CHAPTER 15 DC Drives The learning objectives of this chapter are as follows: To learn the basic characteristics of dc motors and their control parameters ‘To understand the types and operating modes of de drives To learn about the control requirements of four-quadrant drives To understand parameters of the transfer function of converter-fed de motors for closes control of motor speed and torque eoee 15.1 INTRODUCTION Direct current (de) motors have variable characteristics and are used extensively ia variable-speed drives. Dc motors can provide a high starting torque and it is ako possible to obtain speed control over a wide range. The methods of speed contre sre_normally simpler and les expensive than those of a¢ Aces De motors play significant role in modern industrial drives. Both series and separately excited demo- tors are normally used in variable-speed drives, but series motors are traditionzl employed for traction applications. Due to commutators, de motors are not suite for very high speed applications and require more maintenance than do ac moto’ | With the recent advancements in power conversions, control techniques, and mic” computers, the ac motor drives are becoming increasingly competitive with & motor drives. Although the future trend is toward ac drives, dc drives are currently used in many industries. It might be a few decades before the de drives are co pletely replaced by ac drives. Controlled rectifiers provide a variable de output voltage from a fix whereas a de-dc converter can provide a variable de voltage from a fixe i ‘Due to their ability to supply a continuously variable dc voltage, controlled rectifie! and de-de converters made a revolution in modern industrial control equipment © variable-speed drives, with power levels ranging from fractional horsepower '° ee e megawatts. Controlled rectifiers are generally used for the speed control of de m* as shown in Figure 15..a. The alternative form would be a diode rectifier follow" ” ed ac volta .d de voltage sao | atl Scanned with CamScanner152. Basic Characteristics of DC Motors 647 A i | ~ Fate Ac Ac supply | *//de Vo ve | Soc | supply 4 | (en _ = |e ‘Controlled rectifier Diode bridge or controlled rectifier Ga Controlled rectifier fed drive i, oy ~ ]- |—o Ac Ac supply | *0/e v, | 8c | supply Diode rectifier DC-de converter Diode bridge or controlled rectifier (py Chopper-fed drive FIGURE 15.1 Controller rectfier- and de-de converter-ed drives. de-de converter, as shown in Figure 15.1b. De drives can be classified, in general, into three types: : J. Single-phase drives 2, Three-phase drives 3, De-de converter drives 45.2. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS ly excited de motor is shown in Figure 15.2 [1]. sxcited motor is excited by a field current of iy and an armature Ot at rature circuit, the motor develops a back electromotive force autrance the load torque at a particular speed. The field current iy ‘The equivalent circuit for a separat When a separately rent of i, flows in the (emf) and a torque to FIGURE 15.2 Equivalent cireuit of separately excited de motors. Scanned with CamScanner5 Chapter 15 — DC Drives of a separately excited motor is independent of the armature current i and 22) chin, in the armature current has no effect on the field current. is noma much less than the armature current. - : The equations describing the characteristics of a separately excited moto; ‘ a ‘ can determined from Figure 15.2. The instantaneous field current iy is described ag “*" diy vy = Rely + Ly ‘The instantaneous armature current can be found from di, "oy, = Ral <4 +e, ie + +e, ‘The motor back emf, which is also known as speed voltage, is expressed as e_ = Kywiy ‘The torque developed by the motor is Ta = Kiipia The developed torque must be equal to the load torque: T= 2 + Bo+T, where w = motor angular speed, or rotor angular frequency, rad/s; B = viscous friction constant, N - m/rad/s; K, = voltage constant, V/A-rad/s; X, = torque constant, which equals voltage constant, k,; armature circuit inductance, H; field circuit inductance, H; R, = armature circuit resistance, QO; Ry = field circuit resistance, 0; Tz = load torque, N+ m. Under steady-state conditions, the time derivatives in these equations are zero and the Steady-state average quantities are Vy = Ryly (as) Es = Kywol, (152) Va = Rly + E, = Rule + Kyoly (53) ast (153) The developed power is : (15.6) > | Scanned with CamScanner15.2 Basle Characterlstics of Oc Motors 643 = constant i (C= Approximately Tinear region FIGURE 15.3, " Magnetization characteristic The relationship between the ficld current J; and the back emt E, is nonlinear due to magnetic saturation. The relationship, which is shown in Figure 15.3, is known as magnetization characteristic of the motor. From Eq. (15.3) the speed of a separately ©%- cited motor can be found from (15.7) ___We can notice from Eq. (15.7) that the motor speed gan be varied by ww control- ling the armature voltage V,, known as voltage control; ‘Gy controlling the field current Ty, known as field control; or (3Y torque demand, which corresponds to an armature current [,, for a fixed field current J;. The speed, which corresponds to the rated arma- ture voltage, rated field current and rated armature current, is known as the rated (or base) speed. In practice, for a speed less than the base speed, the armature current and field currents are maintained constant to meet the torque demand, and the armature voltage V, is varied to control the speed. For speed higher than the base speed, the armature Ta, ‘Torque, Ty Speed, w Armature current, “>= Field current, i . ‘Constant —+| foe 5 power ‘Constant ————+--—— torque FIGURE 15.4 ’ Characteristics of separately excited motors, ; Scanned with CamScanner644 Chapter 15 “DC Drives FIGURE 15.5, Equivalent circuit of de series motors. voltage is maintained at the rated value and the field current is vavied t0 control speed. However, the power developed by the motor (= torque X speed) remains gy stant. Figure 15.4 shows the characteristics of torque, power, armature current, and fet ed. ier the field oan oe may be connected in series with the armature Circuit, shown in Figure 15.5, and this type of motor is called a series motor. The field circuit) ~ designed to carry the armature current. The steady-state average quantities are = Kol, i (1s Va = (Ro + Ry)lg + Ey | (ass = (Ra + Ry) + Kywoly (1510 Ty" Kiley | = Bo + T, (15.11 ‘The speed of a series motor can be determined from Eq, (15.10): eee nae Re (5.2 Kulp ‘The speed can be varied by controlling the (1) armature voltage V,; or (2) armatur current, which is a measure of the torque demand. Equation (15.11) indicates that series motor can provide a high torque, especially at starting; and for this reason, seri¢ motors are commonly used in traction applications, = 0 FIGURE 15.6 Characteristics of de series motors | Scanned with CamScanner15.3. Operating Modes 645 For a speed up to the bi tnaintnined SoHMARLOnce the rated SSeS eee ee speed) pea characteristic of the motor and the power (= torque * are a ee the torque demand is reduced, the speed increases. At a very light lond, the speed could be very high and its not advisable to run a de series out a load. Figure 15.6 shows the characteristics of de series motors. varied and the torque is ied, the speed-torque re- Example 15.1 Finding the Voltage and Current of a Separately Excited Motor 4 ‘Shp, 220-V, 2000-rpm separately excited de motor controls a load requiring a torque of 1. = 45N-m at a speed of 1200 rpm. The field circuit resistance is Ry = 147 2, the armature Sirenit resistance is Ry = 0.25 0, and the voltage constant of the motor is Ky = 0.7032 V/A radls. field voltage is V; = 220 V. The viscous friction and no-load losses are negligible. The arma- ture current may be assumed continuous and ripple free. Determine (a) the back emf Ey. (b) the required armature voltage V,, and (c) the rated armature current of the motor. Solution Ry = 147 O, Ry = 0.25, Ky = K, = 0.1032 VIA radls, Vj = 220 V, Ta = Tr, = 45N+m. wo = 1200 7/30 = 125.66 rad/s, and J = 220/147 = 1.497 A. a. From Eq. (15.4), J, = 45/(0.7032 1.497) = 42.75 A. From Eq. (15.2), E, = 0.7032 125.66 X 1.497 = 132.28 V. b. From Eq. (15.3), Ve = 0.25 X 42.75 + 132.28 = 142.97 V. ¢. Because 1 hp is equal to 746 W, Iratea = 15 X 746/220 = 0.87 A. Key Points of Section 15.2 © The speed of a de motor can be varied by controlling (1) the armature voltage, (2) the field current, or (3) the armature current that is a measure of the torque demand. * For a speed less than the rated speed (also known as base speed), the armature voltage is varied to control the speed, while the armature and field currents are maintained constant. For a speed higher than the rated speed, the field current is varied to control the speed, while the armature voltage is maintained at the rated value. OPERATING MODES In variable-speed applications, a de motor may be operating in one or more modes: motoring, regenerative braking, dynamic braking, plugging, and four quadrants [2, 3] Motoring. The arrangements for motoring are shown in Figure 15.7a. Back emf E, is less than supply voltage V,, Both armature and field currents are positive. The motor develops torque to meet the load demand. Regenerative braking. ‘The arrangements for regenerative braking are shown in Figure 15.7b. The motor acts as a generator and develops an induced voltage Ey. Ey must be greater than supply voltage V,.The armature current is negative, but the field current is positive. The kinetic energy of the motor is returned to the supply. A series Scanned with CamScanner646 Chapter15 Dc Drives y By yAr Fie +! t + uy + + vy + . ve Ve - : _v 5, b . A, Fy ; Separately excited motor ‘ Series motor (a) Motoring F, yp rs Ly Ry = 2 Fe ~ Separately excited motor Seiied motor. (b) Regenerative braking A bel 2 Separately excited motor [ Ao A 2 Separately excited motor Series motor FIGURE 15,7 Operating modes, Scanned with CamScanner15.3 Operating Modes 647 motor is usual sary that the fi versing the arn 'y connected as a self-excited generator, eld current aids the residual Mux, nature terminals or the field termi Dynamic braking. ‘The arrany of regenerative braking, exce tance Ry, The kinetic energy For self-oxcitation, it is neces- ‘This Is normally accomplished by re- nals, ements shown in Figure 15.7e are similar to those Pt the supply voltnge V, is replaced by a braking, resise of the motor is dissipated in Ry, Plugging. Plugging is at ype of braking, The connections for plugging are shown in Figure 15.7d.'The armature terminals are reversed while running. The supply voltage Vq and the induced voltage Ey act in the same directi versed, thereby producing a braking torque. motor, cither the armature terminals or field t n. The armature current is re- ‘The field current is positive. For a series erminals should be reversed, but not both. Four quadrants. Figure 15.8 shows the polarities of the supply voltage V,, bask emf E,, and armature current 1, for a separately excited motor, In forward motoring, (quadrant 1), Va E, and 1, are all positive, The torque and speed are also positive in this quadrant. During forward braking (quadrant II), the motor runs in the forward direction and the induced emf E, continues to be positive. For the torque to be negative and the direction of energy flow to reverse, the armature current must be negative. The supply voltage V, should be kept less than £,. ade In reverse motoring (quadrant III), Ve. Ey, and J, are all negative. The torque and speed are also negative in this quadrant. To keep the torque negative and the energy flow from the source to the motor, the back emf E, must satisfy the condition Speed E, V.>E, 7-7? Forward motoring Forward braking Reverse braking + Torque Reverse motoring Iv1> Jed) FIGURE 15.8 Conditions for four quadrants, Scanned with CamScanner648 Chapter 15 W4 Dc Drives IVal > 1E,|. The polarity of E, can be reversed by changing the direction of fielg Tent or by reversing the armature terminals. , ; During reverse braking (quadrant IV), the motor runs in the Teverse direct, i to be positive and the e, ny and E, continue to be negative. For the torque to be px and Tergy ’, from the motor to the source, the armature current must be positive: The in Ez must satisfy the condition |V;| < IE, |. duce Pa Key Points of Section 15.3 * A motor drive should be capable of four quadrant operations: forward moto, forward braking, reverse motoring, or reverse braking, % * For operations in the reverse direction, the field excitation must be Teversed 4 Teverse the polarity of the back emf. SINGLE-PHASE DRIVES adjusted to give a zero current; and additionally, a dead time of typically 2 to 10 msi Provided to ensure that the armature current becomes zero. Because of a relatively it + cee | |___o Single-phase i a. * Single-phase R, ac suppl supply 7 |}__o FIGURE 15.9 Basic circuit arrangement of a single-phase de drive, Scanned with CamScanner1 Single Phase Drives 640 * Ey v \e 0 Ay apne | 8 é ) > M Avante Aeetiey — (Ww) Atatite reversal ‘Cantratted rectifier (b) Plot reversal AGURE 18.10, Held and armature reversals using contactors large time constant of the fleld winding, the field reversal takes a longer time, A semi- ‘or full converter can be used (o vary the fleld voltage, but a hill converter is preferable, Due to the ability to reverse the voltage, a {ull converter can reduce the field current mueh faster than a semiconverter, Depending on tho typo of single-phase converters, single-phase drives [4, 5] may be subdivided intoy 1. Single-phase half-wave-converter drives, 2, Single-phase semiconvertor drives, A. Single-phase full-converter drives 4. Single-phase duabconverter drives 15.4.1. Single-Phase Half-Wave-Convertar Drives A singleephase halF-wave converter feeds a do motor, ay shown ia Kiguro 18.10, The Armatarecurrent is normally discontinuous wntoss a vory large inductor is connected in Scanned with CamScanner650 Chapter15 Oc Drives te 4 1 fe an 7 (a) Cireuit i y, le Pal 1 oT 7 wha, (b) Quadrant (¢) Waveforms FIGURE 15:11 Single-phase half-wave-onverter drive, With a single-phase half-wave converter in the armature circuit, Eq, (101) the average armature voltage as Vin Va = 5m (1 + cos.a,) for0sSa,< 7 (is where V,, is the peak voltage of the ac supply. With a semiconverter in the field vx» Eq, (10.52) gives the average field voltage as ta sas MATE (+ cosa, ford < ays se 15,4,2 Single-Phase Semiconverter Drives A siete phase nt dring cite feeds the armature cieuit, as show in Figure Be 35 ean auadant drive, as shown in Fipiy 5. is limi ications 15 kW. The conven ; igure 15.12b, and is limited to applical in the field circuit ca i current 7 forms fora highly ind can be a semiconverter, The With a single-phase senor te wre 15.12 * ive5 liconverter ir 152) gi average armature voltage ag. " ee fe in the armature circuit, Eq. (10.52) Scanned with CamScanner651 16.4 Singla-Phase Drives (©) Quadrant ™ a et ae (¢) Waveforms FIGURE 15.12 Single-phase semiconverter drive With a semiconverter in the field circuit, Eq, (10.52) gives the average field voltage as Vin Vy=—P (1+ cosas) for Say S 7 (15.16) 15.4:3” Single-Phase Full-Converter Drives ‘The armature voltage is varied bya single-phase full-wave converter, as shown in Figure 15.13a, It is a two-quadrant drive, as shown in Figure 15.13b, and is limited to applications up to 15 kW. The armature converter gives +V, or —V,, and allows opera- tion in the first and fourth quadrants, During regeneration for reversing the direction of power flow, the back emf of the motor can be reversed by reversing the field excita- tion. The converter in the field circuit could be a semi-, a full, or even a dual converter. The reversal of the armature or field allows operation in the [Link] third quad- rants. The current waveforms for a highly inductive load are shown in Figure 15.13c for powering action. A 9.5-kW, 40-A single-phase full-converter drive is shown in Figure 15.14, where the power stack is on the back of the panel and the control signals are implemented by analog electronics. i ; With a single-phase full-wave converter in the armature circuit, Eq. (10.5) gives the average armature voltage as Vz =e cosay for Sa, <7 (15.17) = With a single-phase full-converter in the field circuit, Eq. (10.5) gives the field voltage as y= 2m cosay for Say ST (15.18) 7 Scanned with CamScanner652 Chapter15 DC Drives (a) Circuit 1 0 Me (b) Quadrant (c) Waveforms FIGURE 15.13 Single-phase full-converter drive. FIGURE 15.14 A9.5-kW analog-based single-phase full-wave tive, (Reproduced by permission of Brush Electrical Machines Ltd., England.) rag aeicten Dual-Converter Drives ‘Two single-phase full-wave converters are connected, as shown in Figure 15.15. Eithet converter 1 operates to supply a positive armature voltage, V,, or converter 2 operates to supply a negative armature voltage, —V,. Converter 1 provides operation in the fi and fourth quadrants, and converter 2, in the second and third quadrants. It is a fou" quadrant drive and permits four modes of operation: forward powering, forward brak- ing (regeneration), reverse powering, and reverse braking (regeneration). It is iit to applications up to 15 kW. The field converter could be a full-wave, a semi-,or 044" converter. . If converter 1 operates with a delay angle of aay, Eq, (10.15) gives the arma voltage as Won 19) Va= eos. for0 a4, = 7 as ud Scanned with CamScanner15.4. Single-Phase Drives. 653 Converter 1 Ay Converter2 : _ AL 7 FIGURE 15.15 Single-phase dual-converter drive. Ifconverter 2 operates with a delay angle of «2, Eq. (10-16) gives the armature voltage as Vin Vi=—Meosaz fords aa (15.20) where 42 = 1 — c1- With a full converter in the field circuit, Eq. (10.5) gives the field voltage as. 2v, Vis —Moosay ford say sm (as.21) Example 1 inding the Performance Parameters of a Single-Phase Semiconverter Drive ‘The speed of a separately excited motor is controlled by a single-phase semiconverter in Figure 15.12a. The field current, which is also controlled by a semiconverter, is set to the maxi- mum possible value. The ac supply voltage to the armature and field converters is one phase, 208 V, 60 Hz. The armature resistance is R, = 0.25 0, the field resistance is Ry = 147 ©, and the motor voltage constant is K, = 0.7032 V/A rad/s. The load torque is T;, = 45 N-m at 1000 rpm. The viscous friction and no-load losses are negligible. The inductances of the armature and field circuits are sufficient enough to make the armature and field currents continuous and ripple free. Determine (a) the field current J,; (b) the delay angle of the converter in the armature cir- cuit a,; and (c) the input power factor (PF) of the armature circuit converter. Solution V, = 208 V, V,, = V2 X 208 = 294.16 V, Ry = 0.25 0, 0.7032 V/A rad/s, and w ~ 1000 7/30 = 104.72 rad/s. a. From Eq. (15.16), the maximum field voltage (and current) is obtained for a delay angle of ay = Oand 147 0, Ty = T, = 45N-m, Ky= Vj = Ben = 2X 2416 e727 7 7 ‘The field current is Vy _ 187.27 eae “Raa = 1274A Scanned with CamScanner654 Chapter 15 OC Drives b. From Eq. (15.4), tN 48 50.23 .A fe Ry” Oa x 127 From Eq. (15.2), Eg = Kyooly © 0.7032 % 104,72. 1,274. 93.82. V From Eq. (15.3), the armature voltage is Vo = 93.82 + I4Ry = 93,82 + 50,23 X 0.25 = 93.82 ++ 12.56 = 106,38 y From Eq, (15.15), Vy = 106.38 = (294.16/m) X (1+ c08 a) and this gives the de, angle asa, = 82,2°, . © If the armature current is constant and ripple free, the output power is Peo vy, 106.38 x 50.23 = $343.5 W. If the losses in the armature converter are neglected te Power from the supply is P, = P, = 5343.5 W. The rms input current of the armatuc, converter, as shown in Figure 15.12, is 7 \in n leg = (Z [ B as) =1,(7—% a) 2m Ju, 7 180 ~ 82,2\12 50, 23( 22) = 37.03. A and the input volt-ampere (VA) rating is VI = Vly, = 208 x 37.03 = 7702.24. as. suming negligible harmonics, the input PF is approximately Py _ 5343.5 . Vi = 770234 = 9-694 (lagging) PF = a From Eq, (10.61), Fre V2(1 + cos 82.2") [n(n = 82.29) 0.694 (lagging) Example 1 Finding the Pe Full Converter pin 9 the Performance Parameters of a Single-Phase is, speedo The Analy exited de motor is controlled by a single-phase full-wave converteria Faure: am posal Circuit is also controlled by a fal Converter and the field current is set! tee 7m 7 pal H ale The ne UPPly voltage to the armature and field converters is on eine Hes The armatur '« = 0.25 Q, the field circuit resistance 7 = 175 0, and the motor voltage constant is Ky = 14 V/A rad ‘The armature current come Sponding to the load demand is J, = 45 A.'The viscous friction and no-load losses are negligible The inductances of the jrmature and field citcuits are Sufficient to make the armature and fi! currents continuous and ripple free, sane delay angle of the armature converter is a, = 60° a the armature current is , = 45 A, determine (9) the torque developed by the motor Ta, () speed w, and (c) the input PF of the drive” Boerne Scanned with CamScanner15.4 Single-Phase Drives 655 Solution V, = 440 V, Vm = V2 % 440 = VIA rad/s, 22.25V, Ry = 0.25.0, Ry = 175.2, cy a, From Eq. (15.18), delay angle of a on {Maximum field voltage (and current) would be obtained for a mi v, = 2¥m _ 2 x 622.25 ™ = = 396.14 ‘The field current is My _ 396.14 Ry ~ 175 = 2264 From Eq. (15.4), the developed torque is Ta = Tr = Kylyly = 1.4 X 2.26 X 45 = 1424N-m From Eq. (15.17), the armature voltage is We We os 60 2.x 622.25 cos 60° = 198.07 V ‘The back emf is 5, Vy ~ TaRy = 198.07 ~ 45 x 0.2: = 186.82 V From Eq. (15.2), the speed is E, 186.82 Kyly 14226 © = 59.05 rad/s or 564 rpm & Assuming lossless converters, the total input power from the supply is DP, = Valg + Vply = 198.07 X 45 + 396.14 "2.26 = 9808.4 W 1 current of the armature converter for a highly inductive load is shown in Fe res. 13b and its rms value is Jig = 1, = 45 A. The rms value of the input cur- rent of field converter is Ly = y = 2.26 A. The effective rms supply current can be found from =UR+ Th)? = (45? + 2.267)! = 45,06 A VI = Vjl, = 440 x 45.06 = 19,826.4, Neglecting the ripples, VA rating, s aad the ing approximaiely the input power factor is P, _ 9808.4 - = 0.495 (lagi pr = 2 = sppped 7 0495 (ageing) Scanned with CamScanner656 Chapter1s pe Drives From Eq, (10.11), 2v3 oe is PE (4 COR Oy (24) cos 60° = 0.45 (lagging) Example TR Finding the Delay Angle and Feedback Power in Regenerative Braking If the polarity of the motor back emf in Example 15.3 is reversed by reversing the Polarity oy ireui Tt of, field current, determine (a) the delay angle ofthe armature creuit converter ca 10 main t y armature current constant at the same value of J, = 45 Aj and (b) the power fed back to yy" ply due to regenerative braking of the motor. Solution in f polarits 3 From part (b) of Example 15.3, the back emf at the time of polarity reveny Ey = 186.82 V and after polarity reversal Ey = -186.82 V. From Eq, (15,3), * Va = Ey + [oRy = —186.82 + 45 x 0.25 = -175.57V From Eq. (15.17), ve = cos Bm copay = 2% 02225 06 4, = 175.57 7 and this yields the delay angle of the armature converter as a, = 116.31°, b._ ‘The power fed back to the supply is P, = V,l, = 175.57 x 45 = 7900.7 W. ‘Note: The speed and back emf of the motor decrease with time. If the armatue coment is to be maintained constant at 1, = 45 A during regeneration, the delay ange of the armature converter has to be reduced. This would require a closed-loop cont to maintain the armature current constant and to adjust the delay angle continuous Key Points of Section 15.4 * A single-phase drive uses a single-phase converter. The type of single-phase co verters classifies the single-phase drive, * A semiconverter drive operates in one quadrant; a full-converter drive in to quadrants; and a dual converter, in four quadrants. The field excitation is normally supplied from a full converter, 15.5 | THREE-PHASE DRIVES . 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