beauchamp, The Virtuous Journalist (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1987), esp. chs. 2 and 3.

NOTES TO PAGES 92—96 329

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 34- Theodore R. Schatzki, "Objectivity and Rationality," in Wolfgang Natter,
Theodore R. Schatzki, and John Paul Jones, III, eds., Objectivity and Its Other
(New York: Guilford Press, 1995), 137-60.
35. For discussions of issues surrounding objectivity in journalism, see Elliot
D. Cohen, ed., Philosophical Issues in Journalism (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1992), 156-217.
36. Edward W. Said, Representations of the Intellectual (New York: Vintage
Books, 1994), ii.
37. Alan H. Goldman, The Moral Foundations of Professional Ethics (Totowa,
N.J.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980), esp. ch. 2.
38. John Rawls drew attention to this distinction in a related context in "Two
Concepts of Rules," Philosophical Review 64, no. I (1955).
39. Quoted by Mortimer R. Kadish and Sanford H. Kadish, Discretion to
Disobey: A Study of Lawful Departures from Legal Rules (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford
University Press, 1973), 86. Ronald Dworkin discusses the occasional relevance
of judges' political views to their rulings in A Matter of Principle (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), 9-32. The difficult question of whether
religious views should enter into judges' rulings is debated by Kent Greenawalt,
Religious Convictions and Political Choice (New York: Oxford University Press,
1988), and Kenneth I. Winston, "The Religious Convictions of Public Officials,"
Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 3, no. I (1990): 136, as I discuss in
chapter 10.
40. Andrea Gabor, Einstein's Wife (New York: Viking, 1995), 272-73.
41. Michael D. Bayles, Professional Ethics, 2nd ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth,
1989), 88-89.

Chapter 7
1. As useful overviews of culture-war issues, see John Arthur and Amy
Shapiro, eds., Campus Wars: Multiculturalism and the Politics of Difference (Boul-
der, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995); James Davison Hunter, Culture Wars: The
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Struggle to Define America (New York: Basic Books, 1991); and Jeffrey Williams,
ed., PC Wars: Politics and Theory in the Academy (New York: Routledge, 1995).
2. John R. Searle, "Two Concepts of Academic Freedom," in Edmund L.
Pincoffs, ed., The Concept of Academic Freedom (Austin: University of Texas Press,
1972), 89.
3. "Statement on Professional Ethics," AAUP Red Book: Policy Documents
and Reports (Washington, D.C.: American Association of University Professors,
1990). 75-76.
4. Edmund L. Pincoffs, "On Avoiding Moral Indoctrination," in James F.
Doyle, ed., Educational Judgments (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973),
68-69.
5. Richard T. De George, The Nature and Limits of Authority (Lawrence: Uni-
versity Press of Kansas, 1985).
6. Hugh T. Wilder, "The Philosopher as Teacher: Tolerance and Teaching
Philosophy," in Peter J. Markie, ed., A Professor's Duties (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman
and Littlefield, 1994), 129.
7. Ibid., 139. Wilder adds a caveat concerning areas where professors lack
knowledge: "Teachers do not know enough about their fields to demand agree-
ment from students on all issues; honest tolerance—tolerance based on ignorance
rather than cowardice—is a virtue" (140).

230 NOTES TO PAGES 96-104

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 8. Edward A. Langerak, "Values Education and Learning How to Disagree,"
in CarltonT. Mitchell, ed., Values in Teaching and Professional Ethics (Macon, Ga.:
Mercer University Press, 1989), 144.
9. Amy Gutmann, Multiculturalism and "The Politics of Recognition" (Prince-
ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), 14. Also see her Democratic Education
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987).
ro. Robert L. Simon, ed., Neutrality and the Academic Ethic (Lanham, Md.: Row-
man and Littlefleld, 1994), 22-23. Also see Robert L. Simon, "A Defense of the
Neutral University," in Steven M. Cahn, ed., Morality, Responsibility, and the Uni-
versity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 24-25.
11. Simon, Neutrality and the Academic Ethic, 243-70.
12. Ibid., 80.
13. Ibid., 26, 47.
14. Ibid., 20.
15. Ibid., 90. Cf. Edward Shils, The Academic Ethic (Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press, 1983), 50-51.
16. Cf. John Kleinig, Philosophical Issues in Education (New York: St. Martin's,
1982), 62.
17. Rosellen Brown, Interview, in Alexander Neubauer, ed., Conversations
on Writing Fiction (New York: Harper Perennial, 1994), 55.
18. For a sampling of value commitments that guide philosophers' careers,
see David D. Karnos and Robert G. Shoemaker, eds., Falling in Love with Wisdom:
American Philosophers Talk about Their Calling (New York: Oxford University Press,
1993). Martha C. Nussbaum illuminates the vitality of multicultural commit-
ments in Cultivating Humanity: A Classical Defense of Reform in Liberal Education
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997).
19. Cf. Jaroslav Pelikan, The Idea of the University (New Haven, Conn.: Yale
University Press, 1992), 43-56, and Michael Goldman, "On Moral Relativism,
Advocacy, and Teaching Normative Ethics," Teaching Philosophy 4 (1981): i-n.
20. Michael Oakeshott, The Voice of Liberal Learning, ed. Timothy Fuller (New
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1989), 61. See also R. S. Peters, Authority,
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Responsibility and Education, 2nd ed, (London; George Allen and Unwin, 1963),
83-95, and R. S. Downie, "Professions and Professionalism, Journal of Philosophy
of Education 24 (1990): 147-59.
21. Sidney Hook, "Morris R. Cohen—Fifty Years Later," in Joseph Epstein, ed.,
Masters: Portraits of Great Teachers (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 24.
22. Robert Adams, ''The Problem of Total Devotion," in Robert Audi and
William J. Wainwright, eds., Rationality, Religious Belief, and Moral Commitment
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1986), 189-93.
23. John Kleinig, Philosophical Issues in Education, 76,149; Jane Roland Mar-
tin, Changing the Educational Landscape (New York: Routledge, 1994), 75, 202;
Elizabeth Kamarck Minnich, Transforming Knowledge (Philadelphia: Temple Uni-
versity Press, 1990).
24. Israel Scheffler, "In Praise of the Cognitive Emotions," Teachers College
Record 79 (1977): 171-86; D. N. Perkins, The Mind's Best Work (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1981), 114-21. Also see Douglas Walton, The Place
of Emotion in Argument (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press,
1992).
25. Cf. David A. Garvin, 'A Delicate Balance: Ethical Dilemmas and the Dis-
cussion Process," in C. Roland Christensen, David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet, eds.,
Education for Judgment (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1991), 287-303.

NOTES TO PAGES 105-108 251

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 26. This view permeates John Dewey's and R. S. Peter's writings on educa-
tion. It is also defended by William K. Frankena, "The Concept of Education
Today," in James F. Doyle, ed., Educational Judgments, 19-32; R. S. Downie, "On
Having a Mind of One's Own," in Roger Straughan and John Wilson, eds.,
Philosophers on Education (London: Macmillan, 1987), 79-92; and Charles W.
Anderson, Prescribing the Life of the Mind (Madison; University of Wisconsin
Press, 1993), 79-95.
27. Cf. Michael Goldman, "On Moral Relativism, Advocacy, and Teaching
Normative Ethics"; Michael Scriven, "Professorial Ethics," Journal of Higher Ed-
ucation 53 (1982): 314-15.
28. Elias Baumgarten, "Ethics in the Academic Profession: A Socratic View,"
Journal of Higher Education 53 (1982): 290.
29. Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy (New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1959), 168.
30. Gloria Albrecht and Leonard J. Weber, "Personal Commitments, Privi-
leged Positions and the Teaching of Applied Ethics," Professional Ethics 3 (1994):
143.
31. For helpful teaching strategies, see Grant H. Cornwell, "From Pluralism
to Relativism and Back: Philosophy's Role in an Inclusive Curriculum," Teaching
Philosophy 14 (1991): 143-53.
32. Regarding the levels of importance of moral convictions, see John Kekes,
Moral Traditionandlndividuality (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989).
33. For example, Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher
Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987); Roger Kimball, Tenured Radicals: How
Politics Has Corrupted Our Higher Education (New York: Harper and Row, 1990);
and Dinesh D'Souza, Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus
(New York: Random House, 1991).
34. Examples of moderate positions on the goals in teaching ethics include
Daniel Callahan, "Goals in the Teaching of Ethics," in Daniel Callahan and Sis-
sela Bok, eds., Ethics Teaching in Higher Education (New York: Plenum, 1980),
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

61-80; W. B. Carnochan, The Battleground of the Curriculum (Stanford, Calif.:

Stanford University Press, 1993), 117; Steven M. Cahn, Saints and Scamps: Ethics
in Academia, rev. ed. (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Littlefleld, 1994), 64-70; and
Shils, The Academic Ethic.
35. Few philosophers have played major roles in the culture wars. Even John
Searle, the philosopher most prominently involved, has said little about ethical
values during his spirited defense of objective standards of truth. See, e.g., "The
Storm over the University," The New York Review of Books (December 6, 1990):
34-42, and "Rationality and Realism, What Is at Stake?" Daedalus 122 (fall 1993):
55-83.
36. Laura M. Purdy, "Politics and the College Curriculum," in Simon, Neu-
trality and the Academic Ethic, 236-64.
37. Stanley Fish argues that it is not clear that sophisticated forms of con-
ceptual relativism have any direct practical consequences. See There's No Such
Thing as Free Speech: And It's a Good Thing, Too (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1994).
38. See, e.g., Diana T. Meyers, Self, Society, and Personal Choice (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1989).
39. Richard Mohr, "Teaching as Politics," Report from the Center for Philoso-
phy and Public Policy 6 (winter 1986): 8. Cf. Henry A. Giroux, Schooling and the

232 NOTES TO PAGES 109—114

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 Struggle for Public Life: Critical Pedagogy in the Modern Age (Minneapolis: Univer-
sity of Minnesota Press, 1988).
40. Cf. Gerald Graff, Beyond the Culture Wars: How Teaching the Conflicts Can
Revitalize American Education (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992).

Chapter 8
1. These terms are used roughly in the ways set forth by Richard T. De
George, The Nature and Limits of Authority (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas,
1985), 22.
2. The Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster (Wash-
ington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1986). The literature on Challenger
is enormous. I find the following sources especially helpful: Russell P. Boisjoly,
Ellen Foster Curtis, and Eugene Mellican, "Roger Boisjoly and the Challenger
Disaster: The Ethical Dimensions," Journal of Business Ethics 8 (1989): 217-30;
Patricia H. Werhane, "Engineers and Management: The Challenge of the Chal-
lenger Incident," Journal of Business Ethics 10 (1991): 605-16; Maureen Hogan
Casamayou, Bureaucracy in Crisis: Three Mile Island, the Shuttle Challenger, and
Risk Asssessment (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993); and Rosa Lynn B.
Pinkus, Larry]. Shuman, Norman P. Hummon, and Harvey Wolfe, Engineering
Ethics: Balancing Cost, Schedule, and Risk—Lessons Learned from the Space Shuttle
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
3. Michael Bayles provides an overview of standard models of professional-
client relationships in chapter 4 of Professional Ethics, 2nd ed. (Belmont, Calif.:
Wadsworth, 1989). Joseph A. Raelin provides an early and helpful discussion of
professional-manager relationships, although one that does not view managers
as professionals, in The Clash of Cultures: Managers Managing Professionals
(Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1991).
4. William Lowrance equates safety with acceptable risk in Of Acceptable
Risk (Los Altos, Calif.: William Kaufmann, 1976). In doing so, he departs too far
from common usage, according to which we say products or activities are not
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

altogether safe even though we judge their risks acceptable—that is, they are
worth the risk.
5. Joseph R. Herkert, "Management's Hat Trick: Misuse of 'Engineering
Judgment' in the Challenger Incident," Journal of Business Ethics 10 (1991): 618.
6. Ibid., 619.
7. Samuel C. Florman, Blaming Technology: The Irrational Search for Scape-
goats (New York: St. Martin's, 1981).
8. Samuel C. Florman, The CivilizedEngineer (New York: St. Martin's, 1987),
164. For a related argument see Michael Davis, "Thinking Like an Engineer:
The Place of a Code of Ethics in the Practice of a Profession," Philosophy and
Public Affairs 20 (1991): 150-167.
9. Ibid., 165.
10. Versions of the shared-agency model are developed in most texts on en-
gineering ethics, including Charles E. Harris, Jr., Michael S. Pritchard, and
Michael J. Rabins, Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases (Belmont, Calif.: Wads-
worth, 1995); Eugene Schlossberger, The Ethical Engineer (Philadelphia: Temple
University Press, 1993); Stephen H. Unger, Controlling Technology: Ethics and the
Responsible Engineer, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1994); some au-
thors in James H. Schaub and Karl Pavlovic, eds., Engineering Professionalism and
Ethics (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1983), and in Deborah G. Johnson, ed.,

NOTES TO PAGES 115-23 233

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 Ethical Issues in Engineering (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1991); and
Mike W. Martin and Roland Schinzinger, Ethics in Engineering, 3rd ed. (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1996).
11. Michael Davis, "Technical Decisions: Time to Rethink the Engineer's
Responsibilities?" Business and Professional Ethics Journal n (1992): 51.
12. On the penalties for whistleblowing, see Myron Peretz Glazer and Penina
Migdal Glazer, The Whistleblowers: Exposing Corruption in Government and Indus-
try (New York: Basic Books, 1989).
13. Cf. Michael Davis, 'Avoiding the Tragedy of Whistleblowing," Business
and Professional Ethics Journal 8, no. 4 (winter 1989): 10 n. 20.
14. William H. Starbuck and Frances J. Milliken, "Challenger: Fine-Tuning
the Odds until Something Breaks," Journal of Management Studies 25 (1988): 333.
Also see Henry Petroski, To Engineer is Human (New York: St. Martin's, 1985).
15. Lon Fuller, "The Philosophy of Codes of Ethics," in Bernard Baumrin and
Benjamin Freedman, eds., Moral Responsibility and the Professions (New York:
Haven Publications, 1983), 79-84.
16. Alasdair Maclntyre, After Virtue, 2nd ed. (Notre Dame, Ind.: University
of Notre Dame Press, 1984), 194.
17. Albert Flores also invokes this dichotomy in "What Kind of Person Should
a Professional Be?" in Professional Ideals (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1988), 8.
18. Maclntyre allows as much when he says (without elaboration) that "the
making and sustaining of forms of human community—and therefore of insti-
tutions—itself has all the characteristics of a practice." (After Virtue, 194) Robert
C. Solomon develops the idea of corporations as communities in Ethics and Ex-
cellence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
19. Cf. Michael D. Smith, "The Virtuous Organization," The Journal of Medi-
cine and Philosophy 7 (1982): 35-42.
20. The same is true of professional responsibilities: Physicians' duty of
confidentiality, for example, must be rethought in terms of contemporary med-
ical organizations, where as many as seventy-five hospital staff may have access
to a patient's medical flies. Mark Siegler, "Confidentiality in Medicine—A De-
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

crepit Concept," The New England Journal of Medicine 307 (1982): .518-21.
21. Francis J. Aguilar, Managing Corporate Ethics (New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1994), 13.1. For additional cases, see Lynn Sharp Paine, "Managing for
Organizational Integrity," Harvard Business Review (March/April 1994): 106-17.
22. Howard E. McCurdy, Inside NASA: High Technology and Organizational
Change in the U.S. Space Program (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1993), 62.
23. Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior, 3rd ed. (New York: Free Press,
1976), 126-27.
24. Ibid., 228.
25. Ibid., 129.
26. Ibid., 141, ii.
27. Ibid., 134-38.
28. Cf. William Lowrance, Of Acceptable Risk, ch. 3.
29. Robert Baum, "The Limits of Professional Responsibility," in Albert Flo-
res, ed., Ethical Problems in Engineering, 2nd ed., vol. I (Troy, N.Y.: Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, 1980), 48-53.
30. Paul Eddy, Elaine Potter, and Bruce Page, Destination Disaster (New York:
Quandrangle, 1976).

234 NOTES TO PAGES 123-32

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 31. K. Vandivier, "Engineers, Ethics and Economics," Conference on Engineer-
ing Ethics (New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1975), 20-24. F°r
a cautionary note on Vandivier's account, see John Fielder, "Give Goodrich a
Break," Business and Professional Ethics Journal 7 (1988): 3-25.
32. Ralph Nader, Peter J. Petkas, and Kate Blackwell, eds., Whistleblowing:
The Report of the Conference on Professional Responsibility (New York: Grossman
Publishers, 1972), 148-51.
33. For an analysis of the concept of "organizational disobedience," see
James Otten, "Organizational Disobedience," in Flores, Ethical Problems in Engi-
neering, 182-86.
34. Conference on Engineering Ethics (New York: American Society of Civil
Engineers, 1975), 99,101.
35. Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1977), 184-205.
36. Carl W. Houston, "Experiences of a Responsible Engineer," in Conference
on Engineering Ethics, (New York: American Society of Civil Engineers, 1975)
25-30.
37. Thomas Donaldson, Corporations and Morality (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1982).

Chapter 9
1. Cf. Mike W. Martin and Roland Schinzinger, Ethics in Engineering, 3rd ed.
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996), 247.
2. Frederick Elliston, 'Anonymous Whistleblowing," Business and Professional
Ethics Journal I, no. 2 (winter 1982): 39-58.
3. Roger M. Boisjoly, "The Challenger Disaster: Moral Responsibility and the
Working Engineer," in Deborah G. Johnson, ed., Ethical Issues in Engineering
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1991), 6-14.
4. Paul Eddy, Elaine Potter, and Bruce Page, Destination Disaster (New York:
Quandrangle, 1976), 185.
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

5. Frank Camps, "Warning an Auto Company about an Unsafe Design," in

Alan F. Westin, ed., Whistle-Blowing! (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981), 119-29.
6. See, e.g., Myron Peretz Glazer and Penina Migdal Glazer, The Whistleblow-
ers: Exposing Corruption in Government and Industry (New York: Basic Books, 1989).
7. Michael Davis, 'Avoiding the Tragedy of Whistleblowing," Business and
Professional Ethics Journal 8, no. 4 (winter 1989): 3-19. Davis also draws atten-
tion to the potentially negative aspects of laws, as does Sissela Bok in "Whistle-
blowing and Professional Responsibilities," in Daniel Callahan and Sissela Bok,
eds., Ethics Teaching in Higher Education (New York: Plenum, 1980), 277-95. Those
aspects, which include violating corporate privacy, undermining trust and col-
legiality, and lowering economic efficiency, are indeed significant. But I am
convinced that well-framed laws to protect whistleblowers can take these things
into account. The laws should protect only Whistleblowing that meets the con-
ditions for the prima facie obligation I state at the beginning of the section en-
titled "Personal Life."
8. Robert Nozick drew attention to the general symbolic importance of gov-
ernment actions when he expressed serious reservations about the libertarian
position he had previously defended. The Examined Life (New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1989), 286-88.

NOTES TO PAGES 132-42 235

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 g. The quotations are from RichardT. De George, Business Ethics, 3rd ed.
(New York: Macmillan, 1990), 208-12. They parallel his view as first stated in
"Ethical Responsibilities of Engineers in Large Organizations," Business and Pro-
fessional Ethics Journal I, no. I (falligSi): 1-14. As an example of placing afar
higher demand on engineers, see Kenneth D. Alpern, "Moral Responsibility for
Engineers," Business and Professional Ethics Journal 2, no. 2 (winter 1983): 39-47.
ro. Gene G. James, "Whistle Blowing: Its Moral Justification," in W. Michael
Hoffman and Jennifer Mills Moore, eds., Business Ethics, and ed. (New York: Mc-
Graw-Hill, 1990), 332-44.
11. David Theo Goldberg, "Tuning in to Whistle Blowing," Business and Pro-
fessional Ethics Journal 7, no. 2 (summer 1988): 85-94.
12. As his reason for conditions (iv) and (v), De George cites the fate of
whistleblowers who put themselves at great risk: "If there is little likelihood of
his success, there is no moral obligation for the engineer to go public. For the
harm he or she personally incurs is not offset by the good such action achieves."
("Ethical Responsibilities of Engineers in Large Organizations," 7). Like myself,
then, De George implicitly views the personal suffering of whistleblowers as
morally relevant to understanding professional responsibilities, even though, as
I go on to argue, he invokes that relevance in the wrong way.
13. De George, Business Ethics, 214.
14. See especially Bernard Williams, 'A Critique of Utilitarianism" in Bernard
Williams and J. J. C. Smart, Utilitarianism, For and Against (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1973), 77-150, and Bernard Williams, "Persons, Char-
acter, and Morality," in Moral Luck (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1981), 1-19. For samples of more recent discussions, see the special edition of
Ethics, vol. 101 (July 1991), devoted to "Impartiality and Ethical Theory."
15. Cf. John Arthur, "Rights and Duty to Bring Aid," in William Aiken and
Hugh La Follette, eds., World Hunger and Moral Obligation (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1977), 37-48.
16. Alpern, "Moral Responsibilities for Engineers," 39.
17. James, "Whistle Blowing: Its Moral Justification," 334-35.
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

18. See Martin and Schinzinger, Ethics in Engineering, ch. 3. The emphasis on
engineers adopting a wide view of their activities does not imply that they are
culpable for all the moral failures of colleagues and managers.
19. National Society of Professional Engineers, "Code of Ethics," reprinted
in Martin and Schinzinger, Ethics in Engineering.
20. Cf. Thomas M. Devine and Donald G. Aplin, "Whistleblower Protection—
The Gap between the Law and Reality," Howard Law Journal 31 (1988): 236.
21. I am glad that the NSPE and other professional codes say what they do
in support of responsible whistleblowing, as long as it is understood that pro-
fessional codes only state professional-not all-things-considered-obligations
that automatically override personal responsibilities. As noted in chapter 3, codes
provide a backing for morally concerned engineers, and they make available to
engineers the moral support of an entire profession. At the same time, profes-
sional societies need to do far more than most of them have done to support the
efforts of conscientious whistleblowers. Beyond moral and political support, and
beyond recognition awards, they need to provide economic support, in the form
of legal funds and job placement. Cf. Stephen H. Unger, Controlling Technology:
Ethics and the Responsible Engineer, 2nd ed. (New York: John Wiley and Sons,
1994), esp. ch. 5; and Larry May, The Socially Responsive Self: Social Theory and
Professional Ethics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 171-83.

236 NOTES TO PAGES 143-47

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 22. As argued in chapter 8; also see Mike W. Martin, "Rights of Conscience
inside the Technological Corporation," Conceptus-Studien, 4: Wissen und Gewis-
sen (Vienna: VWGO, 1986): 179-91.
23. Alan F. Westin offers helpful suggestions about laws protecting whistle-
blowers in Whistle-Blowingl For a recent overview of the still fragmented and in-
sufficient legal protection of whistleblowers, see Rosemary Chalk, "Making the
World Safe for Whistle-Blowers," Technology Review 91 (January 1988): 48-57,
and James C. Petersen and Dan Farrell, Whistleblowing: Ethical and Legal Issues
in Expressing Dissent (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1986).
24. Cf. Edmund L. Pincoffs, Quandaries and Virtues (Lawrence: University
Press of Kansas, 1986), 112-14.
25. Important discussions of the role of virtues in professional ethics include
John Kultgen, Ethics andProfessionalism (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1988); Albert Flores, ed., Professional Ideals (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth,
1988); and Michael D. Bayles, Professional Ethics, 2nd ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wads-
worth, 1989). John Kekes insightfully discusses the virtues of self-direction in
The Examined Life (Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell University Press, 1988).
26. Martin Benjamin, Splitting the Difference: Compromise and Integrity in
Ethics and Politics (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990).
27. On the distinction between moral rules and ideals, see Bernard Gert,
Morality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 160-78.
28. Boisjoly, "The Challenger Disaster," 14.
29. Camps, "Warning an Auto Company," 128.
30. Harry Frankfurt draws attention to this felt "must" as a sign of deep car-
ing and commitment in The Importance of What We Care About (New York: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1988), 86-88.

Chapter 10
1. Anson Shupe, In the Name of All That's Holy: A Theory of Clergy Malfea-
sance (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995).
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

2. Religious ethics need not be Divine Command Ethics, that is, ethical the-
ories that locate the meaning or justification of all moral principles in God's
commandments. Religious ethics does, however, include some moral principles
that transcend or modify secular morality.
3. Cf. Richard T. De George, The Nature and Limits of Authority (Lawrence:
University Press of Kansas, 1985), 217-43.
4. Deborah Fernhoff, "The Valued Therapist," in Michael Goldberg, ed.,
Against the Grain: New Approaches to Professional Ethics (Valley Forge, Pa.: Trinity
Press International, 1993), 64.
5. Associated Press, 'Architect Finds New Blueprint for His Life," Los Ange-
les Times (September 28, 1996), B8.
6. As mentioned in chapter 2, there are questions about whether Albert
Schweitzer's faith played a role in supporting colonial paternalism.
7. Paw Prints (Capistrano Valley High School student paper), vol. 15, issue 9
(June 14,1991), i, 3, and Diane Seo, "High Court Refuses to Hear Teacher's Suit
over Evolution," Los Angeles Times (1995), B r, 89.
8. Sissela Bok, Secrets: On the Ethics of Concealment and Revelation (New
York: Pantheon Books, 1982), 131-33.
9. Larry May, The Socially Responsive Self: Social Theory and Professional Ethics
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 166-67.

NOTES TO PAGES 148-56 237

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 TO. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1971), 215.
IT. Kent Greenawalt, Religious Convictions and Political Choice (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1988), 240. Also see his Private Consciences and Public
Reasons (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
12. Greenawalt, Religious Convictions, 241.
13. Kenneth I. Winston, "The Religious Convictions of Public Officials,"
Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 3, no. i (1990): 141. Additional lim-
itations on legislators arising from the need for continual compromises are
discussed by Dennis F. Thompson in Political Ethics and Public Office (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1987). .
14. Page references in parentheses are to Margaret P. Battin, Ethics in the
Sanctuary (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990).
15. For an engaging study of how moral disagreements within a religion can
have fundamental importance to both the religion and to American politics, see
James Davison Hunter, Culture Wars: The Struggle to Define America (New York:
Basic Books, 1991).
16. Battin acknowledges Karen Lebacqz's Professional Ethics: Power and Para-
dox (Nashville, Tenn: Abingdon, 1985), which focuses on confidentiality issues
in the mainstream ministry.
17. As an analogy, suppose we were interested in the ethics of voluntary or-
ganizations whose aim was to preserve the environment or relieve world hunger.
There are professionals involved, for example, professional development officers,
whom we (the public) want to hold accountable in terms of professional standards
(for development officers). Others involved in voluntary associations are nonpro-
fessional volunteers who are accountable in terms of ordinary moral standards.
18. Battin also discusses organized religion as a profession in 'Applied Pro-
fessional Ethics and Institutional Religion: The Methodological Issues," The
Monist 67 (1984): 569-88. Perhaps what Battin intended to say is that engaging
in practices of providing religious services is a profession, not that religions are
themselves professions. Yet even that analogy is stretched when religious serv-
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

ices are provided by nonprofessional laypersons.

19. If there is an analogy here, it is not between religions and professions,
but between religions and those professional societies which individuals join
and leave at their discretion, such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers.
20. Indeed, the free and gossip-rich flow of information often contributes to
communities. Cf. John Sabini and Maury Silver, "A Plea for Gossip," in Moralities
of Everyday Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 89-106.
21. Indeed, most Mormons have affirmed the attempt by their authorities to
keep information about temple rituals secret. That attempt has been frustrated
by recent books such as Deborah Laake, Secret Ceremonies: A Mormon Woman's
Intimate Diary of Marriage and Beyond (New York: William Morrow, 1993). How-
ever, in defending the permissibility of membership-approved confidentiality
conventions, I am not suggesting that the Mormon religion is admirable in other
areas such as free speech. For an indication of disagreement within the church
about freedom of speech in a matter involving university professors, see the re-
port by the American Association of University Professors (AAUP), 'Academic
Freedom and Tenure: Brigham Young University," Academe (September/October
1997): 52-71. This report was followed by formal censure of Brigham Young
University by AAUP for free speech violations.

238 NOTES TO PAGES 157-65

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 22. Margaret P. Battin, "Reading Religions: A Reply to Callahan, Martin, and
Quinn," Professional Ethics 3, no. 2 (1994): 71.
23. A related problem is the belief in a scripture as literally the word of God,
a tenet central to fundamentalist sects. This doctrine gives the church authorities
enormous leeway in claiming 0-level status for virtually any scripture-based
doctrine.
24. Sterling M. McMurrin, Religion, Reason, and Truth: Historical Essays in the
Philosophy of Religion (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1982), xii. At the
same time, given the prominent role of religious authority in Mormonism, it is
perhaps harder to maintain a Mormon identity after rejecting theism than it is to
maintain, say, a Jewish identity after rejecting beliefs in the supernatural, as, for
example, Albert Einstein did. McMurrin's relationship with church officials was
occasionally rocky, and on at least one occasion some church officials sought
to excommunicate him.

Chapter u
1. Character explanations of actions should not be confused with explana-
tions of how character is formed. The latter include psychological theories of
moral development, sociobiological theories about the evolution of human
capacities, anthropological theories, religious explanations, and some social
explanations.
2. In the criminal justice literature, James Q. Wilson is a notable exception.
See The Moral Sense (New York: Free Press, 1993) and On Character (Washington,
D.C.: AEI Press, 1995).
3. Donald Davidson, Essays on Actions and Events (Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 1980); Robert Audi, Action, Intention, andReason (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press, 1993). On the role of folk psychology as a touchstone for more
abstruse psychological theories, see Jerome Bruner, Acts of Meaning (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990).
4. With modifications of terminology, the categories (though not the ex-
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

amples) are those set forth by Ronald D. Milo in Immorality (Princeton, N.J.: Prince-
ton University Press, 1984). For example, I use "perverse immorality" for his "per-
verse wickedness," and "moral indifference" for his "lack of moral concern."
5. Of course, the evil of Nazi professionalism took many forms. See Robert
Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New
York: Basic Books, 1986), and Charles E. McClelland, The German Experience of
Professionalization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
6. For an insightful discussion of refusal, see Jean Hampton's conception of
"defiance explanations" in "The Nature of Immorality," Social Philosophy and
Policy, 7 (1989): 22-44.1 disagree, however, with Hampton's attempt to reduce
other types of explanation of wrongdoing to this category. Regarding degrees of
sociopathy, see the classic text by Hervey Cleckley, The Mask of Sanity, 5th ed.
(Saint Louis, Mo.: C. V. Mosby, 1976).
7. Mary Midgley also views this as a prejudice in Wickedness: A Philosophi-
cal Essay (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984), 2.
8. Cf. Owen Flanagan, Varieties of Moral Personality: Ethics and Psychologi-
cal Realism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).
9. Quoted by Joan C. Callahan, "Professions, Institutions, and Moral Risk,"
in Daniel E. Wueste, ed., Professional Ethics and Social Responsibility (Totawa, N.J.:
Rowman and Littlefield, 1994), 246-47.

NOTES TO PAGES 165-81 239

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 io. Ibid., 262.
u. Ibid., 248-49.
12. Michael Davis, "Explaining Wrongdoing," Journal of Social Philosophy 20
(1980): 74-90. Quotations are from p83, 78-79. Davis also discusses the Chal-
lenger case in "Thinking Like an Engineer: The Place of a Code of Ethics in the
Practice of a Profession," Philosophy and Public Affairs 20 (1991): 150-67.
13. Joan S. Lockard and Delroy L. Paulhus, eds., Self-Deception: An Adaptive
Mechanism? (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988); Shelley E. Taylor, Posi-
tive Illusions: Creative Self-Deception and The Healthy Mind (New York: Basic Books,
1989); Mike W. Martin, Self-Deception and Morality (Lawrence: University Press
of Kansas, 1986), 109-37.
14. Alasdair Maclntyre, After Virtue, 2nd ed. (Notre Dame, Ind.: University
of Notre Dame Press, 1984), 194. Cf. Albert Flores, ed., Professional Ideals (Bel-
mont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1988), 6-10.
15. Ibid.: (a), (b), and (d) onpiSg-go; (c) on 197.
16. Ibid., 190-91.
17. To be fair, Maclntyre recognizes that "the making and sustaining of
forms of human community—and therefore of institutions—itself has all the
characteristics of a practice," (After Virtue, 194). He also recognizes that com-
munities contribute to fostering or undermining virtues. And he writes, "Insti-
tutions and practices characteristically form a single causal order."
18. For examples, see Francis J. Aguilar, Managing Corporate Ethics (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1994), and Joseph A. Raelin, The Clash of Cul-
tures: Managers Managing Professionals (Boston: Harvard Business School Press,
1991).
1:9. Robert Jackall, Moral Mazes: The World of Corporate Managers (Oxford: Ox-
ford University Press, 1988), 105-11.
20. The idealization began with Plato in The Republic, pt. i, ch. 3.
21. Cf. Banks McDowell, Ethical Conduct and the Professional's Dilemma: Choos-
ing between Service and Success (New York: Quorum Books, 1991).
22. Marc A. Rodwin, Medicine, Money, and Morals: Physicians' Conflicts of In-
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

terest (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

23. Elizabeth Wolgast, Ethics of an Artificial Person: Lost Responsibility in Pro-
fessions and Organizations (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992), 144.
Cf. David Luban, Lawyers and Justice: An Ethical Study (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1988).
24. Hard determinism, the view that all of us are entirely determined by in-
fluences outside ourselves, would seem to excuse wrongdoing in the professions
and elsewhere. It would also seem to favor social explanations and dismiss
character explanations as wrongheaded. In fact, hard determinism leaves no
room for our ordinary moral concept of responsible agency or even for our full-
blooded notion of wrongdoing. In thereby overthrowing the ordinary concept
of "wrongdoing," hard determinism undermines social as well as character ex-
planations of wrongdoing.

Chapter 12
1. Alan Mintz, George Eliot and the Novel of Vocation (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1978).
2. Parenthetical page references are to George Eliot, Middlemarch (New
York: Penguin, 1994).

240 NOTES TO PAGES 181-90

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 3. George Levine, "Determinism and Responsibility," in Gordon S. Haight,
ed., A Century of George Eliot Criticism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965), 349-60.
4. Stephen L. Darwall drew the distinction as "recognition" versus "ap-
praisal" self-respect, Impartial Reason, (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cronell University Press,
1983), 149. Also see Robin S. Dillon ed., Dignity, Character, and Self-Respect (New
York: Routledge, 1995).
5. The term "inner hypocrisy" is borrowed from Joseph Butler, "Upon Self-
Deceit," in W. E. Gladstone, ed., The Works of Joseph Butler, vol. 2 (New York:
Macmillan, 1896), 180.1 discuss Butler in Self-Deception and Morality (Lawrence:
University Press of Kansas, 1986).
6. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1971), 440.
7. Alan Mintz, George Eliot and the Novel of Vocation, 104.
8. Bert G. Hornback, Middlemarch, A Novel of Reform (Boston: Twayne, 1988).
9. Joshua Halberstam, "Fame," American Philosophical Quarterly 21 (Janu-
ary 1984): 9.3-99-
10. Daniel J. Levinson, The Seasons of a Man's Life (New York: Knopf, 1978),
268.
i j. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York:
Washington Square Press, 1966), 86-116. The literature on self-deception is
considerable. The best single work on self-deception is Herbert Fingarette, Self-
Deception (New York: Humanities Press, 1969), a work that resonates with Eliot's
talk of "two [sub-]selves" in self-deception. Also see his "Self-Deception Needs No
Explaining," The Philosophical Quarterly 48 (1998): 289-301. For a sample of the
recent literature, see Mike W. Martin, ed., Self-Deception and Self-Understanding
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1985); Brian P. McLaughlin and Amelie
Oksenberg Rorty, eds., Perspectives on Self-Deception (Berkeley: University of Cal-
ifornia Press, 1988); and Roger T. Ames and Wimal Dissanayake, eds.. Self and
Deception: A Cross-Cultural Philosophical Enquiry (Albany: State University of New
York Press, 1996).
12. Contrary to Alfred R. Mele, "Real Self-Deception," Behavioral and Brain
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Sciences 20 (1997): 91-102.

13. See Henry Fairlie, The. Seven Deadly Sins Today (Notre Dame, Ind.: Univer-
sity of Notre Dame, 1979), 61. For a justly famous case study, see Peter Shaffer,
Amadeus (New York: New American Library, 1984).
14. Janet Landman, Regret: The Persistence of the Possible (Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1993), 210.
15. Ludwig Wittgenstein, quoted by M. 0' C. Drury, "Some Notes on Con-
versations with Wittgenstein," in Rush Rhees, ed., Recollections of Wittgenstein
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 95-96.
16. Robert Jay Lifton, The Protean Self: Human Resilience in an Age of Fragmen-
tation (New York: Basic Books, 1993), and Kenneth J. Gergen, The Saturated Self:
Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life (New York: Basic Books, 1991).

Chapter 13
1. Juliet B. Schor, The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure
(New York: BasicBooks, 1991), 29.
2. On the "gappiness" of character, see Owen Flanagan, Varieties of Moral
Personality: Ethics and Psychological Realism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1991).

NOTES TO PAGES 1 9 1 — 2 0 3 24!

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 3. For especially interesting discussions, see Gabriele Taylor, "Integrity," in
Pride, Shame, and Guilt: Emotions of Self-Assessment (Oxford: Clarendon, 1985),
108-41; Lynne McFall, "Integrity," Ethics 98 (1987): 4-20; and Mark S. Half on, In-
tegrity: A Philosophical Inquiry (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 32.
4. Harry G. Frankfurt, The Importance of What We Care About (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1988).
5. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Press, 1971), 519.
6. Bernard Williams made the example familiar in the philosophical litera-
ture. His partly fictional Gaugin makes his decision after engaging in moral rea-
soning that took seriously his obligations to his family, even though ultimately
he made the artistic commitment paramount. "Moral Luck," in Moral Luck
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 20-39.
7. Harry G. Frankfurt understands this idea in terms of second-order de-
sires: one desires to have moral desires. The Importance of What We Care About
80-94.
8. See Mary Midgley, "Creation and Originality," in Heart and Mind: The Va-
rieties of Moral Experience (New York: St. Martin's, 1981), 43-58.
9. Cheshire Calhoun, "Standing for Something," The Journal of Philosophy 92
(1995): 235-60.
10. This "motivational internalism" is defended by Thomas E. Wren in Car-
ing About Morality (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press,
1991) and Michael Smith in, The Moral Problem (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994).
11. Martin Benjamin, Splitting the Difference: Compromise and Integrity in Ethics
andPolitics (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990), 32-38.
12. Peter A. French, Ethics in Government (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, 1983), 5-6.
13. Cf. W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, T. Marek, eds., Professional Burnout: Re-
cent Development in Theory and Research (Washington D.C.: Taylor and Francis,
1993), 3-
14. Graham Greene, A Burnt-Out Case (New York: Penguin, 1960), 44.
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

15. Ibid., 114.

16. Ibid., 118.
17. Thomas Mann, Buddenbrooks, trans. John E. Woods (New York: Vintage,
1993). 595-
18. Page references are to Anton Chekhov, "Ward No. 6" in Seven Short
Novels by Chekhov, trans. Barbara Makanowitzky (New York: W. W. Norton,
1963). "3-
19. Ibid., 120.
20. Ibid., 156.
21. Page references are to Albert Camus, The Fall, trans. Justin O'Brien (New
York: Vintage, 1956), 84.
22. Ibid., 141.
23. Ayala M. Pines, "Burnout: An Existential Perspective," in Wilmar B.
Schaufeli, Christina Maslach, and Tadeusz Marek, eds, Professional Burnout: Re-
cent Developments in Theory and Research 33-51; Gary Cherniss, Beyond Burnout
(New York: Routledge, 1995), 181-89.
24. Pines, "Burnout" 41.
25. Cherniss, Beyond Burnout, 63-75.
26. Christina Maslach, Burnout: The Cost of Caring (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1982).

242 NOTES TO PAGES 204-210

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 27. Mary Midgley, Beast and Man: The Roots of Human Nature, rev. ed. (New
York: Routledge, 1995), 192.
28. John Kekes, Moral Tradition and Individuality (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, 1989), 230, and on Thomas More, 167-72.
29. Bernard Williams, " A Critique of Utilitarianism" in Bernard Williams
and J. J. C. Smart, Utilitarianism, For and Against (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1973), 97-98.
30. John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct [1922] (New York: Modern Li-
brary, 1957), 183.
31. John Dewey, Theory of the Moral Life [1908] (New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1960), 141.
32. James D. Wallace, Moral Relevance and Moral Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cor-
nell University Press, 1988), 93-94. The spirit of Dewey's thinking is also pow-
erfully conveyed by Arthur E. Murphy in The Theory of Practical Reason, ed. A. I.
Melden (La Salle, 111.: Open Court, 1964).
33. George Eliot, Daniel Deronda [1876] (New York: Penguin, 1974), p. 572.
34. Mary Catherine Bateson, Composing a Life (New York: Plume, 1990). Also
see Myra Dinnerstein, Women between Two Worlds: Midlife Reflections on Work and
Family (Philadelphia: Temple University, 1992), and Robert Jay Lifton, The Pro-
tean Self: Human Resilience in an Age of Fragmentation (New York: Basic Books,
1993).
35. George de Mare, Corporate Lives (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold,
1976), 145.
36. Arlie Hochschild, with Anne Machung, The Second Shift (New York: Avon,
1985), no.
37. Virginia Woolf, To the Lighthouse (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
1927), 118.
38. Gilbert C. Meilaender, Friendship: A Study in Theological Ethics (Notre
Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 97.
39. Betsy Morris, "Is Your Family Wrecking Your Career? (and Vice Versa),"
Fortune (March 17,1997), 71-90.
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

40. Cited in Deborah J. Swiss and Judith P. Walker, Women and the Work/
Family Dilemma (New York: Wiley, 1993), 63.
41. Quoted from conversation by Robert Coles, The Call of Stories: Teaching
and the Moral Imagination (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989), 116. For an inter-
esting contemporary study, see Michael F. Myers, Doctors' Marriages, 2nd ed.
(New York: Plenum Medical, 1994).
42. D. H. Lawrence, Women in Love (New York: Penguin, 1982), 295-300.
43. Ibid., 542.
44. Schor, The Overworked American.
45. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Time Bend: When Work Becomes Home and
Home Becomes Work (New York: Henry Holt, 1997), esp. 197-203.

NOTES TO PAGES 210-217 243

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.
 This page intentionally left blank
Copyright © 2000. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Martin, Mike W.. <i>Meaningful Work : Rethinking Professional Ethics</i>, Oxford University Press USA -
OSO, 2000. ProQuest Ebook Central, [Link]
Created from upc-ebooks on 2019-06-29 20:37:34.