ELECTRONICS- the science dealing with the SOLID STATE FUNDAMENTALS
development and application of devices and systems
involving the flow of electrons or other carriers of ELECTRICITY
electric charge, in a vacuum, in gaseous media, in Phenomenon associated with the presence of motion of
plasma, in semiconductors, in solid-state and/or in electrons and other charged particles
similar devices, including, but not limited to,
applications involving optical, electromagnetic and other Atomic Structure
energy forms when transduced or converted into
electronic signals. Matter- composed of atoms made up with nucleus
around which an infinitesimal charge revolves
Edison’s effect- After countless experiments In 1883
Edison found out that the electrons travels through the Atom – a substance composed of electrons, protons and
vacuum from the light filament to the metal plate inside neutrons.
the light bulb
Element – substances consisting of atoms of only
Thermionic Emission – due to sufficient temperature one kind.
rise it causes the conductor to give off electrons.
Compound – combination of 2 or more different atoms
Diode Tube or elements
Fleming Valve- In 1904 John A. Fleming tried to Molecule – smallest part of compound that retains the
improve Marconi’s work he thinks that Marconi’s work properties of the compound.
is relatively crude wireless receiver
Particles of Atom
TRIODE – In 1906 Lee De Forest invented the
Electrons – negative charge
TRIODE. A partial vacuum tube that added a grid
electrode to the Fleming Valve. The Triode was the first Proton – positive charge
practical electronic amplifier.
Neutrons – neutral particle
TRANSISTOR - Walter Brattain, William Shockley
and John Bardeen demonstrated the amplifying action of
the first transistor at the Bell Telephone Laboratories.
The Integrated Circuit (IC)- Also known as CHIP.
• It is a small electronic circuit that has been fabricated Bohr-Model – planetary like structure of representing
in the surface of a tiny substrate of a semiconductor an atom
material.
• The original IC had only one transistor, three resistors
and one capacitor.
Jack S. Kilby (1923 – 2005) - Invented the first IC in
1958.
Electrical Classifications - The energy required to transfer or
move a valence electron at the
Conductors valence band to conduction band.
- Materials with less than 4 valence
electrons
- Allows the current to flow easily
- Example: Cu, Al, Ag, Au
Insulators
- Materials with more than 4 valence
electrons
- Prevents the current to flow
Semi-conductor
- With exactly 4 valence electrons
- Having the characteristics of both
Combined Energy Gap Diagram
conductor and insulator
Atomic Structure
Atomic mass/ weight
- Approximately sum of neutrons,
electrons, and protons of an atom.
Atomic number (Z)
- The numbers of protons in nucleus
or the number of electrons in an
atom.
Valence Shell
- The outermost shell
Valence electrons
N-type and P-type materials
- Electrons at the valence shell
Valence band Doping process
- The highest energy band of an atom
that can be filled with electrons - Adding pentavalent and trivalent
Conduction Band impurity to an intrinsic material
- Energy band that electrons can (Intrinsic Conductor)
move freely. Two type of impurities
Semiconductors - Pentavalent Impurities – with five
- Semiconductors are special class of valence electrons (donor) such as
elements because it has the Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As), and
conductivity of a conductor and Phosporus (P).
characteristics of an Insulator. The - Trivalent Impurities – with three
three semiconductors constructions valance electrons (acceptor atom)
of electronic device are such as Boron (B), Gallium (Ga)
Germanium, Silicon and Gallium and Indium (In).
Arsenide. -
Energy Levels Two types of Semiconductor
- The farther the electrons is from any Intrinsic Semiconductor
nucleus - It is a pure semiconductor
Energy Gap - Every atom in the crystal is Silicon
- The energy difference between the (Si)
conduction band and valence band. - At room temperature a Silicon
crystal approximately acts like an
insulator because it only has few The result is the formation of a depletion layer around
electrons and holes produced by the junction.
thermal energy.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
- A doped semiconductor
- Result of adding an impurities atom
to an intrinsic crystal to after/
increase its electrical conductivity.
P-Type material
- Formed by doping pure silicon (Si)
or pure germanium crystal with Basic structure
trivalent impurities.
- Diffused impurities with three
valence electrons are called acceptor
atoms.
N-Type material
- N-type material is formed by
introducing pentavalent elements.
- N-type material is formed by
introducing pentavalent elements.
-
Some reasons why SI and Ge are mostly used
- Can be manufactured to a very high purity level.
- Has the ability to change electrical
Diodes
characteristics (conductivity) from poor
conductor to a good conductor.
P-N junction
Potential Barrier
Threshold Voltage
When the materials are joined, the Breaker Voltage
negatively charged atoms of the n-type
doped side are
attracted to the positively charged atoms
of the p-type doped side.
The electrons in the n-type material
migrate across the junction to the p-type
material (electron flow).
Or you could say the ‘holes’ in the p-
type material migrate across the junction
to the n-typematerial (conventional
current flow).
Basic Operation In the conduction region, ideally
Ideally it conducts current in only one direction - The voltage across the diode is 0 V
(on state). - The current is infinite
- The forward resistance (RF) is defined as
RF= VF/IF
Characteristics of an ideal diode: Non-Conduction
Region
In the non-conduction region, ideally
Characteristics of an ideal diode: Conduction Region - All of the voltage is across the diode
- The current is 0A
- The reverse resistance (RR) is defined as
RR= VR/IR
- The diodes acts like open.
Operating conditions
No bias Condition
- No external voltage is applied: VD = 0V and no
current is flowing ID = 0A.
Reverse Bias Condition
- External voltage is applied across the p-n
junction in the opposite polarity of the p- and n-
type materials
- This causes the depletion layer to widen. The
electrons in the n-type material are attracted
towards the positive terminal and the ‘holes’ in
the p-type material are attracted towards the
negative terminal.
The diode is in the reverse bias condition
This maximum voltage is called avalanche breakdown
voltage and the current is called avalanche current.
Forward Bias Voltage
Forward Bias Condition - The point at which the diode changes from No
- External voltage is applied across the p-n Bias condition to Forward Bias condition
junction in the same polarity of the p- and n-type happens when the electron and ‘holes’ are given
materials. sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction. This
- The depletion layer is narrow. The electrons energy comes from the external voltage applied
from the n-type material and ‘holes’ from the p- across the diode.
type material have sufficient energy to cross the The Forward bias voltage required for a
junction. • Silicon diode VT = 0.7V
• Germanium diode VT = 0.3V
Temperature Effects
- As temperature increases it adds energy to the
diode. It reduces the required Forward bias
voltage in Forward Bias condition. It increases
the amount of Reverse current in Reverse Bias
condition. It increases maximum Reverse Bias
Avalanche Voltage.
- - Germanium diodes are more sensitive to
Majority and Minority Carriers in Diode temperature variations than Silicon Diodes.
- A diode, as any semiconductor device is not Resistance Levels
perfect - Semiconductors act differently to DC and AC
Majority Carriers currents.
- The electrons in the n-type and ‘holes’ in the p- 3 Types of Resistances
type material are the source of the majority of - DC or Static Resistance
the current flow in a diode. - AC or Dynamic Resistance
Minority Carriers - Average AC Resistance
- Electrons in the p-type and ‘holes’ in the n-type
material are rebel currents. They produce a small
amount of opposing current.
Zener Region
Other Types of Diodes
3. Diode Arrays
1. Zener Diode
2. Light Emitting Diode
.