Chemistry notes

Week 1,2,3 :

Molar mass
- Molar mass is defined as the mass in grams of one mole of a substance. The units of
molar mass are grams per mole, abbreviated as g/mol.

The Mole
– The mole (abbreviated mol) is the SI measure of quantity of a “chemical entity,”
such as atoms, electrons, or protons. It is defined as the amount of a substance that
contains as many particles as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12. So, 1
mol contains 6.022×1023 elementary entities of the substance.
The amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.

Avogadros number
- Avogadro’s number is a proportion that relates molar mass on an atomic scale to
physical mass on a human scale. Avogadro’s number is defined as the number of
elementary particles (molecules, atoms, compounds, etc.) per mole of a substance.
It is equal to 6.022×1023 mol-1 and is expressed as the symbol NA.

Chemical Computations with Avogadro’s Number and the Mole

- One atom of oxygen will combine with two atoms of hydrogen to create one
molecule of water (H2O), one mole of oxygen (6.022×1023 of O atoms) will
combine with two moles of hydrogen (2 × 6.022×10 23 of H atoms) to make one
mole of H2O.

- Another property of Avogadro’s number is that the mass of one mole of a

substance is equal to that substance’s molecular weight. For example, the
mean molecular weight of water is 18.015 atomic mass units (amu), so one
mole of water weight 18.015 grams. This property simplifies many chemical
computations.
Key takeaways
- The mole allows scientists to calculate the number of elementary entities
(usually atoms or molecules ) in a certain mass of a given substance.
- Avogadro’s number is an absolute number: there are 6.022×10 23 elementary
entities in 1 mole. This can also be written as 6.022×10 23 mol-1.
- The mass of one mole of a substance is equal to that substance’s molecular
weight. For example, the mean molecular weight of water is 18.015 atomic
mass units (amu), so one mole of water weight 18.015 grams.
- Avogadro’s number is a very important relationship to remember: 1 mole
= 6.022×10236.022×1023 atoms, molecules, protons, etc.
- To convert from moles to atoms, multiply the molar amount by Avogadro’s
number.
- To convert from atoms to moles, divide the atom amount by Avogadro’s
number (or multiply by its reciprocal).

Key terms
- mole: The amount of substance of a system that contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.
- Avogadro’s number: The number of atoms present in 12 g of carbon-12,
which is 6.022×10236.022×1023 and the number of elementary entities
(atoms or molecules) comprising one mole of a given substance.

Converting Moles to Atoms

- Given a known number of moles (x), one can find the number of atoms (y) in
this molar quantity by multiplying it by Avogadro’s number:

x moles⋅6.022×1023atoms/ 1 mole=y atoms

- For example, if scientists want to know how may atoms are in six moles of
sodium (x = 6), they could solve:

6 moles⋅6.022×1023 atoms/1 mole=3.61×1024 atoms

Note that the solution is independent of whether the element is sodium or otherwise.
Converting Atoms to Moles

Reversing the calculation above, it is possible to convert a number of atoms to a

molar quantity by dividing it by Avogadro’s number:

x atoms / 6.022×1023atoms / 1 mole=y moles

This can be written without a fraction in the denominator by multiplying the number of
atoms by the reciprocal of Avogadro’s number:

x atoms⋅1 mole / 6.022×1023 atoms=y moles

For example, if scientists know there are 3.5⋅1024 atoms in a sample, they can
calculate the number of moles this quantity represents:

3.5×1024 atoms⋅1 mole / 6.022×1023 atoms=5.81 moles

Key takeaways
- The molar mass of a compound is equal to the sum of the atomic masses of
its constituent atoms in g/mol.
- Although there is no physical way of measuring the number of moles of a
compound, we can relate its mass to the number of moles by using the
compound’s molar mass as a direct conversion factor.
- To convert between mass and number of moles, you can use the molar mass
of the substance. Then, you can use Avogadro’s number to convert the
number of moles to number of atoms.

Key terms
- molar mass: The mass of a given substance (chemical element or chemical
compound) divided by its amount of substance (mol), in g/mol.
- dimensional analysis: The analysis of the relationships between different
physical quantities by identifying their fundamental dimensions (such as
length, mass, time, and electric charge) and units of measure (such as miles
vs. kilometers, or pounds vs. kilograms vs. grams) and tracking these
dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed.
NOTE:

Chemists generally use the mole as the unit for the number of atoms or molecules of a material.
One mole (abbreviated mol) is equal to 6.022×1023 molecular entities (Avogadro’s number), and
each element has a different molar mass depending on the weight of 6.022×10 23 of its atoms (1
mole). The molar mass of any element can be determined by finding the atomic mass of the
element on the periodic table. For example, if the atomic mass of sulfer (S) is 32.066 amu, then
its molar mass is 32.066 g/mol.

By recognizing the relationship between the molar mass (g/mol), moles (mol), and particles,
scientists can use dimensional analysis convert between mass, number of moles and number of
atoms very easily.

Determining the Molar Mass of a Compound

In a compound of NaOH, the molar mass of Na alone is 23 g/mol, the molar mass of
O is 16 g/mol, and H is 1 g/mol. What is the molar mass of NaOH?

Na+O+H=NaOH

23 g/mol+16 g/mol+1 g/mol=40 g/mol

The molar mass of the compound NaOH is 40 g/mol.

Converting Mass to Number of Moles

How many moles of NaOH are present in 90 g of NaOH?

Since the molar mass of NaOH is 40 g/mol, we can divide the 90 g of NaOH by the
molar mass (40 g/mol) to find the moles of NaOH. This the same as multiplying by
the reciprocal of 40 g/mol.

If the equation is arranged correctly, the mass units (g) cancel out and leave moles
as the unit.

90 g NaOH × 1 mol / 40 g=2.25 mol NaOH

There are 2.25 moles of NaOH in 90g of NaOH.

Converting Between Mass, Number of Moles, and Number of Atoms

How many moles and how many atoms are contained in 10.0 g of nickel?

According to the periodic table, the atomic mass of nickel (Ni) is 58.69 amu, which
means that the molar mass of nickel is 58.69 g/mol. Therefore, we can divide 10.0 g
of Ni by the molar mass of Ni to find the number of moles present.

Using dimensional analysis, it is possible to determine that:

10 g Ni×1 mol Ni/58.69 g Ni=0.170 mol Ni

To determine the number of atoms, convert the moles of Ni to atoms using

Avogadro’s number:

0.170 moles Ni×6.022×1023 atoms Ni/1 mol Ni=1.02×1023 atoms Ni

Given a sample’s mass and number of moles in that sample, it is also possible to
calculate the sample’s molecular mass by dividing the mass by the number of moles
to calculate g/mol.

What is the molar mass of methane (CH4) if there are 0.623 moles in a 10.0g
sample?

10.0 g CH4/0.623 mol CH4=16.05 g/mol CH4

The molar mass of CH4 is 16.05 g/mol.

Coefficients and Subscripts

- There are two types of numbers that appear in chemical equations. There are
subscripts, which are part of the chemical formulas of the reactants and
products; and there are coefficients that are placed in front of the formulas to
indicate how many molecules of that substance is used or produced.
 - The subscripts are part of the formulas and once the formulas for the
reactants and products are determined, the subscripts may not be changed.
The coefficients indicate the number of each substance involved in the
reaction and may be changed in order to balance the equation. 

Balancing a Chemical Equation

- Because the identities of the reactants and products are fixed, the equation
cannot be balanced by changing the subscripts of the reactants or the
products. 

- The simplest and most generally useful method for balancing chemical equations is
“inspection,” better known as trial and error. The following is an efficient approach to
balancing a chemical equation using this method.
Steps in Balancing a Chemical Equation
1. Identify the most complex substance.
2. Beginning with that substance, choose an element(s) that appears in only one
reactant and one product, if possible. Adjust the coefficients to obtain the
same number of atoms of this element(s) on both sides.
3. Balance polyatomic ions (if present on both sides of the chemical equation) as
a unit.
4. Balance the remaining atoms, usually ending with the least complex
substance and using fractional coefficients if necessary. If a fractional
coefficient has been used, multiply both sides of the equation by the
denominator to obtain whole numbers for the coefficients.
5. Count the numbers of atoms of each kind on both sides of the equation to be
sure that the chemical equation is balanced.

Combustion of Isooctane

Combustion of Isooctane (C8H18C8H18)

C8H18(l)+O2(g)⟶CO2(g)+H2O(g)C8H18(l)+O2(g)⟶CO2(g)+H2O(g)
Solution

The assumption that the final balanced chemical equation contains only one molecule or
formula unit of the most complex substance is not always valid, but it is a good place to start.
The combustion of any hydrocarbon with oxygen produces carbon dioxide and water.

Steps Example
1. Identi
fy the
The most complex substance is the one with the largest number of different atoms,
most
which is C8H18C8H18. We will assume initially that the final balanced chemical
complex
equation contains 1 molecule or formula unit of this substance.
substanc
e.
a. The first element that appears only once in the reactants is carbon: 8 carbon
atoms in isooctane means that there must be 8 CO 2 molecules in the products:

C8H18(l)+O2(g)⟶8⎯⎯CO2(g)+H2O(g)C8H18(l)+O2(g)⟶8_CO2(g)
+H2O(g)
2. Adjust  8 carbon atoms on both reactant and product sides
the
coefficie b. 18 hydrogen atoms in isooctane means that there must be 9 H O molecules in the
2
nts. products:

C8H18(l)+O2(g)⟶8CO2(g)+9⎯⎯H2O(g)C8H18(l)+O2(g)⟶8CO2(g)
+9_H2O(g)
 18 hydrogen atoms on both reactant and product sides
 Steps Example
3. Balanc
e
polyato
There are no polyatomic ions to be considered in this reaction.
mic ions
as a
unit.
The carbon and hydrogen atoms are now balanced, but we have 25 oxygen atoms on
the right side and only 2 oxygen atoms on the left. We can balance the least complex
substance, O2, but because there are 2 oxygen atoms per O 2 molecule, we must use a
fractional coefficient (252252) to balance the oxygen atoms:

C8H18(l)+252⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯O2(g)→8CO2(g)+9H2O(g)C8H18(l)
+252_O2(g)→8CO2(g)+9H2O(g)
4. Balanc
e the  25 oxygen atoms on both reactant and product sides
remainin
g atoms. The equation is now balanced, but we usually write equations with whole number
coefficients. We can eliminate the fractional coefficient by multiplying all coefficients
on both sides of the chemical equation by 2:

2⎯⎯C8H18(l)+25⎯⎯⎯⎯O2(g)⟶16⎯⎯⎯⎯CO2(g)
+18⎯⎯⎯⎯H2O(g)2_C8H18(l)+25_O2(g)⟶16_CO2(g)+18_H2O(g)
The balanced chemical equation has 16 carbon atoms, 36 hydrogen atoms, and 50
oxygen atoms on each side.
5. Check
your Balancing equations requires some practice on your part as well as some common
work. sense. If you find yourself using very large coefficients or if you have spent several
minutes without success, go back and make sure that you have written the formulas
of the reactants and products correctly.

Precipitation of Lead (II) Chloride

Aqueous solutions of lead (II) nitrate and sodium chloride are mixed. The products of the
reaction are an aqueous solution of sodium nitrate and a solid precipitate of lead (II) chloride.
Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.

Solution

Steps Example
1. Identi
fy the The most complex substance is lead (II) chloride.
most
complex Pb(NO3)2(aq)+NaCl(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)Pb(NO3)2(aq)
substanc +NaCl(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)
e.
 Steps Example
There are twice as many chloride ions in the reactants as there are in the products.
Place a 2 in front of the NaCl in order to balance the chloride ions.

2. Adjust
the
Pb(NO3)2(aq)+2⎯⎯NaCl(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)Pb(NO3)2(aq)
coefficie +2_NaCl(aq)→NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)
nts.  1 Pb atom on both reactant and product sides
 2 Na atoms on reactant side, 1 Na atom on product side
 2 Cl atoms on both reactant and product sides
The nitrate ions are still unbalanced. Place a 2 in front of the NaNO 3. The result is:

3. Balanc Pb(NO3)2(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2⎯⎯NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)Pb(NO3)2(aq)
e
polyato
+2NaCl(aq)→2_NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)
mic ions  1 Pb atom on both reactant and product sides
as a  2 Na atoms on both reactant and product sides
unit.  2 Cl atoms on both reactant and product sides
 2 NO3- atoms on both reactant and product sides
4. Balanc
e the
There is no need to balance the remaining atoms because they are already balanced.
remainin
g atoms.
Pb(NO3)2(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)Pb(NO3)2(aq)
+2NaCl(aq)→2NaNO3(aq)+PbCl2(s)
5. Check  1 Pb atom on both reactant and product sides
your
 2 Na atoms on both reactant and product sides
work.
 2 Cl atoms on both reactant and product sides
 2 NO3- atoms on both reactant and product sides

 Chemical reaction - The process in which one or more substances are

changed into one or more new substances.
 Reactants - The starting materials in a reaction.
 Products - Materials present at the end of a reaction.
 Balanced chemical equation - A chemical equation in which the number of
each type of atom is equal on the two sides of the equation.
 Subscripts - Part of the chemical formulas of the reactants and products
that indicate the number of atoms of the preceding element.
 Coefficient - A small whole number that appears in front of a formula in a
balanced chemical equation.

Week 4-5-6: Introduction to Organic Chemistry

Physical properties

The physical properties of alkenes and alkynes are generally similar

to those of alkanes or cycloalkanes with equal numbers
of carbon atoms. Alkynes have higher boiling points than alkanes or
alkenes, because the electric field of an alkyne, with its increased
number of weakly held π electrons, is more easily distorted,
producing stronger attractive forces between molecules.

Boiling points of alkenes and alkynes

name formula boiling point (°C)

ethylene CH2=CH2 −103.7

acetylene HC≡CH −84.0

propene CH2=CHCH3 −47.6

propyne HC≡CCH3 −23.2

1-butene CH2=CHCH2CH3 −6.1

cis-2-butene cis-CH3CH=CHCH3 +3.7

trans-2-butene trans-CH3CH=CHCH3 +0.9

2-
CH2=C(CH3)2 −6.6
methylpropene

1-butyne HC≡CCH2CH3 +8.1

2-butyne CH3C≡CCH3 +27.0

1-pentene CH2=CHCH2CH2CH3 +30.2

1-pentyne HC≡CCH2CH2CH3 +40.2

Chemical properties

Alkenes react with a much richer variety of compounds than

alkanes. The characteristic reaction of alkanes is substitution; that
of alkenes and alkynes is addition to the double or triple
bond. Hydrogenation is the addition of molecular hydrogen (H2) to
a multiple bond, which converts alkenes to alkanes. The reaction
occurs at a convenient rate only in the presence of certain finely
divided metal catalysts, such
as nickel (Ni), platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), or rhodium (Rh).