FOREWORD

One of the important ingredients for a safe and viable aviation industry is
a properly resourced flying training sector. Some of these resources can
be quite fundamental. For example, an important contribution to training
is for flying instructors to have available to them a basic guide to
elementary flying training. In response to this need, the European
Helicopter Safety Team (EHEST) contacted the Australian Government
Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) which was known to have
developed a flying instructors' guide based on extensive feedback from
the helicopter training industry. CASA kindly made this guide freely
available to the EHEST team for dissemination. Some changes were
incorporated to reflect European terminology and syllabus content.

In this, the second issue of the guide, further changes have been made
to bring Part 1 in line with the requirements of AMC1 FCL.920 - Instructor
competencies and assessment and the Teaching and Learning
(Instructional Techniques) syllabus as set out in AMC1 FCL.930 - FI
Training course. In Part 2, air exercise objectives have been included for
all the flying exercises and labled lesson checklist. Other changes have
been incorporated and sections re-written as a result of suggestions
received following publication of Issue 1.

Important Notice. The EHEST was formally closed in October 2016 and
its functional activities were transferred to other teams including the
Collaborative Analysis Groups (CAGs), the European Safety Promotion
Network Rotorcraft (ESPN-R) and the RCOM, the Rotorcraft committee
of the EASA Stakeholder Advisory Body (SAB).

Readers are encouraged to provide feedback to ensure that any further

For comments and questions contact:
versions meet industry needs. You can email your feedback to us at:
SafetyPromotion@[Link]
Safety Promotion
Safety Intelligence and Performance Department
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
Postfach 10 12 53, D-50452 Cologne, Germany
Tel: +49 221 89990 2024
Fax: +49 221 89990 2524
SafetyPromotion@[Link]

This guide is for general information only.

Where the helicopter manufacturer's flight guide or pilot operating handbook, or similar document
describes techniques different from those in this guide, the manufacturer's techniques must take Disclaimer:
precedence.
The views expressed in this leaflet are the exclusive
All EASA Approved Training Organisations (ATO) are required to maintain an operations guide. responsibility of EHEST. All information provided is
The procedures and techniques as laid out in the ATO's operations guide must take precedence of a general nature only and is not intended to
over the techniques referred to in this guide or in the case of a Declared Training Organisation address the specific circumstances of any particular
(DTO), the verified training Programme. individual or entry. Its only purpose is to provide
guidance without affecting in any way the status of
Instructors should also refer to current rules and the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication officially adopted legislative and regulatory
(AIP) for full details of operational requirements. provisions, including Acceptable Means of
Compliance or Guidance Materials. It is not intended
and should not be relied upon, as any form of
Notice: The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice. This guide
warranty, representation, undertaking, contractual,
has been prepared by EASA Safety Analysis and Research Department for educational purposes
or other commitment binding in law upon EHEST its
only. It should never be used for any other purpose. The contents of this document have been
participants or affiliated organisations. The adoption
adapted with permission from the Civil Aviation Authority of Australia (CASA) and Civil Aviation
of such recommendations is subject to voluntary
Authority (CAA) of New Zealand Flight Instructor Manual for Helicopters which in turn was based
commitment and engages only the responsibility of
on Department of Transport, Canada Flight Instructor Guide 2005 with permission. While use of
those who endorse these actions. Consequently,
this material has been authorised, CASA, the CAA New Zealand and the Department of Transport,
EHEST and its participants or affiliated organisations
Canada shall not be responsible for the manner in which this information has been presented. The
do not express or imply any warranty or assume any
authors also wish to acknowledge the FAA’s excellent publication - The Aviation Instructor’s
liability or responsibility for the accuracy,
Handbook - which was a valuable source of material for Part 1 of this guide.
completeness or usefulness of any information or
recommendation included in this leaflet. To the
Project Manager for Issue 1: Captain Fred Cross, Senior Examiner (Helicopters) UK CAA extent permitted by Law, EHEST and its participants
Project Manager for Issue 2: Dr Michel Masson, Safety Promotion Coordinator, EASA or affiliated organisations shall not be liable for any
kind of damages or other claims or demands arising
Produced for EASA and the EUROPEAN HELICOPTER ASSOCIATION (EHA) by out of or in connection with the use, copying, or
ODEE Consulting Ltd display of this leaflet.

Additional contributions from Balearic Helicopters, Bliss Aviation Ltd, Heli Air,
Helicentre Aviation Ltd and Vantage Aviation Ltd

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE>> PAGE I

 CONTENTS
PART 1 PART 2
Teaching and Learning Page Air Exercises Page

The learning process: 6 1a Familiarisation with the Helicopter 68

- motivation; 6
- perception and understanding; 7 1b Emergency procedures
- memory and its application; 8 2 Preparation for and action after flight 70
- habits and transfer; 9
- obstacles to learning; 10 3 Air Experience 72
- incentives to learning; 11 4 Effects of Controls 74
- learning methods; 11
- rates of learning. 12 5 Power and attitude changes 76
6 Straight and level 78
The teaching process: 14
- elements of effective teaching; 14 7 Climbing 80
- planning of instructional activity; 17 8 Descending 82
- teaching methods; 18
- teaching from the 'known' to the 'unknown'; 19 9 Turning 84
- use of 'lesson plans'. 20 10 Basic Autorotation 86
Training philosophies: 22 11a Hovering 88
- value of a structured (approved) course of training; 22 11b Hover taxiing and spot turns
- importance of a planned syllabus; 22 90
- integration of theoretical knowledge and 22 11c Hovering and taxiing emergencies 92
flight instruction;
12 Take-off and landing 94
Techniques of applied instruction 23 13 Transitions from hover to climb and approach to hover 96
- theoretical knowledge: classroom instruction 23
techniques: 14a Circuit, approach and landing 100
- flight: airborne instruction 28 14b Steep and limited power approaches and landings 102
Student evaluation and testing 32 14c Emergency procedures 104
- assessment of student performance: 32
- analysis of student errors: 35 15 First Solo 108
16 Sideways and backwards hover manoeuvring 110
Training programme development 38
- lesson planning; 38 17 Spot turns 114
- preparation; 38 18 Hover OGE and vortex ring 116
- explanation and demonstration; 38
- student participation and practice; 39 19 Simulated EOL 118
- evaluation. 41 20 Advanced autorotation 122
Human performance and limitations relevant to 42 21 Practice forced landing 126
flight instruction 128
- physiological factors: 42 22 Steep Turns
- pyschological factors 43 23 Transitions 130
- threat and error management. 49
24 Quick stops 132
Training administration: 54 25a Navigation 134
- flight or theoretical knowledge instruction records; 54
- pilot's personal flying logbook; 56 25b Navigation problems at low heights and in reduced 138
- the flight or ground curriculum; 57 visibility
- study material; 57
- official forms; 58 25c Radio navigation 140
- flight guide or equivalent document (for example 60 26 Advanced take-offs, landings and transitions 142
owner's guide or pilot's operating handbook);
- flight authorisation papers; 60 27 Sloping ground 146
- aircraft documents; 60 28 Limited power 150
- the private pilot's licence regulations. 60
29 Confined areas 154
Flight safety 61
30 Basic instrument flight 160
Checklist 62

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE>> PAGE II

__
__ INTRODUCTION
__
__
__
__ THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR
__A trainer is a person who teaches a particular skill or type of
__behaviour through sustained practice and instruction'. Flight

__instructors are clearly trainers and their aim is to give students

good instruction and sufficient practice so that they can fly the
__helicopter proficiently and safely. People usually remember

__their teachers from school or elsewhere often with a great deal

of clarity. This is particularly true in flying instruction and most if
__not all pilots will remember who taught them to fly. They will
__recall the attributes of the instructor and more often than not

__will base their future flying on that of their instructor. Being a

flying instructor is therefore extremely rewarding but it also
__carries with it great responsibility.

__To student helicopter pilots, their flight instructor is one of the

__most important people in the world at this phase of their lives.

They expect you to have a thorough knowledge of the subject
__and a sincere desire to help them. They expect you to be

__capable of teaching everything necessary for them to become

proficient aviators. They trust that flight instructors will not only
consider safety in the day-to-day progress of the course but in
their ability to judge when they will be competent for solo
operations or movement to another phase. They expect a lot
and they have every right to do so.
The responsibilities of a flight instructor are therefore large but
what about the rewards? Leaving aside financial
considerations, instructing offers opportunities for much
greater recompense. For example, the personal satisfaction
received when a slow student shows unexpected progress or
when your efforts cause a blank look to change into an
enlightened expression and the satisfaction of seeing someone
who couldn't fly a helicopter before they met you becoming a
confident and competent pilot.
This guide is not meant as a text book for the Flight Instructors
Course (FIC) although it will be useful to trainee instructors
undergoing such instruction. Rather it is designed to be a
resource for FI(H) to revise the basic knowledge and skills
associated with helicopter flight instruction, assist in
standardisation and help prepare them for their periodic
assessments of competence.
At least every six years, instructors are required to pass an
Assessment of Competence (AOC) with a Flight Instructor
Examiner [FIE(H)]. During the AOC, the FIE(H) will assess the
instructor's skills and competencies on the ground and in the
air. The schedule for the AOC is shown in Table 1.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE>> PAGE 1

 __
Table 1: AMC1 FCL.920 Instructor competencies and assessment __
__
COMPETENCE PERFORMANCE KNOWLEDGE __
__
Prepare resources (a) ensures adequate facilities;
(b) prepares briefing material;
(a) understand objectives;
(b) available tools; __
(c) manages available tools. (c) competency-based training methods. __
Create a climate (a) establishes credentials, (a) barriers to learning; __
conducive to role models appropriate behaviour; (b) learning styles. __
learning (b) clarifies roles;
(b) learning styles. __
(c) states objectives; __
(d) ascertains and supports trainees needs.
__
Present knowledge (a) communicates clearly; teaching methods. __
(b) creates and sustains realism;
(c) looks for training opportunities. __
__
Integrate TEM or
CRM
makes TEM or CRM links with
technical training.
HF, TEM or CRM.
__
__
Manage time to
achieve training
allocates time appropriate to
achieving competency objective.
syllabus time allocation.
__
objectives __
Facilitate learning (a) encourages trainee participation; (a) facilitation;
(b) shows motivating, patient, confident (b) how to give constructive feedback;
and assertive manner; (c) how to encourage trainees to ask
(c) conducts one-to-one coaching; questions and seek advice;
(d) encourages mutual support.

Assesses trainee (a) assesses and encourages trainee (a) observation techniques;
performance self-assessment of performance (b) methods for recording observations.
against competency standards;
(b) makes assessment decision and
provide clear feedback;
(c) observes CRM behaviour.

Monitor and (a) compares individual outcomes to (a) learning styles;

review progress defined objectives; (b) strategies for training adaptation
(b) identifies individual differences in to meet individual needs.
learning rates;
(c) applies appropriate corrective action.

Evaluate training (a) elicits feedback from trainees; (a) elicits feedback from trainees;
sessions (b) tracks training session processes (a) competency unit and associated
against competence criteria; elements;
(c) keeps appropriate records. (b) performance criteria.

Report outcome reports accurately using only observed (a) phase training objectives;
actions and events. (b) individual versus systemic weaknesses.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE>> PAGE 2

 __
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
PART 1 __
__
__
TEACHING AND LEARNING __
__
This part outlines and discusses the various methods and __
techniques that have proved to be effective for use in the
flying training environment. __
__
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 4

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__
__
__
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__
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__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 5

 __
THE LEARNING PROCESS __
__
The Teaching and Learning syllabus in the Manual is laid out in
the same order as it appears in AMC [Link] for ease of __
reference and this is the primary difference between this version If you tell me, I will listen, __
of the handbook and Issue 1. If you show me, I will see, __
There are many books on the subject of Teaching and Learning
which cover this complex subject and which should be consulted
If you let me experience, I will learn. __
for greater depth on some of the individual topics which are __
necessarily covered in headline detail only in this guide.
__
Part One of this guide describes some of the basic instructional
techniques in accordance with the Teaching and Learning
Lau-Tzu (c550 BC) - mystic philosopher
of ancient China. __
syllabus that apply to: Lau-Tzu was one of the first philosophers
to create an active learning philosophy __
Theoretical knowledge training
__
Pre-flight briefing
__
In-flight instruction __
Post flight briefing and debriefing __
Student assessment and evaluation __
__
By using these techniques you will make learning easier for
your students as you help them to meet the required flight __
test standards __
MOTIVATION
The factor that has perhaps the greatest influence on learning is
motivation, the force that causes a person to move towards a goal.
Motivations may be subtle and difficult to identify or they may be
obvious. Negative motivations are those which may engender
fear and be accepted by the student as threats. They are not
characteristically as effective in promoting learning as positive
motivations. Positive motivations are provided by the promise or
achievement of rewards. These rewards may be personal or
social; they may involve financial gain; satisfaction of a person's
sense of self-worth (self-concept) or public recognition. The flight
instructor can use some of these to advantage, for example, the
creation of a sense of achievement which, in turn contributes
positively to an individual's self-concept.
Helicopter instructors need to understand the individual motivation
of their students. These can be as varied as somebody who is just
thrilled by the concept of vertical flight and is eager to acquire the
skills necessary to achieve this, a person who wants to save time
travelling or commuting to work and who plans to use the
helicopter actively in the realm of his business to people seeking to
become commercial helicopter pilots. In these disparate cases,
the individual motivation may be different and lead to differences
in learning styles. In all cases, motivation may affect the student's
rate of progress. If for example, the business person begins to
form the opinion that it will be difficult to acquire the necessary
skills in the time available, then his or her motivation may suffer as
a result. The flight instructor needs to be aware of this and if
necessary vary instruction to maintain interest and to highlight its
relevance to the goal.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 6

__
__ PERCEPTION AND Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into a meaningful

__ UNDERSTANDING
whole. Implicit in this is an understanding of how the
knowledge is to be used (relevance); how one factor affects
__ another and the interrelationship among the various sections of

__ Perception is the basis of all learning. Items of information,

called perceptions (sometimes called percepts) may be
knowledge that have been taught. Evoking these is the flight
instructor's principal responsibility.
__ directed to the brain by any one or a combination of the senses.

__ The senses are the routes into the human brain. In the
classroom the ears and eyes are the dominant routes but the
__ kinaesthetic sense of feel can be used too, notably when using
__ training aids and of course in the air when all of these senses

__ will be used.

__ Routes or channels for information entering the brain can be

described using the VARK acronym:
__ Visual (See It)
__ Aural (Hear/Say It)
__ Reading and Writing (It)
__ Kinaesthetic (Do It)
__ These channels for assimilating information will vary in
__ effectiveness. For some people visual stimuli are very
powerful and may well be the dominant route into the brain, for
__ others reading and writing or perhaps the aural route will be the
__ strongest. In practice a mixture of channels will be used. The
resultant mix can be said to be the individual's learning Note: Although not strictly relevant here, it is worth noting that,
preference. The most productive instructional output will be perhaps surprisingly, the auditory channel to the brain is the
achieved if instructional content is delivered in accordance with quickest route. However, it is also likely that it will be the first
the student's individual learning preference. It is therefore one to be shed in conditions of high workload and stress. This
helpful if the instructor can establish what this is this at an early can happen in classroom settings but is more likely to be
stage. One way of doing this is to ask the person who may well noticed in high workload or stressful situations in flight.
know what works best for them. However, it's worth
monitoring this at first because an individual may actually think
that their preference is different from that which it actually is.

Among the most important factors which affect students'

perceptions are:

• Their physical organism (e.g. is their perceptual apparatus

working in the environment?)
• Their needs and requirements (e.g. could be as simple as
basic needs such as food and water but also the student's
sense of self-esteem)
• Their goals and values (e.g. motivation)
• Their self-concept (e.g. does it fit in with how they see
themselves?)
• The time and opportunity for perception (e.g. making
effective use of instructional time both in the air and on These channels also vary depending on whether learning is
the ground) acquiring knowledge or skills based. Given that flying
instruction is a combination of the two, it is worth noting the
• The element of threat (e.g. fear, not just of physical difference in perception when the learning task is purely skills
danger but also failure to make progress) based. Again the proportions are purely illustrative but they do
highlight to the instructor the potential variation in the
perceptive channels depending on the the type of learning.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 7

 __
MEMORY AND ITS APPLICATION Here are some suggestions you can follow to arouse interest and
__
Memory is the major factor in learning. It constitutes
make the student ready to learn:
__
essentially all of the learning classified as 'knowledge' and has a • Start lessons with an ATTENTION-GETTING opening. For __
basic effect on the retention of motor skills. The following are
five significant principles which are generally accepted as
examples of opening sentences that are effective, listen
carefully to the start of documentary films or interviews __
having a direct application to remembering and consequently to on television. Writers spend a great deal of time __
learning: developing the exact words to tune you in.
__
• Praise stimulates remembering. Responses which give a
• State SPECIFICALLY WHAT is required during the lesson
and how you intend to prove that the student has the __
pleasurable return tend to be repeated. The absence of knowledge or can master the skill at the end of the lesson. __
praise or recognition tends to discourage one and
negative responses or lack of acceptance from the
Make all your statements student-centred.
__
instructor tends to make recall less likely.
• Tell students the PURPOSE of the lesson and stress the
BENEFIT from the new knowledge or skill. Try to give
__
• Recall is promoted by association. Pieces of information more than one reason for learning, just in case the __
or actions that are associated with something to be student doesn’t fully accept the first reason.
__
learned tend to facilitate their later recall by the student.
Unique or disassociated facts tend to be forgotten unless
• Specify WHERE the lesson fits into the overall picture, __
they are of particular interest to the student.
and relate the lessons to past experiences that the
students may have had. This statement provides a link __
• Favourable attitudes aid retention. We learn and with something students have learned before and allows __
remember only what we wish to. Without motivation
there is little chance for recall. The most effective
them to build on that knowledge or skill. As an example, if
you were giving instruction on how to level out from the __
motivations are those based on positive or rewarding climb to a student with an aeroplane pilot licence, you __
objectives.
• Learning with all our senses is most effective. Although
could point out that the sequence of control movements
is the same as in an aeroplane. This concept is closely
__
we generally receive what we learn through the eyes and related to the RELATIONSHIP learning factor.
ears, other senses also contribute to most perceptions. • If the new material is dependent on students having
When several senses respond together fuller mastered previous lessons, confirm that the required
understanding and greater chance of recall is achieved. level has been attained before proceeding with the new
material. Conduct a review and, if necessary, clear up any
• Meaningful repetition aids recall. Each repetition gives
the student an opportunity to gain a clearer and more misunderstandings by briefly re-teaching the major
accurate perception of the subject to be learned but points.
repetition alone does not guarantee retention. Practice • Plan for reviews of lesson material. Students start to
gives an opportunity for learning but does not deliver it in forget the moment they leave the instructional
its own right. Theorists believe that three to four environment. The greatest rate of forgetting occurs
repetitions provide the maximum effect, after which the during the first 24 to 48 hours after the material has been
rate of learning and probability of retention fall off rapidly. learned. Ohio State University has carried out extensive
This is consistent with the learning curve illustrated in research in this area and has designed a recommended
Table 1 on page 8. schedule of when reviews should be done. Refer to
Figures 1 & 2 and the notes below each diagram.

Figure 1: Curve of remembering

100 --
90 --
80 --
% of remembering

70 -- X
60 --
50 --
40 --
30 --
20 --
10 --
0 --

Days since initial training

Figure 1

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 8

__
__ Notes: Statistics are based on an average cross section of HABITS AND TRANSFER
__ students.
Learning by developing perceptions and combining them into
__ The curve is very steep initially: within 2 days
students will remember less than 70% of what
insights is a process of forming performance habits and
__ they learned.
transferring the habits performed in one task to the
performance of more complicated subsequent tasks. For
__ At the end of the month, without reviews, example the application of forward cyclic when collective pitch
__ students will remember only approximately 40% is applied to maintain an accelerative attitude. The influence of

__ of the lesson material. these small habits in the subsequent task, in this case, applying
forward cyclic when increasing collective pitch during the
__ recovery to the climb following an autorotation is called a

__ Figure 2: Curve of remembering 'transfer'.

__
1-2 days 7 days 28 days
Transfer is generally considered to be either positive or
100 --
negative. The application of aft cyclic when entering
__ 90 --
80 --
autorotation to prevent the nose dropping would be an example
% of remembering

70 -- X
X

__ 60 --
50 --
X
of a positive transfer while lowering the collective lever when

__ 40 --
30 --
practising an engine-off landing in the hover would be an
example of a negative transfer where the student has applied a
__ 20 --
Represents a review
10 -- to bring student back procedure which has worked in other flight situations.

__
0 -- up to 100%
The syllabus of flight instruction must be arranged to take

__ Figure 2
Days since initial training maximum advantage of positive transfer by introducing new
manoeuvres in an order and manner which permit the lessons
__ Notes:
learned up till then to be applied in the new exercise.

__ • To maintain at least a 70% level, a review should be

Habit patterns are probably the most important factor in
learning to control the helicopter, for example, the correct use
conducted within 2 days. of the sequences such as: Attitude-Power-Trim when levelling
• After the material is learned a second time the curve off from the climb or Select-Hold-Adjust to overcome flapback
flattens out somewhat, but after 7 days the student is when accelerating. It is therefore the responsibility of the
back down to the 70% level. instructor to insist on correct procedures from the outset.

• Another review at 7 days and the curve really flattens. The

student will be above 70% retention until approximately
day 28.
A review at this time will generally cause long-lasting
•
retention of lesson material.
The amount of time required for reviews reduces each
•
time a review is conducted.

Example:

• Initial training: 50 minutes

• 1st review (at 2 days): 15 minutes
• 2nd review (at 7 days): 10 minutes
• 3rd review (at 28 days): 5 minutes

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 9

 __
OBSTACLES TO LEARNING __
Students may fail to make progress or learn for reasons other __
than failing to understand the instruction imparted or the rules __
of memory and forgetting. It could be that there are other
barriers or obstacles that are preventing the student from __
concentrating upon the task in hand and assimilating the __
instruction. A number of obstacles that are commonly found in
__
flying instruction are set out below:
__
• A feeling of unfair treatment - Students who believe that __
their instruction is inadequate or that efforts are not being __
conscientiously considered and evaluated do not learn
well and their motivation will also suffer. __
• Impatience to proceed to more interesting operations - __
Impatience is a greater deterrent to learning pilot skills __
than is generally recognised. The instructor can do a
great deal to help here by explaining how the student is __
progressing in terms of the syllabus of instruction and __
norms and why certain skills have to be mastered in a
given order before progressing to the next lesson. If
__
students can see that there is a plan with clear goals and __
milestones that are achievable and understand the
__
underlying reason, their impatient feelings give way to
eager anticipation and involvement. Of course there can
be other factors that can cause frustration and impatience
__
such as a prolonged spell of non-flying weather, aircraft
and/or instructor unavailability which may have to be
managed.
• Worry or lack of interest. Worry and/or lack of interest has
a detrimental effect on learning. It can be difficult to deal
with and can stem from a variety of causes such as other
barriers. It could be external factors such as family or
financial worries and in some cases inadequacies on the
part of the instructor or the course. In the latter case the
best solution is prevention rather than cure.
Discouragement and emotional upsets are rare when
students feel that nothing is being withheld from them or
being neglected in their training.
• Physical discomfort, illness or fatigue. Students who are
not completely at ease and whose attention is diverted by
discomfort caused by their surroundings or illness cannot
learn at a normal rate and flight instructors have to
monitor this closely. In the case of fatigue this is
particularly important as it is an insidious condition.
• Fear, anxiety or timidity. Student anxiety will limit the
student's ability to absorb instruction. Flight Instructors
are responsible for providing a safe and comfortable
learning environment for their students. Those
instructors who remain calm and professional in their
demeanour will provide the necessary quiet reassurance
to their students through their competence and the
obvious priority that they place on flight safety. If the
instructor appears to be tense and excitable in the
helicopter then this will communicate itself rapidly to the
already anxious student.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 10

__
__ INCENTIVES TO LEARNING LEARNING METHODS
__ Learning to fly should be an enjoyable experience. By making People learn through meaningful instruction which builds
__ each lesson a pleasurable experience for the student, the flight patterns of relationship in the student's consciousness. Rote

__ instructor can maintain a high level of motivation in the student.

This does not mean that things must be made easy for the
learning on the other hand is superficial and is not easily
retained, whereas meaningful learning goes deep because it
__ student nor that the instructor should sacrifice his standards of involves principles and concepts in the student's own
__ performance to please the student. Students experience great experience.

__ deal of satisfaction from accomplishing a learning task well or

by meeting the challenge of a difficult task.
People learn when there is a reason for remembering. A desire

__ People are not always attracted to things that are pleasant and
to remember increases the chances of remembering. The
flight instructor can help the student find and understand this
__ easy. They are more likely to devote more effort to things desire.

__ which bring rewards such as self-enhancement and personal

satisfaction. People want to feel capable and they are proud of
Good study habits promote learning and the student must be

__ difficult achievements. A good flight instructor helps the

encouraged to study for meaning and not to learn by rote.

__ student to attain these goals by using alternative presentations

and methods to impart instruction so that the students do not
Short periods of review are beneficial and recitations and
quizzes can help.
__ feel that they are simply following in the steps of others. Of the above frequent opportunities for practice is probably the
__ Here are some suggestions you can follow to arouse interest best method of them all.

__ and make the student ready to learn:

__ Start lessons with an ATTENTION-GETTING opening. For

__ examples of opening sentences that are effective, listen

carefully to the start of documentary films or interviews on
__ television. Writers spend a great deal of time developing the
exact words to capture the imagination and stimulate interest.
State SPECIFICALLY WHAT is required during the lesson and
how you intend to prove that the student has the knowledge or
can master the skill at the end of the lesson. Make all your
statements student-centred.
Tell students the PURPOSE of the lesson and stress the
BENEFIT from the new knowledge or skill. Try to give more
than one reason for learning, just in case the student doesn't
fully accept the first reason.
Specify WHERE the lesson fits into the overall picture, and
relate the lessons to past experiences that the students may
have had. This statement provides a link with something
students have learned before and allows them to build on that
knowledge or skill. As an example, if you were giving instruction
on how to level out from the climb to a student with an
aeroplane pilot licence, you could point out that the sequence of
control movements is the same as in an aeroplane. This
concept is closely related to the RELATIONSHIP learning
factor.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 11

 __
RATES OF LEARNING Slumps or plateaus in the rate of learning, as depicted in Figure
__
Learning proceeds rapidly at first when a new task is
4, are more likely to occur as the student advances to more
complicated operations, such as hovering or transitions. Often __
introduced, then slows as a reasonable degree of proficiency is the reason is that a student has failed to master one basic __
achieved. When plotted on a graph, this decrease in the rate of
learning is shown as a levelling of the ascending curve that
element of the operation, and this leads to the appearance of
deficiency in the performance of later elements. Improvement __
represents progress. An exaggerated ideal curve is shown in usually becomes normal again when this one basic element is __
Figure 3 below. mastered. You can accelerate improvement by careful fault
__
The rate of progress in learning is affected by so many outside
analysis and by concentrating instruction on that one phase of
the operation concerned. __
influences that it is not often predictable. The rate of learning is
affected by such things as: Without competent instruction, students will probably not __
understand why they aren't improving and will become __
• Diversions
discouraged. This discouragement tends to prolong the
plateau. During such periods of discouragement, you should __
• Flagging or lacking motivation step in to isolate and correct the situation and to provide special __
• Emotional disturbances
incentives until normal progress is resumed.
__
Reversals sometimes occur, during which a student's
performance becomes worse with continued practice. __
• Upset training schedule
Generally such reversals are due to a faulty habit pattern __
• Weather involving one of the basic elements of the manoeuvre or
__
• Equipment breakdown
operation involved. This faulty habit causes your student to
practise an erroneous performance repeatedly, until correction __
• Unavoidable absences
becomes very difficult. You must not accept such errors and __
misunderstandings as normal plateaux in the learning process.
They must be corrected before progress can resume. __
During advanced stages of learning, the rate of progress can be
very slow.
Example: An acrobat who can perform a routine to a
level of 9.6 continually practises to improve the
performance. Raising the score up to 9.8 or 10 requires
extensive additional training and practice. The same is
true for flying; students may be nearly ready for a skill
test at an early stage but during the additional required
training to reach the required standard will only show
slight, slow improvement.
Reversals in the rate of learning could also take place if you
were to place too much emphasis on a single phase, element or
manoeuvre, particularly to the detriment of other evolutions.
Fig 3 - The Ideal Learning Curve Fig 4 - A typical Learning Curve
Many helicopter students cannot attend regularly for reasons of
cost or other commitments. In such cases much time will be
Although it would be convenient if the rate of learning could be spent in recapping previous instruction and progress can be
consistent and predictable as shown in Figure 3, it is not always somewhat laborious. This may not however be as a result of the
so. Students may progress rapidly for a period, and then student reaching a plateau of learning. Instead it is more likely
suddenly progress more slowly or even regress for a time. Such to be due to the curve of remembering (see Memory and its
variations are to be expected and may represent a period of Application) from which we note that at the end of a month,
training during which the student is perfecting the application of without reviews, students will remember only approximately
the new skill. The correlation of the new skill with the other 40% of the lesson material.
learning tasks may not yet be obvious. It is the flight instructor's
responsibility to detect them as soon as possible and to try to
eliminate their causes by redirecting your instruction to level
them out as much as possible.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 12

__
__ Instructors may be discouraged to discover that a well-planned FAST STARTERS. Fast starters are usually students with

__ lesson does not teach all students with equal effectiveness.

This is normal. Students seldom learn at the same rate.
previous exposure to flight training who quickly grasp the initial
air exercises. You should not omit anything from the briefing.
__ Differences in rates of learning are based on differences in Watch for signs of weakness when new work is introduced.

__ intelligence, background, experience, interest, desire to learn,

and many other psychological, emotional, and physical factors.
This type of student usually slows down to the level of the
others shortly after going solo. A high degree of proficiency
__ Instructors have to acknowledge that students are different and throughout the course should not be anticipated unless the
__ that this fact dictates how much can be taught at what rate, and student has above-average ability.

__ when. Some student characteristics that may give rise to

differences in the rate of learning are covered below:
__ NERVOUS OR UNDER CONFIDENT. Nervousness or under
IMMATURE. You must not be too harsh with students who

__ confidence in a student is a trait that may or may not disappear.

appear immature. You will find that within a short time in the
flying training environment, the students will more than likely
__ Instruction may be too rapid and material may not be absorbed.
Repeating the fundamentals and ensuring mastery will often
attain a greater degree of maturity. Your attitude is of prime

__ alleviate this condition. You must ensure that this type of

importance in setting an example. You must encourage and
help these students mature into the role of a responsible pilot
__ student receives deserved praise whenever possible. Harsh
rebukes should be avoided. Patience is very necessary when
whenever possible.
__ dealing with a student of this nature. The student must be
__ aware that you are trying to help. Nervous students may be so

__ apprehensive that they may not be suitable for pilot training.

You should avoid manoeuvres involving extreme helicopter
__ attitudes, unless they are essential to the lesson being taught.

__ Take the time to build the student up to exercises involving

extreme helicopter attitudes.
__ OVERCONFIDENT OR CONCEITED. You must first ensure
that this type of student has the ability to match the confidence
and, if so, set more difficult tasks that require greater accuracy.
More criticism of imperfections is advisable. If the student has
little ability, a frank conversation may be required.
FORGETFUL OF INSTRUCTION. At the beginning of training,
students may forget previous instruction. Students with this
problem require a great deal of patience and probably need
more review than the average student. Extra time spent in
briefing and debriefing and more study on the student's part
should be rewarding for all concerned.
INCONSISTENT. Many students, at one time or another
throughout the course, appear to lack consistency in flying
proficiency. There are many reasons for this, and you must try
to find the one that fits a particular student. You must look at
yourself and your attitude towards the student. Most of us have
good days and bad days, but when a student shows large
fluctuations in proficiency the instructor must look closely at the
teaching activities. A change in approach or even a change of
instructors may be called for.
SLOW STARTERS. Slow starters are students who find
difficulty doing more than one thing at a time. Again, patience is
mandatory. Progress may be slow, but encouragement will
help.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 13

 __
THE TEACHING PROCESS __
__
ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE anything, to inspire a student to learn. If outside responsibilities,
interests or worries are weighing heavily, if schedules are __
TEACHING overcrowded, or if personal problems seem insoluble, then the __
Read the seven learning factors listed below carefully and student will be unable to develop the interest to learn. (see
__
determine to what degree they apply to you as you learn new Incentives to Learning for suggestions on how to achieve this)
__
skills and knowledge. If they apply to you, they will also apply to
your students. Attempt to associate a single word that is used
PRIMACY: Present new knowledge or skills correctly the first
time. (Teach it right the first time.) __
to represent the entire learning factor.
When students are presented with new knowledge or skills, __
Relationship is covered under Teaching from the Known to the the first impression they receive is almost unshakeable. This __
Unknown later in the guide. means that what you teach must be correct the first time.
Students may forget the details of lessons, but they will retain __
These factors are frequently referred to as Thorndike's Laws of
Learning after E. L. Thorndike (1874 -1949), a pioneer of an overall image of the skill or knowledge for a long time. __
educational psychology. His laws are universally accepted and Frequently you will be required to perform manoeuvres in the
helicopter before a student has had the necessary background
__
apply to all kinds of learning. Since Thorndike set down his
original four laws, three more have been added: the law of training. You must perform those manoeuvres correctly or the __
primacy, the law of intensity and the law of recency. student may imitate any errors you make.
__
For example, before the exercise on Confined Areas, you and
__
• READINESS: Ensure students are mentally, physically
and emotionally ready to learn.
your student may be required to land in a Confined area. Any
poor example shown at this time would have to be 'unlearned' __
• PRIMACY: Present new knowledge or skills correctly the
when the exercise came up in a subsequent lesson. __
first time. (Teach it right the first time - see Memory and its
Application)
Suggestions:
• Rehearse lessons to become thoroughly proficient at the
__
• RELATIONSHIP: Present lessons in the logical sequence skill or in answering questions related to the subject.
of known to unknown, simple to complex, easy to difficult.
(Note: Relationship is covered under Teaching from the • Attempt to give a perfect demonstration of the
Known to the Unknown later in the Guide.) manoeuvres to be learned in the next lesson. If students
read or study exercise material without experiencing the
• EXERCISE: Ensure students are engaged in meaningful
actual exercise, they may form an incorrect mental image.
activity.
• INTENSITY: Use dramatic, realistic or unexpected things, • If practicable, start each lesson with a perfect
as they are best remembered. demonstration. Sometimes it may be better to avoid
talking during this demonstration to allow maximum
• EFFECT: Ensure students gain a feeling of satisfaction concentration on doing the skill perfectly.
from having taken part in a lesson. (see Memory and its
Application) • While the student is performing an exercise, supervise the
• RECENCY: Summarise and practise the important points actions very closely. Stop the student as soon as any
at the end of each lesson, as the last things learned and performance error is noticed, and teach the correct
practised will be remembered the longest method. Close supervision means that you NEVER allow a
student to make an error during the initial stages of
The learning factors listed above are useful 'tools' when they training. Think of how you would go about training a
are applied correctly. The question, of course, is: 'How do these student to defuse a live bomb.
learning factors apply to flight instruction?' This question will be
answered by reviewing and discussing each of the learning EXERCISE: Ensure students are engaged in meaningful
factors that offer specific suggestions on what you can do to activity.
utilise these 'tools' in your instruction. Meaningful mental or physical activity is essential if learning is
to occur. During flight training this is achieved through correct
READINESS: Ensure students are mentally, physically and practice or repetition. Students learn by applying what they
emotionally ready to learn. have been told or what has been demonstrated. As learning
continues or is strengthened by additional practice, your
To learn, a person must be ready to do so. An effective training syllabus should make provision for this practice time.
instructor understands this necessity and does the utmost to You must ensure that the practice is directed towards a specific
provide well-conceived motivation. If a student has a strong goal. Oral questions, hypothetical problems, dual review, or
purpose, a clear objective and a sound reason for learning solo practice are all methods of providing mental or physical
something, progress will be much better than if motivation activity.
were lacking. Under certain circumstances you can do little, if

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 14

__
__ If students are able to answer questions involving the words Suggestions:

__ 'how' and 'why', it usually means that they have a good

understanding of the subject. For you as a flight instructor,
• Show enthusiasm and sincerity for the subject you are
teaching.
__ these two words are probably the most important in your
• Attempt to employ a wide range of speech variation in
__ vocabulary. Study Table 1 opposite and note both the instructor
and student activities for each level of learning. Should you rate, volume and pitch to keep students attentive.
__ attempt to employ the application level of learning without • Use appropriate and effective gestures while explaining
__ having covered the understanding level, students will probably major points. The lesson will seem to 'come alive', and the

__ encounter much more difficulty than if they had mastered

previous levels.
points made will make a greater impression on your
student.
__ Suggestions: • Use a variety of training aids to appeal to as many senses
__ • Unless you are testing to see what students have learned, as possible. Each aid must relate directly to the subject

__ avoid questions that are prefixed by the word 'what'. Give matter being taught.

__ students the facts, figures and necessary knowledge,

then ask 'how' and 'why' questions to develop their
__ understanding of the new knowledge.
EFFECT: Ensure that students gain a feeling of satisfaction
from having taken part in the lesson.
__ • Once you have told students a fact, avoid repeating
Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or
__ yourself. Instead, have them relate the facts back to you.
This strengthens their learning and confirms their
satisfying feeling. Students will learn and remember more

__ knowledge of the required material.

under these conditions than when feelings of defeat,
frustration, anger or futility are developed. If you were to
__ • Give students challenging problems that fit the level of demonstrate a 'wingover' type manoeuvre during the first air
__ learning, and provide only enough assistance to keep
them on track. When students are able to solve the
exercise, students would likely feel some inferiority, if not

__ problems alone, they have demonstrated adequate

knowledge and ability.
actual fear. The experience would be negative. They might
even give up flying at that stage. This example is rather obvious,
but you need to consider how your actions could produce
• Test students' knowledge and abilities frequently. This feelings of frustration or anger. For example, you ask a student
reinforces learning and builds confidence. However, to perform a manoeuvre and then you immediately emphasise
before testing you must be reasonably certain that all the errors the student made. Your identification of each error
students can answer the questions or perform the skills; may be very accurate, but how would the student feel about it?
otherwise they may become frustrated. Testing will also If the objective were to make the student feel defeated, then
identify areas in which students have weaknesses, thus you would probably succeed. It is better to point out the
allowing you to re teach these subjects to the required positive aspects of a student's performance first and then
standard. discuss the major errors that were committed and finish with
suggestions for improvement.
Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that
INTENSITY: Use dramatic, realistic or unexpected things, as affect your student positively and give feelings of satisfaction.
they are best remembered. Each learning experience does not have to be entirely
Students learn more from dramatic or exciting experiences successful, nor do students have to master each lesson
than from boring ones. It is a well-known fact that a student's completely. However, a student's chance of success will be
'look out' while flying will improve considerably after a first increased with a sense of accomplishment and a pleasant
experience with a near miss. There is no suggestion here that learning experience.
you provide your student with a near miss, but you should Involve students in the lesson by developing some of the new
attempt to make your students' learning experiences exciting material with them. This can be done by asking students
by being excited yourself and perhaps using appropriate questions related to the subject and allowing students to
opportunities you can to introduce unexpected things to your contribute knowledge and ideas.
students.
Throughout your lessons, obtain feedback from students by
The INTENSITY learning factor implies that students will learn asking questions, observing the performance of a skill, and
more from real experiences than from substitutes. Instructors watching for facial expressions that show a lack of
will have to use their imagination to develop vivid experiences understanding. You must respond to any feedback by
for dramatic or realistic effects. answering questions and providing help and correction where
needed.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 15

 __
Suggestions: Suggestions:
__
• Show students how to improve, and offer praise when • Plan for a pre-flight briefing immediately before the air
__
improvement occurs.
• Backup all your statements with reasons. Whenever you
exercise, and review the main points by questioning. This
may sound like the READINESS and EXERCISE learning __
tell students something, give the reason behind it. For factors. However, recency deals with the timing of the __
example, you say to a student, 'This helicopter has two practice.
__
static vents, one on each side of the fuselage.' This is a
fact, but if students do not know the reason for the two
• Ensure that students receive a thorough summary of the
important points towards the end of each lesson. __
vents, they will probably pass it off as unimportant and
• After each sequence within an exercise or class __
forget. Remember, if a student understands the concept
or theory, details may be forgotten but the overall concept
presentation, ask questions on the material or summarise __
will remain, and when a helicopter with only one vent is
the 'need to know' material.
__
encountered more attention may be given to instrument • Conduct a test as the final part of your lesson.
__
readings while making a cross-wind approach. • At intervals throughout the course, conduct review
sessions in which no new material is taught, but __
• When a student encounters difficulty in mastering an
objective, find a means of allowing some degree of reinforcement of previously learned material is obtained. __
success. For example, the lesson is steep turns. Rather • Attempt to finish each lesson with a practice of the most __
than having students attempt the entire manoeuvre, try
having them practise the entry. When no difficulty is
important parts of the lesson. This applies to solo lessons
as well as dual exercises. Remember, students practise __
experienced with the entry, add the next stage, then knowledge by answering questions and they practise __
continue until the entire manoeuvre is completed. Should
difficulty still occur, back up a step and attempt medium
skills by doing.
__
turns rather than causing too much frustration.
• An important skill for a flight instructor is the ability to ask
__
Sometimes instructors make the mistake of continuing to
have students attempt a manoeuvre when performance is
good questions orally. Good oral questions satisfy all the
identified learning factors. The next section of this guide __
will deal exclusively with oral questions.
deteriorating. It is better to quit at that point and go back to
something the student can do well.
• Avoid ridicule or sarcasm. You may feel that it might take
the place of humour. However, students seldom have the
same feeling, especially if they are the butt of the remark.
• Arrange each lesson so that when a student does
something correctly there is a reward. This reward can be
in the form of sincere, honest praise. You ask a student to
complete a walk pre-flight inspection on a specific
helicopter for which you have a component such as a nut
placed on the ground under the engine. Your student
notices the offending part and brings this to your attention
and is praised for this. If a thorough inspection is not
completed, you have an excellent teaching point to
emphasise why careful inspections must be done.

RECENCY: Summarise and practise the important points at the

end of each lesson, as things learned and practised last will be
remembered longest.
All things being equal, the things learned last are best
remembered. Conversely, the longer students are removed
from a new fact or even an understanding, the more difficulty
they will have remembering it. The need for reviews was
stated earlier, and a full circle has been completed: review new
material, etc.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 16

__
__ PLANNING OF INSTRUCTIONAL By comparison, construction of a course training plan for a

__ ACTIVITY
smaller training organisation or a short course will be relatively
straightforward. This does not mean however, that the
__ This Guide has quite a lot to say about the need for properly process can be ignored. As flying instructors gain in

__ structured lessons stressing how important thorough experience, they will usually hold more senior positions in
organisations and assume greater responsibility for the
__ preparation is to successful delivery and ultimately to the
effectiveness of the learning that takes place. However, even planning and management of instructional activity. However,
__ well-planned lessons in the classroom or aircraft won't be the management of the training programme and planning of

__ effective unless they take place within the context of a well-

planned delivery system. Instructional activity has to be
instruction is a shared responsibility and all helicopter flying
instructors will be required to develop these skills to a greater or
__ resourced and managed to be effective. Lessons have to take lesser degree. In a small training organisation employing a

__ place in a logical sequence, and facilities have to be available to single helicopter instructor, it is quite likely that the instructor
will be responsible for planning instructional activity or play a
__ provide the learning environment. In a large and busy ATO, the
management of this will be the responsibility of a training large part in the process.
__ operations team probably reporting directly to the Head of

__ Training. It will be necessary to coordinate the flying

programme with the ground instructional programme to
__ include the availability of classrooms, teaching aids and

__ instructors. Due consideration must be paid to the physical

needs of both classroom and flight instructors and their
__ students when planning the instructional activity. In a teaching
__ establishment where instruction is full-time, then a training

__ programme and timetable will be necessary. Detailed

discussion of how to construct a training programme and
__ timetable is outside the scope of this guide. Complex courses
may call for detailed design by a training analyst but the basic
principles (much simplified) are:
• Obtain the approved course syllabus and learning
objectives from the appropriate authority then break this
down into sections with individual lessons identified in
each block of instruction. Naturally, this task is made
much easier if lesson plans have already been developed
for the course.
• Assign realistic timings to each lesson. In the case of air
exercises, ensure that adequate time is allowed for pre-
flight instructional tasks including planning and briefing,
getting to the aircraft and carrying out the necessary pre-
flight inspection. Realistic timings must be allowed to get
airborne and position the aircraft for the lesson. Similarly
sufficient time must be allowed to shut-down the aircraft,
carry out a post flight walk round, return to the operations
room, complete paperwork, debrief the student and
complete the post flight assessment and report. Training
organisations will naturally wish to compress these
timings for business reasons but flying instructors should
insist on adequate time for the activities to be completed
quickly and efficiently but not rushed.
• When the 'block' programme of instruction has been
assembled (a spreadsheet application can be very useful
in speeding up the process particularly when the
inevitable changes have to be made), a timetable can be
constructed by arranging the lessons in a logical
sequence taking account of available resources. Don't
forget to allow sufficient time for administrative activity
and it is sensible to include some spare or 'float' time to
allow for the weather and other operational delays.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 17

 __
TEACHING METHODS Novice instructors are frequently apprehensive about trying
__
DEVELOPMENTAL TEACHING OR
developmental teaching. Experience has shown that students
consistently surprise instructors if given the chance to __
TEACHING BY QUESTIONING participate actively in the learning process. The disadvantage of
lecturing during preparatory instruction is that students are __
Developmental teaching is based upon a student-centred frequently told material that they already know, or that they __
philosophy of teaching that requires you to reason with
students to have them meet predetermined objectives. By
reasonably can be expected to deduce on their own. The best
teaching occurs when students are led to a point from which __
using the students' background knowledge, you ask questions they can systematically direct their own reasoning to the __
that lead the students to determine the next step in a
procedure, the logical application of a principle, or the final
solution of a problem. The secret of effective learning is to keep
students mentally active in the learning process. With __
solution to a problem. The rate of progress in developing the developmental teaching students are forced to think. __
more complex ideas of the lesson is governed by the students'
perception and comprehension. Questions should be asked to
This method is ideally suited to ground instruction and pre and __
review previously learned material. The process of
post flight debriefing. Good questioning technique is the
cornerstone of developmental teaching and techniques for oral __
developmental teaching begins when students are required to
reason out, and make suggestions, with respect to new
questioning and handling student answers are covered in depth
later in the Guide in the section entitled Training Programme
__
material. Development - Student Participation and Practice __
Developmental teaching has been used throughout the years by
all good teachers. Because of the requirement for every student
__
to participate, developmental teaching is effective with small __
groups and with individual students. It can be used at any level of
student knowledge, provided that you know or determine the __
appropriate level and proceed accordingly. Depending upon the __
subject matter, some lessons can be entirely 'developmental'.
More frequently, however, there will be a combination of __
teaching by explanation (where it may be more efficient to
explain certain material) and developmental teaching (where
__
crucial areas of the subject matter can be reasoned with your
students). In almost every lesson, some developmental
teaching is appropriate and desirable.
The main advantage of developmental teaching is that it
promotes efficient student learning because it satisfied all the
basic aspects of learning. Since students participate in
meaningful activity, they are forced to think about the material
being learned, as questions are answered verbally.
Consequently, interest is maintained, a sense of
accomplishment is gained, and effective learning takes place.
You receive constant feedback and frequent confirmation of
the students' progress.
Careful planning for developmental teaching is critical because
you must formulate appropriate questions that demand
reasoning on the part of your students. The standard
questioning techniques must be observed, and student
responses must be handled with tact and discretion. In addition
to being a master of the subject material, you must be flexible in
your approach. You must permit adequate discussion, yet
exercise sufficient control to move towards the lesson
objectives. Frequent summaries are necessary to consolidate
the material as the lesson progresses.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 18

__
__ THE DEMONSTRATION PERFORMANCE METHOD TEACHING FROM THE 'KNOWN'
__ The Demonstration - Performance method of flight instruction TO THE 'UNKNOWN'
__ (sometimes called the Demonstration Method) is widely
accepted as the preferred method for in-flight instruction. It is Thorndike's Law of RELATIONSHIP states that lessons
__ discussed in some detail as part of the FLIGHT: AIRBORNE should be presented : In the logical sequence of known to

__ INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES section. unknown, simple to complex, easy to difficult.

__ This method of instruction has five components This particular learning factor emphasises the necessity for your
student to understand relationships between new and old facts,
__ • Explanation or between ideas and skills, if learning is to take place. During
flight training, students must understand not only why they are
__ • Demonstration
learning a particular exercise, but how that exercise combines
__ • Student Performance with previous ones and where it fits into the overall syllabus.
Giving students the relationship at the start of the lesson
__ • Instructor Supervision
provides preparation for learning. Continuing the process

__ • Evaluation throughout the lesson helps to maintain the desire to learn.

__ • known to unknown

__ THE TELLING AND DOING TECHNIQUE • easy to difficult

__ Another technique that can be used is the telling and doing

• concrete to abstract
• simple to complex
__ technique which can be summarised as follows:
• familiar to unfamiliar.
__ 1. Instructor tells - instructor does
Always review basic knowledge before proceeding to the
__ 2. Student tells - instructor does unknown. For example, when teaching students to multiply

__ 3.
4.
Student tells - student does
Student does - instructor evaluates
with a circular slide rule, the first example should be as simple
as 2 × 2. The reason is that students already know the answer
and are able to follow the manipulation of the slide rule. In the
The difference between this technique and the Demonstration- next problem or example, a change of one factor (2 × 4) allows
Performance method is that the student is involved in the students to build on knowledge already gained. The process is
second demonstration by the instructor (student tells - instructor continued until students have mastered all the required
does) and thus cannot adopt a passive role. This strategy could knowledge and skills necessary to solve real problems.
be useful to confirm that students know and understand exactly Present new material in stages, confirming that students have
what is required from them when it is their turn to perform the mastered one stage before proceeding to the next. The length
manoeuvre. This method requires high-order communication of time for each stage would depend on the complexity of the
skills from students at a time when they may find it is all that they material covered.
can do to fly the manoeuvre accurately.
Reinforce students' learning of new facts or ideas by frequently
summarising the major points of your lesson.
Use examples and comparisons to show how the new material
being learned is really not much different from that already
known by your students. The examples you use may be real or
imaginary, as the main purpose of an example is to paint a
verbal picture so students can visualise relationships between
the new material and things that have happened before. This is
called using 'verbal aids' for your instruction.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 19

 __
USE OF LESSON PLANS In this case, the items that will need further development are
__
The lesson plan is an essential tool for the flight instructor.
the long briefing objectives and the air exercise and the flight
instructor would need to prepare his board layout in advance __
There are many formats available and they will differ depending and rehearse it as necessary. However, It is likely that __
on the type of instruction being undertaken. For a large class, instructors will have their own board plans and notes already
available from their own notes taken during their FIC training or __
covering a major theoretical knowledge topic, it is probable that
a fairly complex and detailed plan will be involved. In contrast, perhaps using a standard set of lesson plans included in the __
for a one-to-one revision session, the requirement to produce a ATO Manual. Whatever method is used, it is essential that
__
formal lesson plan will be greatly reduced. flight instructors prepare their briefings thoroughly and the
lesson plan is the tried and tested way of doing this. __
Learning objectives are written so that they are exact,
observable and measurable and are composed of the For the air exercise, an aide memoire in card form is the usual __
Performance Standard that has to be achieved, the conditions method of ensuring that the lesson sequence is followed. So __
under which it has to be achieved and the standard that must be
attained. For flying lessons, the objectives will form part of the
that flight instructors maintain situational awareness at all times
and monitor what their students are doing, such aide memoires __
pre-flight briefing, the conditions are normally standard, for should contain the minimum amount of detail necessary to __
example, by day under VFR and the standard that has to be prompt the instructor and maintain the pace of the lesson. For
this reason in some quarters, these kneeboard sized aides are __
obtained is ultimately that of the PPL(H)/LAPL(H) Skill Test.
called 'pace notes'. As experience is gained, they can largely __
These objectives should be noted down together with the
standard and to be achieved and the conditions. Enabling
be dispensed with but it is still important that the airborne
__
objectives that will have to be covered in order to meet the main
lesson and sequence is planned or reviewed for each flight to
take account of different factors, e.g. the student's ability and __
objective(s) must also be included as they will also need to be
covered in the lesson or briefing.
progress, the wind and weather conditions and the TEM special __
A simple lesson plan from which the briefing could be
considerations for them.
__
developed further is shown below. The contents have been
drawn up using the details provided in Part 2 of the Guide for
__
Exercise 16.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 20

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 21

 __
TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES __
__
THE VALUE OF A STRUCTURED INTEGRATION OF THEORETICAL __
(APPROVED) COURSE OF KNOWLEDGE AND FLIGHT __
TRAINING INSTRUCTION __
Courses offered a part of the curriculum of ATOs and DTOs are An approved course of training for the EASA PPL(H) comprises __
required to be structured. This means that ground and flight at least 100 hours of theoretical knowledge instruction. The
training should cover aspects related to non-technical skills in __
instruction is systematic and can be presented in a logical
sequence which will help the student to make progress. It will an integrated manner. The theoretical knowledge instruction __
also assist the flight instructor to prepare lessons properly and provided by the ATO should include a certain element of formal
classroom work but may include also such facilities as __
teaching will be more effective as a result.
interactive video, slide or tape presentation, computer-based __
The structured course is equally valuable to those learners who
cannot take advantage of regularly paced instruction for
training and other media distance learning courses.
__
whatever reason because their progress (or lack of) will be The arrangement of flying lessons set out in, for example, the
__
easier to measure from the standpoint of the performance
standard that they should be at in contrast to their actual
Part FCL PPL(H) syllabus set out in Part 2 is progressive and
although lessons do not always have to be carried out in the __
standard. Remedial action can then be instigated to restore exact order of the exercise numbers, they broadly follow one __
their position within the training taxonomy. another in sequence. The reason for this is that each exercise
consists of training and enabling objectives which build on the __
THE IMPORTANCE OF A
knowledge and skills of gained during earlier exercises. In turn, __
PLANNED SYLLABUS
these rely on underpinning theoretical knowledge to
understand and make sense of the briefing which the student
__
In the same way as it is valuable to have a structured course, it is
needs to understand the flying briefing and make progress in
the air where time is so precious.
__
equally important to have a planned syllabus of instruction
which enables the flying instruction to be correctly sequenced. The laid down theoretical knowledge for the PPL(H) is shown
Arguably, it would be difficult to have a structured course under main subject headings in the table below.
without a planned syllabus.
With a planned syllabus, any training gaps are readily
identifiable to the student and instructor and it is easier to
measure progress. This can help motivate the student where
progress is apparent or highlight areas of weakness if this is not
the case. This is particularly important where a student's
attendance is irregular for any reason.
Another advantage of a planned syllabus is that it allows the
operations staff and the instructor to plan ahead and book slots
in the flying programme appropriate to the student's progress.

There is a lot to learn and this needs to be planned and

integrated with the flying instruction. For example, the student
should have completed the theoretical knowledge syllabus for
Navigation a short time (Law of Recency) before embarking on
the navigation phase of the course. Similarly, during the earlier
lessons, if a student had not covered some of the aspects of
Helicopter Principles of Flight, then it is likely that time will be
wasted in briefing prior to flying the sortie at best or, at worst,
the student won't understand the instruction and fail to make
progress. For this reason, the Theoretical Knowledge syllabus
should be integrated with the flying syllabus to the maximum
extent possible.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 22

__
__ TECHNIQUES OF
__
__ APPLIED INSTRUCTION
__
__ PREPARE THE CLASSROOM/TEACHING AREA
The following techniques, if applied in a conscientious manner,
__ will help the flight instructor to give effective instruction.
BEFORE THE LESSON
__ Because most flight instructors also carry out some, if not all, of
the ground school training, references to classroom-type Reason: The class must be arranged for best student learning. If
__ instruction are included in this summary. The techniques of students cannot see all the aids, they may miss a point. Lesson

__ instruction, questioning techniques, lesson planning, etc., are

equally applicable for providing large group instruction or for air
preparation appears more professional if no time is wasted
organising aids or rearranging seating.
__ instruction on a one to one basis, individual preparatory ground
__ instruction, or pre flight briefings.
PREPARE/CHECKTRAININGDEVICES/AIDS
__ To present a lesson in a professional manner, you must prepare
BEFORE THE LESSON
in advance and proceed as follows:
__ Reason: This avoids embarrassment should an item not work,
__ PREPARE A LESSON PLAN or should any chart, slide or graph be shown in the wrong order.

__
__ PREPARE YOUR STUDENTS FOR LEARNING
Reason: A lesson plan acts as a guide and keeps you on track

__ during your presentation. It also ensures that important points

are covered and not neglected because of poor memory.
Reason: If students are to learn, they must be physically,

__ What to include: Headings of main points; sufficient notes to

mentally and emotionally ready to do so.
How to do it:
jog memory on talking points; specific questions and answers
to confirm student learning; visual aid instructions (including a • Tell students specifically what is required of them during
chalkboard plan); a well-thought-out opening and closing the lesson and what they will be able to do at the end of
statement; estimates of the amount of time to be spent on each the lesson.
major idea or item; a visual aids plan; any other point that you
feel will help to get the lesson across. • Tell students why they should take part in the lesson and
how the new skill or knowledge will benefit them. Give as
What to avoid: Writing material out in full detail (this promotes many advantages as you possibly can for having students
reading of the material while you are in front of the class); using learn, as they may not agree with some of your reasons.
single space format (this does not allow for revision of the notes
Give students an overall picture of the lesson, and show
the next time the lesson is to be given); writing in longhand, •
them how it fits into the entire course. Attempt to relate
unless you are able to read your notes at a distance of 1 metre.
the new material to some past and/or future experience
(This makes you appear not to know your material because you
of your students.
have to look closely at your lesson plan rather than just glance at
it to jog your memory.) The length of time required to prepare students for
• learning depends primarily on their background
knowledge and the complexity of the material. As a
general guide, the amount of time needed is
approximately 10% of the lesson.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 23

 __
START THE PRESENTATION OF NEW IDENTIFY AND EMPHASISE MAJOR POINTS __
MATERIAL AT THE STUDENTS’ LEVEL OF
UNDERSTANDING
FOR THE STUDENTS
__
Reason: During any presentation there is a mixture of ‘need to __
Reason: If you begin your presentation at a level your students do know’ material, which is extremely important, and ‘nice to
know’ material, which may or may not have to be remembered __
not understand, there will be confusion and time wasted. Little or
no learning will take place. for a long period of time. __
How to determine the students’ level of understanding: How to identify and emphasise points for your students: __
• Prepare a visual aid of the main points; __
• Before the instruction starts, conduct a Threshold
Knowledge Test to determine what your student knows approximately75% of learning comes from vision, __
or doesn’t know. A Threshold Knowledge Test is simply whereas only about 13% comes from hearing. The visual
aid may be a heading on a chalkboard, chart, or projected __
some form of examination, written or oral, of sufficient
length to inform you as to the actual level of knowledge. •
image. __
• During the course of instruction have periodic reviews.
Have students write the main points down in their note __
• Conduct a review of previous lessons before you start •
books, or provide notes that include these main points.
__
each lesson. The review should consist of a series of Make a verbal statement to the students, such as: ‘This
particular point is very important: remember it.’ __
questions. If your students answer correctly, proceed. If
they do not, re-teach.
•
Prepare an orientation board (chalk board or sheet of __
Check with other instructors for the strengths and paper) that identifies the major points for a lesson. __
•
weaknesses of your students, and arrange your material Students can refer to this board throughout the lesson,
__
to fit the students’ needs. and this helps their thoughts to be guided to a specific
area. __
PROCEED AT THE RATE OF STUDENT
• Raise the volume of your voice and reduce the rate of
delivery while stating an important point, to add
__
COMPREHENSION emphasis.
• Besides emphasising the main points, you should also
Reason: If you get ahead of your students during the
emphasise safety and the points that are easily forgotten
presentation, you are in the same position as if you started
or difficult to remember.
above their level.
How to ensure that you are proceeding at the required rate: • Provide emphasis according to relative importance. The
most important things get a greater amount of emphasis.

• Arrange your material in stages. Stop at the end of each • Emphasise points by giving verbal examples (real or
stage and ask specific questions on the material you have imaginary); by comparisons (similarity to, or difference
just covered. If your students answer correctly, proceed. from, known facts); and, perhaps most importantly, by
If they do not, re-teach. The length of time for a stage giving reasons for each point you make. Students tend to
depends on the complexity of the material being remember better if they understand the reasons behind
presented, but a good general rule is 8 to 12 minutes. every point they must learn.
Repeat the point frequently by using summaries, or have
• Write out in full a number of well-thought-out questions. •
Put these questions on your lesson plan and make sure your students repeat the point by answering your
they are asked during the presentation. The feedback you questions.
get from these answers will determine whether or not Conduct periodic reviews of the ‘need-to-know’ material.
your students understand. •
Have the students complete a home assignment of the
Observe your students closely for facial expressions that • important points of a lesson.
• could indicate that they do not understand a particular
Have students record, in note form, the major ideas or
point. If students say they understand, ask them a • items that you feel must be emphasised. By having them
question to make sure.
write ideas down you are using another sense, so
Encourage students to ask questions on points that they learning may be reinforced.
• do not fully understand.
Use a variety of training aids to appeal to several senses
Provide for lots of practice of basic skills before you go on • (touch, feel, etc.).
• to the more complex parts.
Do not emphasise ‘nice-to-know’ material.
• Orphan

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 24

__
__ GIVE CLEAR EXPLANATIONS AND
__ DEMONSTRATIONS

__ Reason: If students do not understand an explanation, you will Guidelines:

__ have to re-teach by rephrasing or by going over the material a

second time. The same applies to a sloppy or inaccurate
• Plan the lesson first, and then select the type of visual

__ demonstration.
support that helps students learn the material. DO NOT
select a visual aid and then try to build a lesson around it.
__ Suggestions for ensuring that your explanations and Just because the aid looks impressive, it does not mean it

__ demonstrations are clear: will fill the need, the need being to help your students
learn the ‘must-know’ information.
__ • Start verbal explanations by referring to something
• Plan to use a visual display of all major points that are
__ already known by your students. Association of ideas
makes it easier to follow your explanation. covered during your lesson. Simple wording on the
__ • Use words and phrases that are commonly used. Avoid
whiteboard is usually better than repeating the main

__ showing off your command of the English language by

points over and over again.

__ using such phrases as: ‘Elaborate on the fundamental

ramifications of hylampherism’. Instead, ask (‘What
•
Make your aids simple and clear. Eliminate all
unnecessary data. Avoid the tendency to produce ornate,
__ happens when the lever is lifted?’) detailed artwork.

__ •
Attempt to reduce complex material and ideas to a Manufacture aids that can be seen by all the students.
• Before you use it, put the aid in the position in which it is
__ simple, easy to understand form. The best way to do this
is to start with something your students know about and to be used. Go to the position of the student farthest
__ build on that knowledge in small steps. away, and ensure that you can see the aid clearly.

__ If you are required to demonstrate something, make sure Use a variety of colours to add interest, but make sure you

__ • you can do it correctly before you show the students.

Make sure all students can see even the smallest points
• keep associated parts or ideas or a repeating idea in the
same colour. In this way, you help your students to follow
• of a demonstration; if necessary, gather them around your presentation more easily.
you.
• If you are doing a simultaneous demonstration and When an aid is not in use, cover it up or remove it from sight. It
explanation, break the demonstration down into small can act as a distraction for your students if it is there but not
steps and explain each step thoroughly, giving reasons, being used.
examples and comparisons.
• If the aid includes written words, have someone check for
USE VISUAL AIDS AND USE THEM EFFECTIVELY correct spelling and grammar. You would be surprised
how many times misspelled words are displayed for
Reason: Approximately 75% of all learning comes through students.
sight.
Sources of ideas: • If possible, stand well away from the aid and use a
pointer, so that you do not obstruct the view of any
student.
• graphic artists or personnel associated with the •
production of visual aids If you are using charts it is sometimes advisable to have
two copies, one labelled and one unlabelled. The
• other instructors, who can often give spark to an idea
unlabelled one can be used later to test student
• commercial displays in newspapers, magazines, knowledge. Alternatively, a duplicate work sheet of the
television and stores chart can be given to each student to fill in or label.
• finally, your own imagination, which (if you give it full rein)
is an excellent source of ideas for aids. Consider: Will the aid help the student learn better, easier, or
faster? You should ‘show them as well as tell them’.
Types of visual support:
• actual equipment
• mock-ups, charts, diagrams, pictures or models
• DVDs, films, video tape and cassette recordings
• sometimes, people.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 25

 __
VARY THE RATE, VOLUME AND PITCH OF YOUR PROVIDE FOR MAXIMUM STUDENT ACTIVITY __
VOICE WHEN DELIVERING THE LESSON DURING THE LESSON
__
Reason: Any form of variety adds to student interest. Speaking Reason: Students learn more easily if they are actively
__
in a dull manner will generally put students to sleep, or at least
allow their minds to wander off the subject.
engaged in the learning situation.
Consider:
__
Consider: __
• When learning a theory subject, students’ practice of that
theory is usually in the form of answering questions.
__
• Speak at a fast rate while presenting ‘nice to know’
material. This produces the effect of observable Ensure that you ask questions throughout the __
enthusiasm, and enthusiasm is contagious. presentation.
__
• Speak at a slow rate when identifying‘ must know’ • Use sound questioning technique, as outlined in the __
information. This allows students to separate the ‘need to
know’ from the ‘nice to know’ material and in most cases
section ‘Oral Questions’.
__
adds emphasis to the points being made. • Distribute your questions evenly among all the students,
to avoid having a few answer all the questions. __
•
Adjust the volume of your voice to the conditions under
•
Make your questions thought provoking and challenging. __
which you are instructing. If there is background noise
you must raise the volume of your voice so that all the Avoid questions that require a simple YES or NO answer, __
students can hear what you are saying.
•
unless you immediately follow up with a ‘why’ or ‘how’
__
Generally you will have very little control over the pitch of
question.
__
• your voice, but adjusting the volume and varying the rate
of delivery will often help to vary the pitch to some extent.
Always have enough information in the stem of your
• question to guide the students’ thoughts towards a __
particular area. Avoid general or ambiguous questions, __
OBTAIN FEED BACK FROM STUDENTS BY
such as ‘What goes up the cylinder of an engine?’ You
may not get the answer you are looking for. __
LOOKING AT THEM (EYE CONTACT) Meaningful activity while learning a skill is normally a
• combination of answering questions and practising the
Reason: It gives students the feeling that you are interested in various steps of the skill. Arrange to have students
them and allows you to determine whether or not they involved in the practice as soon as possible after the start
understand what you are presenting. of the lesson. If possible, build into the first part of the
Consider: lesson a ‘hands on’ opportunity for your students. This
increases their interest and in most cases will give them a
• Look directly at the students, but do not stare at any positive desire to learn more.
particular individual for too long at a time. If students avert
their eyes it means you have stared too long and possibly Always supervise student practice very closely; do not
caused some embarrassment—look elsewhere. allow them to make mistakes from which they could
•
begin to learn bad habits. If you do, you will have to
• Make your eye contact impartial. Do not favour any reteach them. The phrase ‘practice makes perfect’ is only
individual student or group of students; include them all in true if the person practising receives close guidance and
your presentations. supervision. REMEMBER, ONLY CORRECT PRACTICE
MAKES PERFECT.
When students are able to perform a task with a
reasonable degree of proficiency, introduce some
• competition (speed or ability) or a variation of the
skill—but only when they have almost mastered the basic
skill.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 26

__
__ GROUP LECTURES
__ The techniques described above will work equally well for

__ group instruction. In particular, group instruction calls for

developmental teaching using oral questioning techniques.
__ These are covered in depth in the section entitled STUDENT

__ PARTICIPATION AND PRACTICE later on in the Guide. It is

normal for a group lecture to be instructor led and while student
__ participation and discussion is generally to be welcomed it can

__ be harder to control leading to timings going awry unless care is

taken.
__ INDIVIDUAL BRIEFINGS
__
__ Individual briefings lie at the heart of helicopter flying
instruction. It is rare to get large or even medium sized groups
__ together for classroom work so the theoretical knowledge

__ lessons required may be given in a very small group or a one-to-

one setting.
__ In the photograph below the instructor and student are making
__ effective use of a computer during a one-to-one pre-flight
__ briefing. Use of this sort of display, speeds up briefings and can

__ provide high quality graphics with the ability to integrate video

and other media seamlessly. There are some disadvantages as
__ it can be harder to get the student to help build up the picture

__ using question and answer technique than it would be if using a

whiteboard.

STUDENT PARTICIPATION OR
DISCUSSION
Properly managed, student discussion is very fruitful. It is an
excellent way in which to explore certain topics and get the
students involved and thinking about the subject. Careful
preparation is needed by the instructor to identify a set of
questions that will support the planned training objectives for
the session so that he can 'seed' the discussion as necessary.
It may be necessary to circulate some of the questions
beforehand so that the learners can do some preparation in
advance. For a discussion, the instructor should arrange for the
classroom to be set out in seminar style and nominate a student
to act as chairperson. The instructor can then take a backseat
to observe and join in for time to time if necessary to clarify or
correct a point.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 27

 __
FLIGHT: AIRBORNE __
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES __
__
THE FLIGHT OR COCKPIT ENVIRONMENT
As your student gains proficiency, you may look for minor errors __
The in-flight exercise is the culmination of all ground training and correct them in the same manner. Remember, though, that
__
and preparation. To achieve maximum effectiveness, it must be
flown immediately after the pre-flight briefing, and to avoid
learning to fly proficiently takes time and you should
concentrate on the major points first. Many of the minor errors __
confusion it should be flown as briefed. The following is a guide will be corrected as your student corrects the major faults. Also,
remember to acknowledge good performance.
__
to the conduct of a training flight. Variations may be necessary
to suit individual student requirements. If practicable, conclude the air exercise with a perfect __
There should never be any doubt as to who has control of the demonstration of the manoeuvre to be learned on the next __
helicopter. The procedure for giving and taking control is: lesson. This will help your student to fully understand the home
study for the next exercise and will also provide a positive __
When you, as pilot in command, wish to give control to your
student, say clearly 'Follow me'. Teach your student to take
mental picture about what will be taking place during the next __
control only when ready and to always say 'I have control'. You
flight. Of course, you would not give a demonstration of new
material if the next lesson were to be a review or a repeat of a __
do not relinquish control until you hear this phrase. Formalise
this portion of the evolution by saying 'You Have Control'.
lesson. __
When you want to take control, do so positively using the same While safety in the classroom cannot be ignored, it is benign by
__
procedure in reverse. comparison with the flight environment which is potentially
hazardous. As well as imparting instruction, the instructor is __
As pilot in command, you have the final authority. Your request
to give or take control should not be questioned but acted on as
responsible for all aspects of flight safety, maintaining
situational awareness at all times and acting as a role model for
__
quickly as possible by your students. the students on which they will base their own flying both while __
When the student has control, you must not 'ride' the controls.
Your student may feel that you are taking control, and this could
undergoing training and in the years to come. It is therefore
vital that slavish attention is paid to cockpit discipline, checks, __
lead to a dangerous situation. Additionally, you may rob your lookout and the handover control at all times. For example, it is
student of the feeling of accomplishing the manoeuvre not sufficient for instructors to simply glance at the instruments
independently. This is particularly difficult during critical to check that everything is working as it should be and move on
manoeuvres, such as simulated engine off landings to the to the next item, they must draw the student's attention to the
ground, when there is little time available to the instructor to fact that the necessary checks have been completed in
correct errors. For low intervention time exercises such as this, accordance with the checklist or standard operating
the instructor's hands and feet should be very near to the procedures. It is not simply sufficient to ensure all the safety
controls at all times. Before entering the manoeuvre the flight requirements of the flight have been met, it is necessary to
instructor should confirm the procedure for closing the throttle show overtly by example how this has been achieved.
and any other points. Instructors must therefore maintain a great deal of spare
capacity at all times and be able to divide their attention so that
For most new exercises you should first review the main points due attention is given to the cockpit environment, the conduct
of the manoeuvre and then give a perfect demonstration. The of the flight and at the same time be able to impart instruction
review must be short. Include such items as airspeeds, power confidently and clearly as well as monitoring their student's
settings, altitudes, etc. Usually you can obtain this information performance at all times. This is not an easy task.
from your student. Your demonstration should be a complete
manoeuvre and should set the standard you want your student When planning the instructional flight, instructors have to take
to ultimately achieve. into account and mitigate the threats posed by the airborne
environment and be prepared to trap any errors that occur
In the case of a complex manoeuvre, after the perfect quickly. A momentary lapse in in situational awareness,
demonstration, demonstrate a small portion of the manoeuvre, possibly caused by concentrating on student performance or
giving a brief explanation either before, during or after the correcting an error could result in an airspace infringement,
demonstration. Have your student attempt this small portion. failing to notice other traffic, or even loss of control. It is
Watch closely for any major error. If you observe a major error, therefore important to pay sufficient attention not just to what
take control immediately and explain to your student what was is to be taught during the lesson but how and where the air
done incorrectly, then demonstrate as soon as possible what to exercise will be conducted. The necessary spare capacity can
do to correct the error. Allow practice of that small portion be built into the instructional flight by careful planning and
before proceeding to the next portion. Continue the process of preparation and choice of exercise location.
demonstration, explanation and practice with close supervision
of each step or portion, until your student has completed the
entire manoeuvre. Then, allow continued practice, slowly
withdrawing your guidance and assistance.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 28

__
__
__ THE DEMONSTRATION–PERFORMANCE
METHOD OF TEACHING
__
__ This technique which is the basis of in-flight instruction was You will find that different instructors will approach the teaching

__ covered briefly in Teaching Methods earlier in the Guide. To

recap, it consists of the five elements which are covered in
of this skill differently. The following represents a suggested
approach that appears to work best for most instructors.
__ more detail in this section:
• On the flight before the exercise on ‘practice forced
__ • Explanation
landings’ (PFL’s) give a perfect demonstration of a PFL. It
__ • Demonstration may be better not to talk during this demonstration, since

__ • Student performance you want it to be as perfect as possible to set the standard

for the future performance. There is another advantage of
__ • Instructor supervision giving a perfect demonstration before the forced landing

__ • Evaluation. exercise. Your students will be able to form a clearer

mental picture when studying the flight guide, because
__ EXPLANATION AND DEMONSTRATION they have seen the actual manoeuvre.
__ • The next step would be for you to give a full detailed

__ The explanation and demonstration may be done at the same

time, or the demonstration given first followed by an
explanation of a practice forced landing. During this

__ explanation, or vice versa. The type of skill you are required to

explanation you would use all the instructional techniques
described previously. You must give reasons for what is
__ teach might determine the best approach. expected, draw comparisons with things already known,

__ Consider the following. You are teaching a student how to do a

forced landing. Here are your options:
and give examples to clarify points. This explanation
should be given on the ground; use visual aids to assist
__ • Demonstrate a forced approach and simultaneously give
student learning.
• When in the air, give a demonstration, but also include
an explanation of what you are doing and why you are important parts of the explanation. Usually asking
doing it. students questions about what you are doing or should do
• Complete the demonstration with no explanation and will give them an opportunity to prove that they know the
then give a detailed explanation of what you have done. procedure, although they have not yet flown it.
• After completing the practice forced landing approach,
• Give an explanation of what you intend to do and then do
it. and while climbing for altitude, clear up any
misunderstandings the students may have and ask
questions.
• The demonstration and explanation portion of the
demonstration–performance method is now complete,
and you should proceed to the next part, which is the
student performance and instructor supervision.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 29

 __
STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND INSTRUCTOR
SUPERVISION
RULES FOR USING THE DEMONSTRATION
PERFORMANCE METHOD
__
__
Student performance and instructor supervision are always Give a perfect demonstration or, if this is not practicable, show __
carried out concurrently during the initial stages of training. A
student should not be allowed to make a major error at this
the finished product. Example: When teaching map
preparation, show a map with a cross country trip all marked __
time. Your supervision must be close enough to detect the start out: students will see the standard expected in preparing their __
of an error, and you must correct the student at that point. own maps.
__
The student should be allowed to perform the task in small Give a step by step explanation of the required task. Use
__
segments, with you providing close supervision of each
segment.
reasons, examples and comparisons to make the explanation
clear. __
Referring to our example of the practice forced landing, Have students imitate a step of the skill while you provide close __
consider the following suggestion of how to divide the task into supervision. For example, have students practise the entry to a
__
segments: steep turn until it is correctly done, before you go on to the next
step. __
On the student's first attempt:
Continue until the student has imitated each step. __
You, the instructor:
select the field, making sure that it is within easy autorotational Provide student practice, with assistance as necessary. __
range Ensure that the amount of time allotted for student practice __
perform all in-flight checks, including LOOKOUT. equals or exceeds the amount of time for the demonstration, __
The student flies the helicopter and concentrates on making
explanation, and student performance under very close
supervision. Students should take as much time to practise as __
the field. you take to teach. __
If the student makes a major error, you take control and place
the helicopter in the correct position, then give the student
Overall rule: while you are demonstrating and explaining, your
student listens and observes. While your student is performing,
__
control and continue the approach. (Try to ensure that the you listen and observe. NEVER ask the student to perform
student makes the field on the first attempt, even if you have to while you are explaining.
help all the way through.)
Complete the exercise with an evaluation (final check-up) in
On subsequent attempts, depending on the degree of success which students have the opportunity to prove what they can do.
of the previous attempt, add more items for the student to carry
out. NEVER just explain and demonstrate a skill or procedure for
students. ALWAYS have students perform the skill to ensure
Continue the process until you feel the student can fly the that the skill or procedure is done properly. STICK WITH THEM
complete manoeuvre alone. You have now completed the UNTIL THE SKILL IS DONE CORRECTLY. For example, a
student performance and instructor supervision portion of this student is about to proceed on a solo cross country trip and asks
method, and you should now proceed to the evaluation. you how to fill in the navigation log. Explaining how to do it,
EVALUATION even with a demonstration, is no guarantee of student success.
Have students tell you how to do it or, better still, have them
The evaluation portion of the demonstration method is where
make a practice log entry before departure.
students get an opportunity to prove that they can do the
manoeuvre without assistance.
For the practice forced landing you should tell students that you
will be simulating an engine failure and that they are to carry out
the entire procedure, including all checks and lookout.
While the student is performing this manoeuvre you must
refrain from making any comments. Offer no assistance
whatsoever even grunts or head nods. You must, however,
observe the entire manoeuvre very carefully, so that you can
analyse any errors that the student may make and debrief
accordingly.
NOTE: Of course, you would interrupt the student's
performance if safety were to become a factor.
Success or failure during the evaluation stage of the lesson will
determine whether you carry on with the next exercise or
repeat the lesson.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 30

__
__ POST-FLIGHT AND IN-FLIGHT JUDGEMENT
AND DECISION MAKING
__
__ Review with the student each exercise undertaken during the
__ flight. In the case of a dual flight, the debriefing should include

__ strengths and weaknesses and suggestions to improve

performance. An outline of the next training session should be
__ given, along with study assignments.
__ This should follow all flights, dual and solo. Points should
__ include:

__
__ • the student's own assessment of the flight and
performance
__ • your assessment of the student's performance.
__ • This should include both the strong and weak points,
__ and advice on how to correct any errors.

__ • answering any questions the student may have

__ • assigning study subjects where appropriate.

__
__ Note: Debriefings should always be conducted in private and in

__ a manner mindful of the sensitivities of the student.

When the debriefing is complete a record of the flight should be
made in the form set out in the Approved Training
Organisation's Manual and the taxonomy completed. Such
records form an essential record of student progress and must
be completed accurately and in sufficient detail.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 31

 __
STUDENT EVALUATION AND TESTING __
__
ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE __
__
In order to monitor students' progress with the aim of providing temptation to be more lenient during post-flight debriefs __
direction and raising the level of performance, periodic and write-ups. This must be resisted as it does nobody
__
objective assessments must be made. These assessments
can be entered into the student's records. It is important that
any favours in the long term and could even be a safety
issue. Students have a right to expect an honest __
such assessments are objective and that assessments are appraisal of their ability and progress. Experience would __
made against a defined standard or rubric. Not all ATOs will
have a grading system in their Manuals but if there is one it
show that far from taking their business elsewhere they
are likely to remain with an ATO or DTO where __
should be used as it will provide examples of student instructors have this ethos. __
performance against which a grade could be awarded.
• Personal contrast. This error is found to be where the __
Typically an assessment based on Above Average, Average
and Low Average might be made. An overview of these grades
instructor tends to downgrade the student in areas where
his personal performance excels and to upgrade the
__
over a period of time will provide the instructor, Chief Flying student where he feels he is less skilful. __
Instructor and the Head of Training with an idea of whether the
student is making satisfactory progress or whether another • Logical Error. This error results from a tendency on the __
training strategy or one-to-one appraisal would be appropriate. part of the instructor to see a similarity in unrelated skills
__
There is inevitably a degree of subjectivity when assessing skill
and to rate them alike. An example of this is where an
instructor may tie together two items such as ability to __
based performance rather than examination results so it is
worth considering some of the common errors that can be
maintain heading and ability to maintain altitude. When a __
made and which persistently occur in all subjective rating
systems. When the instructor understands these errors, it
high performance is observed in one, the instructor rates
highly in the other. __
helps to reduce their effect. • Error of narrow criteria. This is the error caused by an
instructor grading his immediate students relative to each
• Halo Error. This error is described as a tendency, on the other bracket off (e.g. a flight instructor has three
part of the instructor, to judge individual skills based on a students and will see one as above average, one as an
general mental attitude toward the individual. In other average, and one below average). Actually, they may be
words, the instructor's opinion of individuals such as above or below average with respect to normal
speech, mannerisms, personality and demeanour does standards.
affect ratings.
• Central tendency. This error is commonly referred to as
the tendency to centralise assessments and scores. It is
the tendency to group ratings in a narrow range in the
centre of whatever scoring scale is being used. The type
of scale in use, e.g. a descriptive scale such as below
THE FUNCTION OF PROGRESS TESTS
average, average, and above average or a numerical scale Evaluation is one of the fundamental principles of the teaching
e.g. a score of one to five, has no bearing on this error. process described earlier in the Guide. The evaluation of a
The reason for this is error seems to be the reluctance on student's progress is a continuing process carried on
the part of the instructor to use the extreme ends of a throughout each piece of instruction. Similarly, demonstration
rating scale, since the use of average normally requires no of piloting ability is one of the basic elements of flight
further comment or qualification. instruction. It is a method of confirming that the instructional
• Leniency. This error is the tendency for the instructor to objectives have been met. It is reassuring for the students to
mark too high on whatever scale there are using. know that they are making progress and it is useful for the
Generally, the tendency is to the high side; however, instructor who will be confident in their ability to move on to the
there are some who tend to mark on the low side. This next stage of instruction.
inclination among some instructors has been recognised For students who are failing to make the required progress,
for some time and students are generally aware of it revision can be arranged and any mistakes and errors that have
perhaps referring to them as 'hard' or 'easy' graders. This crept into their flying can be analysed and corrected. How this
area is more prevalent where the results must be made is done is covered later in this section.
known to the student and in cases where the student and
instructor are relatively more acquainted. If, for example,
the student is a valued client then there could be a

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 32

__
__ RECALL OF KNOWLEDGE TRANSLATION OF KNOWLEDGE INTO
__ Each of the theories of forgetting implies that when a person UNDERSTANDING

__ forgets something, it is not actually lost, it is simply unavailable

for recall. The flight instructor's challenge is how to make sure
Students acquire knowledge from a mix of their learning

__ that the student's learning is readily available for recall.

experiences and the effort that they put into learning them.
Ultimately, facts have to be learned and the skills acquired by a
__ In addition to the five principles covered under Memory and Its dint of hard work and application. This stage of knowledge

__ Application earlier in the Guide, there is a considerable amount

of research to show that the students who are most actively
acquisition is reached by Rote learning. Rote is the ability to
recall facts and information that have been learned but without
__ engaged in the learning process have a much higher retention having anything other than a superficial understanding of their
__ thereby supporting the contention that active learning is
superior to listening which has be a continual theme throughout
importance.

__ the Guide.
The next level is reached as the students begin to develop an
understanding of the importance and relevance of the facts and
__ There are other practical things instructors can do to assist their information that they have at their disposal. At the point at
__ students to retain knowledge. The use of mnemonics is an which they comprehend or grasp the nature or meaning of

__ example. The chief value in Mnemonics is that they allow

items to be recalled in a particular order which can be
something they can be said to have developed understanding
or comprehension.
__ particularly helpful. For example the well-known 'ANDS'

__ acronym for East/West compass acceleration errors and UNOS

for North/South turning errors:
DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERSTANDING INTO
__ Accelerate Undershoot
ACTIONS

__ North North
The next levels of learning occur when the student is able to

__ Decelerate Overshoot
deploy a particular bit of knowledge or a skill that has been
learned because the relevance and use of it is now understood
__ South South
and the student can apply it successfully to a task. This is the
point at which students are said to have turned their
Chaining is a way of remembering ordered and unordered lists understanding into actions or application. Further progress up
and consists of creating a story in which each word or idea that the taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain comes as the students
needs to be remembered cues the next list. are able to correlate their understanding of what they have
A useful way of ensuring that knowledge and skills are retained learned, understood and applied with their previous or
is through the formation of good habits in aviation. If the subsequent training. They will be able to synthesise their
instructor uses a particular technique to remember a sequence learning by putting different parts together to form a new and
of last-minute checks in the cockpit just to confirm that all integrated whole. This represents the fifth of the six levels of
switch selections have been made and that the instrument the cognitive hierarchy developed by Benjamin Bloom in the
readings are correct for take-off and, importantly he does this mid-1900s which is known as Bloom's Taxonomy of the
consistently and without variation before every flight, then his Cognitive Domain or Learning in Action.
student is likely to imitate this and bring it into his or her own
practice. This is a good example of habit formation. Providing NEED TO EVALUATE THE RATE OF PROGRESS
always that the habits are representative of good airmanship,
The final stage of Bloom's taxonomy is that of Evaluation and
this would be a very positive and repeatable way for the student
occurs when the students above are able to evaluate the
to recall knowledge.
importance of the information they have acquired. As flying
Instructors can do much to help students by sharing their own students, they would be expected to evaluate the importance
methods with them and explaining the limitations of short-term of the information for a pilot. They would be able to make
memory and the benefits of regular paced study rather than last judgements about the merits of the ideas, methods or materials
minute 'cramming' for exams which may be effective but the being discussed.
retention will not be there in the long term

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 33

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__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 34

__
__ ANALYSIS OF STUDENT ERRORS The necessity for analysing weaknesses is readily apparent.

__ When discussing a student's faults, always take control so that

This leads into the third element: specific suggestions for
improvement. Whenever you are critiquing a student, consider
__ your student may devote full attention to the instruction. the following. If you are unable to suggest a remedy for

__ ESTABLISH THE REASONS FOR ERRORS

overcoming the weakness, your student does not have that
weakness. Positive suggestions are mandatory for improving
__ In some cases you may ask the student to analyse the errors in future performance. However, you should limit your critique to
__ a particular sequence; usually this will happen during the later the identification of a maximum of three weaknesses with

__ stages of training. If a student indicates problems on a solo

flight, it may be possible to analyse the problems from the
suggested remedies. Attempting to correct all the weaknesses
that a student may have at one time could result in your student
__ student's description of actions and the helicopter's response. not being able to correct any weaknesses. During actual flight

__ The correct technique can then be reviewed and practised on instruction you should attempt to pinpoint a single major
weakness before considering the next. Improvement in a
__ the next flight. Sometimes, however, students may not be able
to identify or describe a problem clearly enough for a good student's performance takes time. An expert will not appear
__ ground analysis to be made. You should then fly the exercise on overnight. More will be learned if a definite improvement in

__ the next dual flight, where you can analyse the performance
and correct any faults. The process of fault analysis can be
performance is experienced each time the student takes part in
a lesson.
__ summarised as follows: Effective fault analysis always strives for maximum objectivity.
__ • Recognise the fault You should never allow personal bias to affect the grading or

__ • Correct the fault

analysis of any particular flight. Objectivity should be
considered in both student personality and flying techniques.
__ • Prevent reoccurrence At times, personality conflicts occur, but as a professional

__ Fault analysis is necessary at all levels of flight training. The instructor you will hold these to a minimum. In the area of flight
technique, you may become dogmatic and accept only one way
__ ability to debrief effectively does more to separate the
successful instructor from the poor one than does above to accomplish a manoeuvre. Always keep in mind that there are
many techniques that accomplish the same manoeuvre
average flying ability. You must realise that the sole purpose of
fault analysis is to improve future student performance. A valid correctly.
critique contains three essential elements: You must be consistent in your analysis. Always attach the
1. Strengths same importance to an error, provided the circumstances
remain the same. Without a consistent set of rules, you will be
2. Weaknesses considered arbitrary or accused of playing favourites.
3. Specific suggestions for improvement. Honesty is the best policy for critiquing. The situation where
Without each of these elements, fault analysis is ineffective. you may attempt to motivate a weak student by giving better
grades than deserved jeopardises the effectiveness of your
Strengths are analysed to give a feeling of satisfaction and to
instruction. Students must know exactly where they stand and
show that you recognise what students can do well. If you are
be given specific suggestions for their improvement. This is the
unable to identify strengths, it will be difficult for students to
sole purpose of faults analysis.
believe that your identification of weaknesses is accurate.
Positive reinforcement of a student's strengths will frequently
do more for the student than any number of remedial
suggestions on your part.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 35

 __
TACKLE MAJOR FAULTS FIRST,
MINOR FAULTS SECOND
THE NEED FOR CLEAR CONCISE
COMMUNICATION
__
__
The recommended format to follow when conducting fault Effective communication between flight instructor and student
__
analysis is:
When in the air:
is essential or instruction will be ineffective. The in-flight
environment poses additional requirements given the added __
identify major strengths
distractions of aircraft and intercom noise, the sensations of __
•
• pinpoint a major weakness
flight possibly accompanied by feelings of apprehension,
anxiety and physical discomfort, e.g. feeling too hot and air __
• suggest a remedy to correct that major weakness
sickness. Due allowance must be made for these and __
communication adjusted accordingly.
__
On the ground:
Communication is a three-stage rather than two-stage process.
For example, if an instructor wishes to impart an instruction or
__
• identify major strengths convey some information to students then this has to be __
• identify a maximum of three major weaknesses
transmitted by the instructor in the first place. Secondly the
__
• suggest remedies to correct the major weaknesses.
students have to receive the instruction or information.
However, even if these two stages have been successful, it __
NOTE: One way to think of a major weakness is: 'What item, if does not necessarily mean that the students have extracted the __
corrected now, would result in the correction of the greatest exact meaning intended by the instructor. Different word or
tones or even mishearing may mean that the students' __
number of other faults?' As student performance improves, the
weaknesses that originally were considered minor ones now interpretation of what the instructor intended to tell them has __
become the only weaknesses. All weaknesses will be dealt been lost or distorted. A third stage is therefore needed to
__
with, but in order; the most important ones first. check that the students understanding of the meaning is the
same as the instructor intended. This can best be achieved by __
AVOIDANCE OF OVER CRITICISM the instructor posing a question to check understanding. This
could be done by asking the student to describe briefly how
__
Do not be overly critical of minor faults during early stages. A they would go about the manoeuvre or procedure that was the
useful method of doing this is to pick one thing that you would subject of the initial communication. This need not be a
like your student to continue doing as a result of what you have protracted process but it should be possible to quickly ascertain
seen during today's flight and one thing that you would like whether or not the communication has been successful
them to stop doing immediately. It is possible to increase the thereby avoiding situations where the student says… “But I
number in both categories but this technique will be more thought you wanted me to turn on to a southerly heading when
effective if you choose a very low number so that students can I reached …”
readily understand what has to be done to improve and sustain
Communication is likely to be more effective if it is kept short
their performance and, most importantly, develop a strategy to
using simple words and uncomplicated short sentences. This
address them. The more items in the list the harder this will be
is even more important in the air.
and will eventually lead to confusion

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 36

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__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 37

 __
TRAINING PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT __
__
LESSON PLANNING __
The starting point for lesson planning is the course aim and __
objectives closely followed by the syllabus. The latter so that __
the lesson can be put into context. With these documents to
hand, the instructor can begin the task of planning the lesson in __
outline to start with. If the course is a tried and tested one like, __
say the PPL(H), then the syllabus is already well defined. If this
is a course already offered by the ATO, then details will be
__
available already be available. The details will include the __
course training plan consisting of all the necessary documents
__
to run the course including a model timetable.
__
If this is the first presentation of the course by the ATO/DTO
then there is a great deal to do. An early and quite laborious task __
that has to be undertaken first of all is to translate the syllabus __
for the course into blocks of instruction showing the availability
of resource. The next stage is to confirm the training objectives __
and prepare an outline timetable for the course. When this has __
been done and the details of each lesson objectives are known,
work can begin on preparing the lesson plans.
__
__
PREPARATION __
The preparation of lesson pans is covered in several places in
this Guide and will not be repeated here.

EXPLANATION AND
DEMONSTRATION
The Explanation and Demonstration elements of the
Demonstration - Performance method of flying instruction is
covered in depth in an earlier chapter.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 38

__
__ STUDENT PARTICIPATION
__ AND PRACTICE
__
__ When you present a lesson you have many techniques and aids
at your disposal. One aid that can be used to stimulate learning
NOTE: A drawback of using oral questions to evaluate learning
is that only random sampling of a class is obtained, since only
__ and can be effectively applied to satisfy all seven learning one student answers each question. This drawback can be

__ factors is oral questioning. overcome by the use of some sort of student response system
by the instructor. On a one-to-one basis, as in pre-flight and post
__ The actual technique of questioning is a difficult one and is
normally one of the most neglected areas of instruction. Good flight briefings, the issue mentioned above is not a problem.
__ oral questioning requires the ability to think quickly and easily If oral questions are to serve the purposes stated in paragraph
__ while facing a class or individual student, to shift and change as
thoughts progress, and to phrase questions in clear and simple
3, you must be mindful of the following desirable qualities of

__ terms. You must always be mindful of the technique to follow

good questions when composing or preparing to use them.

__ when handling student questions and answers.

EASILY UNDERSTOOD. Questions should be stated in
simple straightforward language. They should be brief, yet
__ First, questions can be used to PROMOTE MENTAL ACTIVITY. complete enough that students have no doubt as to the

__ You can state a fact and provide visual or verbal support to back
it up, but the surest way for students to remember is to work it
meaning of the question.

__ out for themselves. Whenever you can use an oral question to

COMPOSED OF COMMON WORDS. Questions should be
designed to measure knowledge of a subject, not use of
__ make your students think and reason out the fact, you should
take advantage of the situation. Example: As students work
language. The use of high-sounding words may give you a
__ towards an objective it is often necessary for them to recall
chance to display your vocabulary but adds nothing to
instruction. Remember, if students do not know the meaning of
__ pertinent data or knowledge learned previously. A well worded
the words they will not be able to answer the question. Always
__ oral question could provide the required information, thus
promoting mental activity.
keep your vocabulary within the grasp of your student.
THOUGHT-PROVOKING. Questions should not be so easy
A second purpose of oral questions is to AROUSE AND
MAINTAIN STUDENT INTEREST. Merely making a statement that the answer is obvious to all students. Students should be
will often result in a 'so what' attitude, but asking questions challenged to apply their knowledge. You should avoid using
makes students feel they are participating and contributing to questions where your student has a 50/50 chance of being
the lesson and thereby arouses interest. You can maintain this correct. Examples of these are the YES/NO and TRUE/FALSE
interest throughout the lesson by the continuous development type, unless these questions immediately are followed by a
of facts and ideas. Remember: Telling is NOT teaching. 'why' or 'how' type question.

Another purpose of oral questions is to GUIDE THOUGHT. By

using questions you can lead students to think through to a
logical solution. Questions can direct students' thinking
through a definite sequence or to particular objectives. During
discussions you can use questions to guide your students'
thoughts back to the objective if they seem to be far afield. An
experienced instructor can guide students through an entire
lesson by asking the right questions at the right time.
A final purpose of oral questions is to EVALUATE LEARNING for
the benefit of both instructor and student. Oral questions may
be used after each stage of a lesson to ensure that students are
following before you proceed to the next stage. At the end of
the lesson, such questions confirm that students have attained
the objectives for that particular lesson.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 39

 __
HANDLING STUDENT ANSWERS __
ABOUT THE MAJOR TEACHING POINTS OF THE LESSON. LISTEN TO THE ANSWER. Often an instructor, after naming a __
Questions must be built around the main teaching points of the student to answer a question, will immediately begin to think __
lessons. They must be asked at the proper time so that these
points are emphasised. Your students may be confused if
about phrasing the next question and will not be listening to the
answer; the instructor may say 'Right' to an incorrect answer. __
questions are asked in a haphazard fashion. The purpose for This could lead to student confusion. You should always listen __
which a question is intended may be lost. To ensure mental
participation by all students, the following procedure is used:
to the answer.
__
ASK THE QUESTION. You should state the question, applying
CONFIRM THE CORRECT RESPONSE. Student answers
__
the qualities of a good question. To do this you must have the
must be evaluated carefully so as to leave no doubt as to what is
the correct answer. __
question in mind before asking it. If questions are being used to
Aside from always confirming correct answers, there are __
evaluate learning or to confirm attainment of objectives, you
should prepare them beforehand and write them in your lesson
certain techniques you must be aware of when handling __
plan. It is often a good idea for beginning instructors to write out
student answers.
__
ALL questions until they are accustomed to thinking on their
feet.
DISCOURAGE GROUP ANSWERS. When students answer
as a group it is difficult to determine who supplied correct or __
PAUSE. After asking the question, you should pause for
incorrect answers. This may lead to student confusion. When __
approximately 1 to 5 seconds (depending on the complexity of
you are given a new class, establish early that you do not want
group answers but will call upon a student by name to answer. __
the question) to allow all students to think it over and formulate
You may, however, want to use group answers at times to __
an answer. During the pause you should look over the class,
being careful not to 'telegraph' who you are going to call upon to
increase class enthusiasm.
__
provide the answer. DO NOT MAKE A HABIT OF REPEATING ANSWERS. This
__
NAME THE STUDENT. A problem you continuously have to
face is selecting the student to answer the question. Some
becomes monotonous to students when you always repeat the
answer. If the answer provided is not correct or needs __
clarification, pass the question on to another student. If the
effort should be made to fit the question to the individual,
students do not answer loudly enough for all the class to hear,
because students will vary in ability and you have to recognise
have them speak more loudly and repeat the answer.
and provide for these differences. Therefore, you should
consider giving the more difficult questions to the most GIVE CREDIT FOR GOOD ANSWERS. This is especially true
advanced students. You also have to ensure that everyone in for the weak or shy student. When you are using oral questions
the class is called upon to provide answers with reasonable to develop points from the class, do not reject answers that
frequency. A number of systems commonly used to ensure pertain to the subject although they may not be exactly what
this have serious drawbacks. For example, if members of a you are after. Give praise and try using a newly phrased
class are called on according to seating arrangement or question to bring out your point. If you receive a completely
alphabetical order, it becomes quite easy for students to incorrect answer, don't embarrass your student by saying
determine when they will be named to answer; thus the lazy 'Wrong!' Diplomatically state that the answer is not what you
students will not give serious thought to any question until it is wanted, comment on the degree of correctness and ask a
getting close to their turn to answer. Possibly the most practical supplemental question or refer the question to another
approach is to call upon students in a random order, then student.
indicate by a check mark on a seating plan card each time a
student is asked a question. To get a broader sampling of
learning and to maintain interest, you should periodically call
upon other class members to confirm the answer made by the
first student asked.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 40

__
__ HANDLING STUDENT QUESTIONS The Kirkpatrick Model considers the effectiveness of training

__ NEVER discourage a genuine question pertaining to the lesson.

across four levels:
Level 1: Reaction
__ There is an old saying: 'For every student who asks a question
there are six others who wanted to ask it'. Usually students ask The degree to which participants find the training
__ questions because you have not given a clear explanation of the favourable, engaging and relevant to their jobs

__ point or fact being queried. Some techniques to follow regarding Level 2: Learning

__ student questions are:

ENCOURAGE QUESTIONS. Let the class know early in the
The degree to which participants acquire the intended
knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and commitment
__ lesson that you encourage questions at any time if the students based on their participation in the training

__ are not clear on points being taught. If it will not interfere with the Level 3: Behaviour

__ presentation of the lesson, it is usually best to allow questions

immediately any point arises rather than waiting for a break in the
The degree to which participants apply what they learned
during training when they are back on the job
__ lesson to solicit questions. If you wait for questions, the point of
Level 4: Results
__ concern may have slipped their minds.
The degree to which targeted outcomes occur as a result of
__ PASS QUESTIONS TO OTHER STUDENTS. Occasionally pass
a student question to other members of the class. This will create
the training and the support and accountability package

__ interest and get class participation. Do not over use this From a practical standpoint, the model can be implemented in
two ways, internally and externally. Internally, the training
__ technique, as the students may get the impression that you don't
know the answer and are fishing for help. Above all, never use organisation establishes the effectiveness of its own training by

__ this technique for any question to which you do not know the
monitoring the results of internal testing, quizzes and
questionnaires. The organisation will seek and gather
__ answer.
information from its students on all four of Kirkpatrick's levels.

__ REJECT QUESTIONS NOT RELATED TO THE LESSON. Quite

often students will ask a question totally unrelated to the lesson.
Armed with this information it will be able to make changes to
its training programme addressing any weaknesses or areas for
__ Politely reject the question, being careful not to offend the
student, and then say that it is a question you would prefer to
improvement identified by its customers (the students). This
process which is one of continuous improvement, is known as
discuss after class. INTERNAL VALIDATION.
DO NOT BLUFF. No matter how knowledgeable you are of your As its name suggests, EXTERNAL VALIDATION takes place
subject, there will be times when you will be asked a legitimate away from the ATO or DTO. The most obvious example of
external evaluation at work is that of oversight by the National
question and will not have an answer. If you do not know the
Aviation Authority (NAA). When skill and proficiency checks are
answer, say so do not bluff. Tell the class you will find the
carried out, even if they are done by a flight examiner employed
answer. Ensure you do, and then inform the individual who by the training organisation, they are being carried out on behalf
asked, as well as the rest of the class. of the NAA and therefore this is external evaluation in the form
ENSURE THAT ALL THE CLASS HEARS THE QUESTION. of confirmation that the candidate has reached or maintained
When a question is asked, check that all members of the class the standard required to exercise the privileges of his or her
have heard it. When you answer the question, answer to the licence. Other external validation checks are carried out on the
class and not only to the individual asking it. If a long, detailed training programme by NAAs. Where an ATO is training
candidates for another organisation, for example, a helicopter
answer is necessary, the remainder of the class may lose
operating company, then examiners and heads of training from
interest and 'tune out' if you get into a conversation with one
that company should be involved in the external validation
student. (evaluation) of the effectiveness of the training and the training
programme provided by the ATO as they will be able to
EVALUATION comment on Level 3 and especially Level 4 of the model.
Evaluation is a specialised subject and detailed consideration of it Helicopter flight instructors will therefore find themselves
is beyond the scope of this Guide. Nevertheless, flying involved in evaluation of the training programme. Often this is
instructors have to be equipped with a basic knowledge of how simply limited to asking for feedback from students in a form
training programmes are evaluated so that they can contribute to that can be posted on social media. While there is nothing
the process. wrong with this, it is hardly the disciplined approach advocated
by Kilpatrick and while it might do much for the popularity of the
The Kirkpatrick Model is the worldwide standard for evaluating training organisation - which is not a bad thing in itself - it is less
the effectiveness of training and was developed by Dr Donald
likely to achieve the critical appraisal necessary for
Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin
improvement. Professional helicopter flight instructors might
and past president of the American Society for Training and
consider seeking further training on how to get the most of the
Development (ASTD). He first published his Four-Level Training
evaluation process as a tool to improve the effectiveness of
Evaluation Model in 1959, in the US Training and Development
their training programmes.
Journal . The model was updated in 1975 and again in 1994 in his
best-known work, Evaluating Training Programs. The value of
any type of training, formal or informal is considered and it applies
equally to flying training.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 41

 __
HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS __
__
RELEVANT TO FLIGHT INSTRUCTION __
__
__
Human factors have a very profound effect on the performance other aircraft and situations. This is another example of
__
of a student helicopter pilot. They can basically be divided into Thorndike's Laws of Primacy and Exercise at work.

__
Physiological and Psychological Factors. Of the two,
psychological factors will be constantly present while
Different perspectives of the ground seen from the air
can cause visual illusions which could be a barrier to
__
physiological ones tend to be transient in nature. They are of learning if they are not discussed with the student.

__
huge importance but once identified, they can usually be dealt
with and strategy or method devised to keep them in check.
• Vestibular Illusions. These can be powerful and need to

__
For this reason, more space is devoted to the psychological
be understood particularly before instrument flying.

factors in this Guide

__ • Aircraft Noise. If students are uncomfortable during
flight, then they will be unable to absorb instruction. Also
PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS __ excessive noise can damage hearing and instructors

__ must discuss hearing loss and how to prevent it with their

students. Clearly students will be in difficulties in a short
__
In order to absorb instruction and make the learning process
work, students must not be distracted by their physical time if they have to struggle to catch what their instructor
__
environment. Clearly, if someone is feeling unwell they will not is telling them or they are having difficulty hearing what is

__
feel up to studying, their concentration is likely to be affected
and it is probable that their performance will be adversely
being said on the radio.

__
affected. In this case the remedial action is evident and the
• Vibration. Vibration too can cause health issues and
students must know what is normal for a particular
__
student should take time off to rest and recover from minor
ailments such as a heavy cold. In any cases of doubt, medical
•
helicopter.
Anthropometry. Students are likely to come in all shapes
assistance should be sought and if there is any doubt about the
and sizes. It is important that they adopt the correct
illness, the advice of an authorised medical examiner (AME)
posture while flying and that seats (including restraints)
must be sought. Flight instructors should look out for the
and pedals are correctly adjusted so that they can reach
welfare of their students and be able to offer the correct advice.
the controls while seated comfortably and correctly.
Apart from the everyday risks of spreading germs to other Back pain is common in helicopters can be exacerbated
people which is socially most undesirable, the flying by poor posture and vibration. A student suffering from
environment poses additional risks. It is an alien environment back pain will not be able to concentrate on the task in
for the human body and flying instructors should take every hand.
opportunity to cover aeromedical aspects of flight with their
• Medication. Only medication approved by an AME
students, possibly including them routinely in pre-flight TEM
should be taken. Over the counter medicines may cause
and briefings.
drowsiness and should not be used unless specific advice
Some particular physiological considerations which the has been obtained. In some cases, the real issue may be
instructor has to monitor and brief student on are shown in the that the medication is being taken to treat a minor ailment
list below: such as a headache or cold. In such cases the question of
• Altitude Effects. Air pressure and barotrauma; lack of whether the student should be flying at all is the crucial
oxygen - hypoxia and its effect on night vision. one to ask. Again instruction and example falls to the
Instructors need to be on the alert for signs of barotrauma instructor.
(notably pain from the ears and sinus pain typically in the • Alcohol and Drugs. The rules for flying after imbibing
descent) particularly during autorotations. alcohol are more stringent than for motoring in many
• Eyesight. It is important to understand the limitations of European countries. The only safe advice is not to fly for
human vision in order to carry out effective lookout. 24 hours after drinking and even then if the drinking
Although the students may have covered this subject in concerned was heavy, then traces of alcohol will still be in
their theoretical knowledge training, they are unlikely to the blood after 24 hours. Indeed, even after as long as 72
have completed the course before their first training hours have elapsed following a consumption of alcohol,
flight. Instructors should therefore devote sufficient time traces have been found in the endolymph contained in the
to ensuring that the correct techniques are known and semi-circular canals of the ear. The dilution caused by the
understood. Many pilots have poor visual scan alcohol can lead to disorientation. Clearly, there is no
techniques. If the correct technique is taught in the first place for recreational or other non-prescription drugs in
place then it will become a habit and transfer positively to aviation.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 42

__
__ • Lack of awareness - radio calls or checklists that go
unanswered
__ • Diminished motor skills - sloppy flying, writing that trails
__ off into nothing as weather reports or clearances are
__ written down

__ • Obvious tiredness - drooping head, staring or half-closed

__ eyes
• Diminished vision - difficulty in focusing
__ • Slow reactions
__ • Short-term memory problems - unable to remember a
__ clearance long enough to repeat it or write it down
__ accurately

__ • Channelled concentration fixation on a single, possibly

__ unimportant issue to the neglect of others and failure to

maintain an overview of the flight
__ • Easily distracted by trivial problems or the other extreme
__ either of which coul indicate fatigue

__ • Poor instrument flying - difficulty in focusing on one

__ instrument, fixation on one instrument to the detriment of

scan, drifting in and out oif sleep
__ • Increased mistakes - poor judgement and poor decisions
__ or even no decisions at all
• Abnormal moods - mood swings, depressed, periodically
elated and energetic, diminished standards
All of the above focus on the student but, the helicopter flight
instructors also at risk. Flying instruction is a demanding
profession. Often working hours are long and the breaks
between briefings and flights short or non-existent. Nutritional
opportunities can be equally few and far between so in the flight
instructors commendable care for his or her students there is a
possibility that they will neglect their own circumstances. So
here again, the solution must be one of setting a good example
and taking care of oneself too!
The IMSAFE acronym is a useful tool to assess your fitness
before every flight in the same way as you assess your aircraft's
airworthiness.

PYSCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
While it is not necessary for a helicopter flight instructor to be a
certified psychologist, it is helpful to learn how to analyse
student behaviour before and during each flying lesson. This
ability helps a flight instructor develop and use appropriate
techniques for instruction.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 43

 __
BEHAVIOURAL ATTITUDES __
__
You are likely to be discouraged when you discover that a well
planned lesson does not teach all students with equal
DEGREES OF EMOTION
__
effectiveness. Usually, however, you soon see that this is
For our purposes, we will divide the various levels of emotion
__
natural. One manifestation of the difference among students is
into three categories:
__
that they seldom learn at the same rate. Differences in rates of
learning are based on differences in intelligence, background,
MILD EMOTION: This is the everyday type of emotion such as a
small amount of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with our jobs, our __
experience, interest, desire to learn, and countless personal lives, or with other people. Mild emotions affect __
psychological, emotional, and physical factors. You must
recognise that students are different. You must recognise that
motivation.
__
this fact dictates how much you can teach, at what rate, and
STRONG EMOTION: This degree of emotion is not felt very
often in everyday life, but it causes most of our emotional __
when. problems in flying training. Strong emotions cause a large __
amount of tension in an individual, and no one can live or work
normally with prolonged tension. However, strong emotion can __
PERSONALITY DIFFERENCES
be coped with. __
ATTITUDE: Students have their own personal attitudes and
methods of thinking. Thinking patterns and reactions to the DISRUPTIVE EMOTION: These are very severe, deep rooted __
various philosophies and types of training must be reconciled. emotional tensions that disrupt logical action and clear thinking.
__
The instructor must consider whether the attitude is caused by
hereditary or environmental factors. The root of attitude
Persons suffering disruptive emotions usually require the
assistance of a psychiatrist. However, these problems occur so __
problems may sometimes be found in the general attitude of rarely that you need only be aware that they exist. __
the school staff. __
INTEREST: People sense ideas and activities that possess
special values, uses or attractions for them. Three general
__
categories of interest are the vocational, educational, and
avocational. The interests of students in different aspects of
flying will differ. Efforts should be made to take advantage of
these, and to channel students into different areas as needed.

EMOTIONS
Emotions play an important part in the training of a student. You
must know the kinds of emotions and the techniques needed
to control them. Most of us think of emotion as overpowering
feelings such as passion, hatred, or grief. These are not typical
of the entire range of emotions. Everything we do, or with
which we come in contact, is coloured by some emotional
feeling. Emotions vary from mildly pleasant or unpleasant
feelings, all the way up to feelings so intense that physical and
mental activity is paralysed. All of us experience a wide variety
of emotions every day. Rarely do they bother us or interfere
with our ability or willingness to do our job. However, students
in flight training are in an abnormal emotional condition.
Students are in unfamiliar situations where accelerated
pressures are experienced over a long period of time. The
learning situation tends to intensify the students’ emotional
problems more than we would expect in everyday life. You
cannot ignore this problem but must learn how to recognise
and overcome it.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 44

__
__ THE EFFECT OF STRONG EMOTIONAL
__ TENSION

__ A person cannot tolerate strong emotional tension over any

length of time. It causes extreme nervousness, irritability, and
__ an inability to relax. It interferes with normal eating and sleeping
__ habits and makes the subject generally miserable. Everyone,

__ either consciously or subconsciously, tries to relieve prolonged

emotional tension.
__ The effect of emotional tension on learning depends on the
__ method chosen by the student for relieving it. If the problem is

__ attacked directly, and solved, then learning is enhanced. For

example, students may have strong feelings of frustration or
__ worry due to deficiency in one phase of the flight-training
__ program. If they work harder, study more, and receive extra

__ instruction, progress will probably become satisfactory and

tension will disappear. On the other hand, if the real problem is
__ avoided, an escape mechanism may be used to reduce tension

__ and learning will suffer.

__ USE OF EMOTIONAL ESCAPE MECHANISMS

__ Students in flight training will often use the following escape
__ mechanisms. Occasional use of escape mechanisms is normal
__ in everyone, but their over use indicates strong emotional
problems. You, therefore, must learn to identify the symptoms
that indicate that a student is using escape mechanisms.

• PROJECTION: transferring the blame from oneself to

someone or something else.
• RATIONALISATION: finding a believable excuse for one’s
actions or failure; trying to justify unjustifiable behaviour

• RESIGNATION: becoming resigned to the situation;

giving up

• FLIGHT: physically or mentally removing oneself from the

tension-producing situation.
AGGRESSION: taking one’s tension out on someone else
•
by becoming belligerent or argumentative.

A student’s over use of one or more of the escape

mechanisms, along with other symptoms, may indicate an
emotional problem. You should not wait until emotional tension
becomes extreme before taking corrective action.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 45

 __
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 46

__
__ HUMAN INFORMATION
__ PROCESSING
__
__ Human information processing theory uses the analogy of a
computer system to describe the working of the brain. The
__ model created visualises the brain processing incoming

__ information in the same way as the central processor does in a

computer. The information is collected by the senses,
__ perceived, stored and transported to the Central Decision
__ Maker. The Central Decision Maker takes care of our thinking.

__ It can only deal with one thing at a time and therefore has to
tackle things serially before generating the required action.
__ This fundamental process of conscious decision making is also

__ called cognition. The way in which this model of the brain

copes with sensory overload caused by the Central Decision
__ Maker's limitation of only being able to do one thing at a time is
__ because many of the other demands do not need conscious

__ decision making and can be controlled by motor programme or

skills.
__ Knowledge of this process is useful to the flight instructor it will
__ explain certain things about the way in which we learn. If

__ students are concentrating hard on a task other stimuli will be

ignored because the Central Decision Maker is fully occupied
__ with the cognitive task in hand. Other things will go unnoticed.
This can lead to a situation called inattentional blindness. Where
other sometimes quite obvious things are just not seen.
Instructors need to remember this in high workload situations
both for themselves and the safety of the aircraft and crew but
also when imparting instruction.
It is also useful to understand the limitations of the short-term
memory which can only hold 7 ± 2 pieces of information. This is
important to realise when giving instructions to students and
wondering why they cannot retain it. There are ways in which
this capacity can be increased by 'chunking' pieces of
information. Remembered in this way it is possible to make
room for one or two additional pieces of information.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 47

 __
DEVELOPMENT OF JUDGEMENT • Simulator Training. Simulators are particularly effective in
__
AND DECISION MAKING
training decision making skills as high workload and high
stress scenarios with poor or conflicting information can __
easily be created in complete safety. It is recognised that __
As early as possible in their training, pilots should be made
aware of the characteristics and limitations of human decision
simulators are not readily accessible during PPL(H)
training but they represent a highly effective training __
making. Flight instructors should emphasise the importance of resource which could be used if available. For multi __
maintaining Situational Awareness, of prioritising responses to
undesired aircraft states (1. Aviate -> 2. Navigate -> 3.
engine and/or multi crew operations, use of simulators is
__
Communicate), and of contingency planning (What if
the norm for scenario based training.
Decision Making Training. As early as possible in their
__
something goes wrong during this flight?). •
training, pilots should be made aware of the __
The following strategies can improve decision making. Training
pilots using these solutions will allow them to make better
characteristics and limitations of human decision making. __
decisions. Teaching them at the beginning of a pilot's training
Instructors should emphasise the importance of
maintaining Situational Awareness at all times and of __
and practising them regularly throughout the course will create prioritising responses to undesired aircraft states and __
a strong and almost unshakeable impression which will stay
with pilots for the rest of their lives (Thorndike's Laws of
emergences. (1. Aviate -> 2. Navigate -> 3.
Communicate). __
Primacy and Exercise). __
• Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). If students are __
introduced to clear and concise SOPs from the start of
their training and the instructor sets an example by __
following them rigorously thereby preventing any conflict Training Leaflet HE 4 __
in the minds of the student of the don't do as I do, do as I
say variety, the use of SOPs will become ingrained and
produced by the then EHEST __
become a form of Rule-based behaviour which is known
to be less error prone than Knowledge-based behaviour.
and available free of charge on
line is an excellent starting __
point for Decision Making
• Pre-Flight Planning. It is known that planning conducted training and an invaluable
prior to a flight in a low-stress environment can enable resource for helicopter flight
pilots to produce a safe strategy for the flight, selecting instructors.
safe routes, establishing decision points for each flight
phase and employing collaborative decision making with
other agencies so that a sound plan is made which in turn • Decision Making Aids. Decision aids are easy to
will reduce the workload when airborne. Teaching remember lists intended to support the decision maker
students to carry out thorough pre-flight planning is a key and to avoid errors. They are particularly beneficial in the
part of the flight instructor's job and it will normally be case of critical and stressful situations. If they are to be of
done well. However, particularly during flights early in use in the future, pilots need to use them as a matter of
the syllabus there can be missed learning opportunities course. Flight instructors could, for example teach the
when instructors don't share their own strategies with FADEC model in scenarios or situations occurring during
students because of time pressures or the fear of training for example: lost procedure during navigation
overloading the student early in in the course. training or dealing with an emergencies that do not call for
an immediate landing
• Single Pilot Crew Resource Management (SRM) Training.
SRM training is a form of Crew Resource Management
for single pilot operations. It helps pilots to maintain
situational awareness by managing the flight and
navigation tasks and to enhance the social skills needed
to communicate and interact with, for example, the
instructor and ATC and passengers in the future.
• Threat and Error Management (TEM) Training. TEM is
covered in some detail in the next section. It is a useful
and effective way of developing judgement and
enhancing decision making skills.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 48

__
__ THREAT AND ERROR MANAGEMENT
__
__ THREAT AND ERROR MANAGEMENT (TEM)
DEFINITIONS
__ TEM is an operational concept applied to the conduct of a flight ACAS RA/TA;
__ that is more than the traditional role of airmanship, as it provides Un-forecast bird activity;
__ for a structured and pro-active approach for pilots to use in
Laser attacks;
__ identifying and managing threats and errors that may affect the
safety of the flight. The International Civil Aviation Organization Sloping landing areas;
__ (ICAO) and EASA Part FCL require that Human Factors and

__ Threat and Error Management (TEM) be introduced into all pilot

training.
• Latent: Lastly, some threats may not be directly obvious

__ There are three basic components in the TEM model,

to, or observable by, flight crews immersed in flight
operations, and may need to be uncovered by safety
__ from the perspective of flight crews: analysis. These are considered latent threats and may

__ THREATS. Threats are defined as events or errors that occur

include organisational weaknesses and the psychological
state of the pilot:
__ beyond the influence of the flight crew, increase operational
complexity and which must be managed to maintain the
__ margins of safety. During typical flight operations, flight crews
Organisational culture/changes;

__ have to manage various contextual complexities. The TEM Documentation error;

__ model considers 3 types of threats, anticipated, unanticipated

and latent which all have the potential to negatively affect flight
Equipment design issues;

__ operations by reducing margins of safety.

Operational pressures/ delays;
Optical illusions;
__ • Anticipated: Some threats can be anticipated, since they
Fatigue / rostering;

are expected or known to the flight crew: Complacency;

Over or under confidence;
Thunderstorms / wind shear and other forecast
inclement weather; Lack of recency/ proficiency
Congested airport / heliport;
ERRORS. Errors are defined actions or inactions by the flight
Obstacles/Wires;
crew that lead to deviations from organisational or flight crew
Complex ATC clearances; intentions or expectations. Unmanaged or mismanaged errors
Out of wind approaches/landings; frequently lead to undesired aircraft states. Errors in the
operational context thus tend to reduce the margins of safety
Air temperature/DA extremes;
and increase the probability of adverse events.
Mass and balance;
UNDESIRED AIRCRAFT STATES (UAS). Undesired aircraft
states are flight crew-induced aircraft position or speed
• Unanticipated: Some threats can occur unexpectedly,
deviations, misapplication of flight controls, or incorrect
suddenly and without warning. In this case, flight crews
systems configuration, associated with a reduction in margins
must apply skills and knowledge acquired through
of safety. Undesired aircraft states that result from ineffective
training and experience:
threat or error management may lead to compromising
In-flight aircraft malfunction; situations and reduce margins of safety in flight operations.
Often considered at the cusp of becoming an incident or
Automation - anomalies /over reliance;
accident, undesired aircraft states must be managed by flight
Un-forecast weather: crews.
ATC re-routing / error / non-standard phraseology
navigation aid un-serviceability;
Ground handling errors;
Wires;

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 49

 __
TEACHING THREAT MANAGEMENT __
Instructors should stress that threats (and errors) are a part of A good technique to teach the student to recognise these __
everyday aviation operations that must be managed through all
the phases of flight:
threats is to:
__
• Prompt (what is the threat)
__
• Pre flight: As part of the airmanship element of the • Question (how could it be mitigated)?
__
briefing, time should be spent identifying possible
threats and errors associated with the flight in order to
• Direct (do this)
• Physical intervention if necessary (take control)
__
plan and develop countermeasures. For example a __
possible threat in the circuit is other aircraft which could
lead to a mid air collision. Possible errors that could lead
• Post flight: Reconsider what threats, errors and/or UAS
were encountered during the flight. Ask the student how __
to this UAS are: spending too much time with 'head in' well they were managed and what could be done __
not looking out, looking out in the wrong area, not differently to improve the management of similar threats
and errors on future flights to assist with the __
scanning properly, not listening out on the radio. Counter-
measures could be to develop a crew strategy for development of improved TEM strategies. __
lookout, adopting a scan technique taking into account __
climbing/descending/turning, listening out on the RT for
other traffic calling ATC for traffic information etc).
TEACHING ERROR MANAGEMENT
__
• In flight: Brief on the planned procedures before take-
The acknowledgement that errors will occur has changed
the emphasis in aviation operations to error recognition __
off and prior to commencing each significant flight and management rather than just error prevention. Rather __
sequence including anticipated threats and counter-
measures in briefings. Prioritise tasks and manage
than just pointing out errors to the student as they occur,
__
workload to avoid being overloaded (e.g. use checklists);
instructors should show how to minimise the chances of
errors happening, and then if they do happen, recognise __
Identify any UAS to the student and manage
accordingly. Recover aircraft to safe flight
the fact and implement strategies to manage them. __
Instructors must afford the student the opportunity to
configuration safety margins before dealing with other
recognise a committed error rather than intervening as soon as
problems.
they see an error committed, they must wait (if time allows) to
Unanticipated threats are most likely in flight. These see if the error is identified by the trainee. If it is not, the
threats are generally managed by applying skills and instructor should then analyse why the error happened, why it
knowledge acquired through training and flight was not recognised and how to prevent future occurrences.
experience. Typically, a practice engine failure or
Mitigators that are in place such as checklists, SOPs and
simulated system failure are methods of training a pilot
aviation rules must be applied and complied with. Whether a
to manage unexpected threats. Knowledge and
checklist is used from memory or read, they are provided to
repetition prepare a trainee to manage such events
enhance safety (by helping reduce errors) and instructors must
should they occur for real in flight.
continually stress their importance and accept no deviations to
Instructors should develop training scenarios, 'what if' its application and terminology.
questions or examples that will address the different
categories of threats and thereby develop the trainee’s
ability to detect and respond appropriately to threats .
During flight training the instructor must identify
unanticipated threats such as incorrect ATC instructions,
traffic hazards or adverse weather and point them out
to the trainee should they fail to identify them. Then it
is important to question the trainee to see what steps
they could take to mitigate the threats, ensuring that
the action is completed in the time available.

EHEST training leaflet HE8

covers the theory of Threat
& Error Management and
provides practical advice on
how to teach the subject.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 50

__
__ TEACHING UNDESIRED AIRCRAFT STATE SPECIFIC HAZARDS INVOLVED IN SIMULATING
SYSTEMS FAILURES AND MALFUNCTIONS IN
__ MANAGEMENT
THE AIRCRAFT DURING FLIGHT
__ Unmanaged or mismanaged threats or errors may result in a
It should be the aim of all instructors to return an aircraft back to
__ UAS. Ideally, students should be taught to manage threats and
errors before a UAS develops. During flight training, instructors
the dispersal in the same state as they found it. In order to do

__ will be dealing with many undesired aircraft states as trainees

this they should use the principles of TEM described above to
assess the possible threats they could encounter during the
__ develop their flying skills.
flight. In the case of teaching emergency and abnormal

__ In this context, instructors have the dual role of practising TEM

by ensuring that undesired aircraft states are managed and then
procedures the students and their actions (or inactions) could
be considered as a source of threat and appropriate mitigations
__ teaching trainees how to do the same. Because students may should be taken into account before and during flight before and
__ not have the manipulative and cognitive skills of a qualified pilot,
they will often not meet specified flight tolerances or
during the flight.

__ procedures.
Flight instructors are required to have completed the Teaching

__ Some typical examples would be:

and Learning Syllabus laid out in Part 1 of this Guide. The
syllabus includes the Specific Hazards involved in simulating
__ systems failures and malfunctions in aircraft during flight which

__ • hover taxiing too fast; lists the following items:

__ • too fast or slow on final approach; or

• Importance of touch drills

__ • inability to maintain altitude or heading during straight

and level flight.
• Situational awareness

__ • Adherence to correct procedures

__ Although such examples would be classified as UAS when

committed by a qualified pilot, they are not unusual events
More detail can be found in EHEST training leaflet HE11

__ during flight training. The difference is that the instructor should

be aware of the threats and errors and should not let an
illustrated below.

undesired aircraft state develop into an undesired outcome (i.e.

an accident or incident).
A critical aspect that instructors must teach is the switch from
error management to UAS management. During the error
management phase, a pilot can become fixated on determining
the cause of an error and forget the old adage 'aviate, navigate,
communicate'.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 51

 __
IMPORTANCE OF TOUCH DRILLS __
'Touch Drills' are used when an aircraft system is identified by
__
touching (or being pointed to) without further action being
taken. It is used to ensure that a pilot can in a timely manner __
correctly identify and reach a relevant system control without __
actually manipulating it and therefore preventing inadvertent
de-selection (or selection) of the system. Prior to any flight __
where simulated emergency drills are to be performed it is __
essential that the instructor or examiner establishes the
__
student's understanding of how, and when touch drills, are to
be performed in the flight. The instructor/examiner should at all __
times monitor the student's actions to ensure that they do not __
inadvertently activate, or deactivate a system.
__
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS __
As the Instructor/Examiner is ultimately responsible for the __
safety of the aircraft he should ensure that it is not placed in a
__
dangerous situation. An ongoing assessment of potential
hazards should be conducted of the immediate operating __
environment to include: __
the proximity of obstacles (including the ground), __
other traffic (as avoiding action may not be possible), __
escape routes,
the terrain over which is being operated (in case a landing
__
is required),
the weather (in particular the cloud base, wind velocity,
visibility and temperature).
aircraft operating limits.
During initial instruction and demonstrations the student will be
concentrating on dealing with the emergency and
consequently his situational awareness may be compromised.
However as the training progresses, and during testing,
situational awareness will be assessed.

ADHERENCE TO CORRECT PROCEDURES

The FM or ATO training manual will often state the conditions or
techniques to be used for training which should be adhered to
for example:
Weight, Altitude, Temperature charts
MAUM to be used
Maximum speeds to be used
Training limitations
Minimum heights
Crew composition
Areas/ground to be used

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 52

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__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 53

 __
TRAINING ADMINISTRATION __
__
The importance of keeping good instructional records cannot
be emphasised enough. Well-kept records will ensure that a __
student's progress can be tracked and adjusted as necessary. __
This becomes all the more important when the student flies
__
irregularly or with more than one instructor so that they can be
reviewed and the instruction picked up seamlessly by the next __
instructor. 'What did you do last time? Is a question that __
should not be asked in a reputable training establishment
unless used as a light-hearted icebreaker because the flight __
instructor should already be familiar with the student's training __
records and requirements and already have formulated a lesson
plan before the briefing gets underway. This said, it is perfectly
__
permissible and good practice to ascertain from students any __
areas that they wish to revise or repeat because of perceived __
weakness.
__
Training records also provide a legal record of the student's
training and will be retained by the ATO or DTO for a specified __
period. An ATO/DTO can be called upon to produce the records __
in the sorry event of an accident involving the student in years to
come. It is a fact of life today that legal process invariably takes __
place in the aftermath of a serious accident and the courts will __
wish to be satisfied that all the required training for the licence
took place and was delivered in accordance with the ATO's
__
manual and the rules and regulations appertaining at the time.

FLIGHT OR THEORETICAL
KNOWLEDGE INSTRUCTIONAL
RECORDS Filling in these forms requires some practice and training. The
The required records will be set out in the ATO's Manual or as report should contain all the timing and other detail such as
per a DTO's Verified Training Programme. aircraft type and registration, the date of the flight, what was
covered and details of the weather. The most important part is
A full set of records will include records of each flight the textual record of the flight. Completing this section calls for
undertaken. Normally these will be kept with all the other a succinct summary of the flight and the training given. How
paperwork for the student in a course record folder which may the student coped with the task; what was done well and what
also include personal and contact details, including next of kin; a needs further work or revision. It is useful to make reference to
copy of the student's medical certificate, theoretical basic qualities here. For example, Airmanship, Division of
knowledge training and exam results. It is helpful to include a Attention and Control Touch. In the General comments box
record of any student's pre-solo essential knowledge quiz shown on this form the instructor could include an assessment
results or similar together with copies of the required pre solo of the sortie using a guide issued by the organisation together
cross county authorisation certificates. with a recommendation for the next lesson.
The details of instructional flight reports vary from organisation It is good practice to copy any scores and assessments into a
to organisation to suit individual preferences and taxonomy at the front of the folder. The aim of this is to provide
circumstances. The mock-up of a typical flight report form a 'form at a glance' record that is useful to remind the student's
opposite contains most of the information that is likely to be own instructor of progress to date but is also very useful for a
needed to track student progress. new instructor and most helpful to Heads of Training so they
can identify students that are struggling and discuss remedial
action with the student's instructor. In the example shown
overleaf or Page 55, the amount of time allocated to each
lesson is broken down into 15 minute blocks. There are other
ways of doing this but it is a simple visual way of presenting the
student's progress through the syllabus.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 54

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HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 55

 __
PILOT'S PERSONAL FLYING flight under the guidance of their instructor. In this way, the
__
LOG BOOK
entries and addition can be checked against the flying record
folder to ensure that they match. This can save much __
It is a legal requirement for a pilots to record details of the flights frustrating work at the end of a course! It may be save time in __
that they have made. The personal flying log book is often a the long run if entries are made in pencil initially and then 'inked'
over when the accuracy of each entry has been confirmed. __
source of great pride to the student and instructors will need to
teach them how to complete it. Although completing it may There is a wide selection of personal flying log books available __
appear straightforward to the student, there are details that will from aviation equipment suppliers and bookshops and the __
need explanation, for example, how flight time is recorded,
what is meant by the holder's operating capacity and other
layout varies among them. The ATO or DTO may have a
preference but it is a good idea to check that the log book is
__
details that may not be apparent to the new aviator. The suitable for the type of flying that the student is likely to do in the __
National Aviation Authority responsible for issuing the licence
will check the entries in the log book to verify that the
future. __
requirements for issue of a PPL (H) or LAPL(H) have been
This example below is taken from Part FCL,
__
fulfilled when checking the licence application. (The same The Personal flying record can be maintained electronically
__
applies to CPL(H) candidates undergoing instruction at ATO but
it is assumed that by this stage they will be familiar with the use
which offers advantages particularly in gathering data such as
time on type or periodic summaries of flying hours. However, it __
of their log book). is recommended that at least for the period of pre-licence __
It is very important therefore that all details are correct from the
training a physical log book is maintained so that students
understands the procedure and process for recording flight __
outset. It may be a good idea for the log book to be kept with
students' flying records, at least initially, and filled in after each
details. __
__
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 56

__
__ THE FLIGHT OR GROUND
__ CURRICULUM
__ A course of training is a complete series of studies leading to
__ the attainment of a specific goal. This could be a course leading

__ to the award of a PPL(H). Such a course will have learning

objectives, a syllabus of instruction and course outline. The
__ theoretical knowledge requirements will be described in detail

__ together with the method of evaluation by exams. Similarly,

airborne instruction will be covered detail in accordance with
__ the Part FCL syllabus of flying exercises as set out in Part 2 of
__ this Guide.

__ It is likely that an ATO will be offering a range of courses which

might include: LAPL(H); PPL(H); Night Rating; additional Type
__ Ratings, FI ratings and CPL(H) courses. Each one of these
__ courses will be described in detail in the ATO Manual setting

__ out the syllabi for theoretical knowledge and flying exercise

training and how they will be covered in the course together
__ with the supporting learning objectives, syllabus of instruction

__ and course outline forming a course training package. Taken

together the associated course training packages for the
__ different courses on offer would be described as the ATO's
__ Curriculum which could be further broken down to describe the

__ flight or ground curriculums as required.

STUDY MATERIAL
It is usual for organisations to have a preferred list of text books,
study guides, leaflets, handouts and other supporting material
to support its curriculum. These are listed in the ATO Manual
and students should be directed to them for further reading and
study.
The material may differ from that which the FI(H) used in his or
her own training. If this is the case, then it is very important that
flight instructors make themselves fully conversant with the
material that the ATO references in its manual so that they
understand what sources their students are using. They can
then set study to assignments based on these sources for the
students can use in preparation for their next lesson and for
revision afterwards.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 57

 __
OFFICIAL FORMS __
Each ATO/DTO will have a series of forms that it requires __
students and instructors to complete. A description of these
__
forms and the student's responsibilities for their completion
will form part of the initial student briefing adding to this as and __
when additional documentation is required. __
In addition, National Aviation Authorities will require official
__
forms to be completed for the issue of licences and type
ratings. Students may find the bureaucratic process associated __
with this form-filling which may also be done on-line, daunting. __
A good flight instructors will assist the student to navigate their
way round these official forms by explaining what needs to be __
done, how to do it and when to do it. It is therefore necessary __
for instructors to have up-to-date information at their fingertips
__
so that they can do this confidently and competently. If their
instructor seems unsure who to deal with these fundamental __
issues, then students will quickly lose confidence. __
There are other forms with which the student must be familiar, __
for example flight plans, met briefing forms, customs forms and
others depending on national procedures and circumstance. __
Again instructors must ensure that their students are familiar __
with all the relevant pre and post flight documentation needed
for safe and legal flying.
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 58

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HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 59

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THE FLIGHT MANUAL OR AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS __
EQUIVALENT DOCUMENT In the same way as flight instructors are responsible for __
(FOR EXAMPLE, OWNER'S MANUAL OR ensuring that their students understand flight authorisation and
__
PILOT'S OPERATING HANDBOOK)
training documents, they also need to cover helicopter
acceptance, including the technical log (if applicable), certificate __
The flight manual (FM) or equivalent is the authoritative
of maintenance and helicopter serviceability documents. This __
document that flight instructors must use for all training.
is covered in Exercise 2 - PREPARATION FOR AND ACTION
AFTER FLIGHT but will need constant re-enforcement __
Checklists must follow the exact sequence laid down in the FM
as should all the procedures laid down. It is the authoritative
throughout the course. __
source for all normal and emergency procedures and students The importance of making accurate entries in the technical log __
should be completely familiar with the document. The FM is and for checking on the serviceability of the aircraft, noting
when servicing is due and how many hours are available before __
often expensive and it is required to be kept in the aircraft
thereby limiting student access at times. Ideally, spare copies the aircraft is due for planned servicing. If the instructor and __
(which are kept up to date) should be available in briefing rooms student use the MATED sequence of pre-flight briefing checks,
__
and used during pre-flight briefings and knowledge tests. these details can be covered in the briefing under 'A' for aircraft.
__
The FM is also the authoritative source of performance
information. Flight instructors are recommended to devise
THE PRIVATE PILOT'S LICENCE __
scenario based exercises to test knowledge of weight and
REGULATIONS
__
balance calculations and assess aircraft performance.
__
FLIGHT AUTHORISATION
Licence regulations are quite involved and they do change from __
time to time. Students expect their instructors to have a good
knowledge of the relevant regulations and be able to answer __
PAPERS their questions authoritatively without having to refer
continuously to Part FCL, other instructors or the National
__
All flights from an ATO or DTO need to be controlled from a
practical point of view. In smaller organisations, it will be much Aviation Authority. This said, if there is any doubt in the mind of
easier to keep track of aircraft movements but in a busy ATO instructors that the advice or information they are is about to
operating several helicopters, it could be possible to miss the impart may not be 100% accurate then, it must be corroborated
fact that a helicopter due back at a certain time is late returning, immediately. It would be good instructional practice to make
thus delaying the start of overdue action. In addition to the the point that all aviation information should be checked with
flight safety reasons, it is essential to confirm that students and the relevant source document(s) before basing a decision upon
instructors are authorised and competent to carry out the it. It is therefore as important for instructors to be able to find all
training that has been briefed. There are additional applicable regulations quickly and accurately.
considerations in the case of first solo flights which are covered
in Exercise 15 in Part 2 of the Guide. Flight instructors are
responsible for ensuring that their students understand the
importance of flight authorisation and they have a complete
grasp of the exercise that they have been set, where they have
been authorised to fly it together with the minimum safe
altitude and any other restrictions.
A good flight authorisation system offers the additional
safeguard of checking that all the necessary up-to-date pre-
flight information has been included in the brief such as
NOTAM, Met together with any recently issued notices. It is
good practice, to include a check sheet to confirm that this has
been done. Similarly, there are instances when additional
authorisation papers are required in the case of solo navigation
exercises confirming that the student has successfully
completed the necessary preparatory instruction and been
briefed what to do in the case of emergencies and worsening
weather.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 60

__
__ FLIGHT SAFETY
__
__Flight safety is a vital aspect of flight training. Both aircrew and
ground crew must be aware of the need for correct safety
__practices. You are in a position to reduce incorrect, unsafe and
__illegal practices. You are also in a position to influence the

__attitudes and disciplines of future pilots in this industry. To be

successful, a flight safety program requires the correct attitude,
__proper supervision, rigid enforcement, and proper training.

__Your student learns by example: YOU MUST SET THIS

EXAMPLE!
__An experienced instructor is an effective supporter of the
__principles of good airmanship and flight discipline. As you gain

__experience, learn to recognise unsafe practices and do

something to correct the situation. Practise flight safety by:
__ • being alert to unsafe practices and taking the
__ appropriate action

__ • following up when you see an unsafe practice by

__ informing the people involved that they have been

__ seen

__ • promoting the principles of effective flight safety to

students and other aircrew and groundcrew.
__Flight safety consciousness by all personnel must become the
fashion. Unsafe procedures must be watched for, identified,
and eliminated by firm and consistent action. Throughout your
instruction, stress the importance of being fuel conscious, the
need for proper lookout and the danger of having loose articles
in the helicopter.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 61

 __
A CHECKLIST FOR GOOD INSTRUCTION __
__
__
__
Each instructor should:
__
1. Tell the students specifically what is required of them
during the lesson and at the end of the lesson (the ‘what’ of
11. Appear enthusiastic about the subject being taught.
__
the introduction).
12. Use speech variation in rate, volume and pitch.
__
2. Identify the main teaching points for the student by:
13. Have students answer questions related to the objective(s)
for the lesson during the presentation of new material. __
(a) using visual support (i.e. whiteboard, orientation 14. Use correct questioning techniques. __
board, or other visual aids)
15. Use a variety of training aids to appeal to as many senses as __
(b) verbally referring to the visual aids. possible whenever these aids help to achieve the __
3. Tell the student the purpose of the lesson and stress the objective(s) of the lesson.
__
advantages of the new knowledge or skill (the ‘why’ of the
introduction).
16. Provide sufficient meaningful practice of the main points of
the lesson so that students confidently achieve the __
4. Tell students where the lesson fits into the overall picture.
objective. __
5. Relate the lesson to the student’s past and/or future
17. Allot time relative to the importance of the teaching point. __
experiences (the ‘where’ of the introduction). 18. Identify and correct errors or mistakes made by the __
6. Confirm that students are at the required level before students at the time they occur, or as soon thereafter as
practicable.
__
having them learn new material.
7. Present the new material in stages. 19. Use clearly worded explanations. __
8. Introduce each stage of the lesson and provide a link or 20. Deliver the lesson in a logical sequence.
bridge between stages. 21. Conduct periodic reviews of critical areas of the lesson.
9. Obtain student feedback throughout the lesson by: 22. Summarise the main points of each stage.
23. Evaluate level of student learning at the end of each stage.
(a) asking questions
24. Test students on the main points of the entire lesson
(b) observing student performance of a skill towards the end of the lesson.
(c) looking at students (watching for facial expressions) 25. Provide a final summary that links all stages to the
objective(s) of the lesson.
(d) taking student questions.
26. Re-motivate students by telling them how the new
10. Respond to feedback by:
knowledge or skill will benefit them.
(a) answering questions
27. Ensure they are well prepared for the programmed lesson
(b) stopping students from doing a step of a skill prior to meeting with student.
incorrectly
(c) reviewing material or steps
(d) asking questions
(e) correcting the student if an error has been made
(f) explaining why the student’s performance is
incorrect
(g) using verbal support
(h) re-teaching (if necessary)
(I) praising students for good work.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 62

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HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 63

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PART 2 __
__
__
__
AIR EXERCISES
__
__
This part outlines the purpose of each exercise, the essential __
background knowledge a student must possess before
commencing the air exercise, advice to the instructor and a __
simple outline for each air exercise. __
__
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HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 62

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HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 63

 __
INTRODUCTION __
__
GROUND AND AIR INSTRUCTION EXERCISES PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION __
This part is presented as a series of exercises. These are This is the presentation given by the flight instructor when __
specific skills that either singly or in a group form a convenient introducing a new exercise. Ideally you should give it in the form __
unit for the student to learn. of a mass briefing and no more than 24 hours before the related
training flight. __
In most cases, when presenting a new exercise to a student,
you should be able to follow the sequence shown. However the Preparatory instruction is presented as follows: __
numbering of exercises should be used primarily as an exercise __
reference list and as a broad instructional sequencing guide.
Therefore the demonstrations and practices need not
Aim __
necessarily be given in the order listed. The actual order and State the aim in terms of not so much what you, the __
content will depend upon the following interrelated factors: instructor, are about to teach, but what your student is
about to learn. __
Review __
(i) the applicant's progress and ability;
(ii) the weather conditions affecting the flight; Review previously learned facts. This will generally help __
(iii) the flight time available;
students to understand and assimilate the new skills and __
(iv) instructional technique considerations;
knowledge they are about to acquire. This is a good time
to discuss any related problems they may have.
__
(v) the local operating environment; __
(vi) applicability of the exercises to the helicopter.
Motivation
Give students a good reason why they should learn this
__
skill. Use specific terms to suit the individual student and
training situation.
__
Ground instruction in weather interpretation, planning and
route assessment, decision making on encountering a Airmanship / TEM
degraded visual environment (DVE) including reversing
course or conducting a precautionary landing should be Airmanship points will vary with the type of training
incorporated throughout the course. Wherever possible, helicopter and local conditions. Always stress the safety
flight simulation should be used to demonstrate to student and TEM aspects of any training.
pilots the effects of flight into DVE and to enhance their Teaching Points
understanding and need for avoidance of this potentially
These are self-explanatory. They are sometimes listed in
fatal flight regime.
broad terms, so as to cover all training helicopter and
Each exercise is presented in the following manner: conditions. Occasionally you will need to amend them to
your specific needs.
GROUND SCHOOL Confirmation
This is a list of subjects that the student should have learned or This is a reminder to you to ask the student appropriate
should be familiar with before the preparatory instruction is questions to confirm that learning has taken place and
given. These points should not form part of the preparatory that the air exercise is likely to be effective. Give students
instruction or the pre-flight briefing. ample opportunity to ask you questions so as to remove
any doubts or problems they might have.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 64

__
__
__
__ PRE-FLIGHT BRIEFING TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ This is a separate part of the ground presentation. It should These are aimed at helping you in your role as an instructor. The
__ precede all flights, whether there is a new exercise to be points mentioned should not be included in your ground or air

__ covered or not. It is also particularly important when sending a

student solo.
presentations.

__ Points to be covered include:

__ • local weather and meteorological conditions
__ • the helicopter to be used, its fuel state, C of G, servicing
__ schedule, aircraft documentation and any other relevant

__ information

__ • where the exercises will be conducted including any

airspace , communication, NOTAM considerations
__ • take-off time, duration of flight, and estimated landing
__ time back at base
__ • the sequence of exercises to be covered during this flight
__ • a review of relevant airmanship CRM and TEM points

__ • Threat and Error Management

__
AIR EXERCISE
This is the recommended sequence of introducing an exercise
to a student. The sequence of further demonstration, practice
and fault analysis will vary from one student to another.

POST-FLIGHT DE-BRIEFING
This follows all flights, dual and solo. Points should include:
• the student’s assessment of the flight and performance.
• your assessment of the student’s performance. This
includes both strong and weak points, and advice on how
to correct any repeated errors.
• answering any student questions.
• assigning study subjects where appropriate.
• completion of student training records and taxonomy.

Note: Full and accurate training records are essential to

effective training. It is important that training records
should be completed by the instructor as soon as possible
after completion of the training session. Records for each
individual training session should ideally include a
comprehensive narrative report recording the training
provided, the training medium, weather (if applicable), as
well as the trainee's performance, progress, any
weaknesses and should be signed by the instructor and
the student. See Page 54 for more detail.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 65

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HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 67

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1a & 1b __
__
FAMILIARISATION WITH THE HELICOPTER __
AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS Explain: __
Familiarise the student with the layout of the school, • the cockpit layout and the control system. In the case of
__
including briefing rooms, crew rooms, etc., introduce him or her students with fixed wing experience, with particular __
to the members of the staff who are associated with the flight reference to those controls that are new to the student.
__
training.
• the various aircraft systems: __
Explain the course syllabus and how it will be applied,
including details of how, when and where ground school,
the main and tail rotor systems
__
preparatory instruction, pre-flight briefings and post-flight the fuel and oil systems
__
debriefings are carried out; how dual and solo flights are
authorised; how progress is monitored; and any other
the electrical system and avionics equipment
__
information necessary to the student in his or her day-to-day
the hydraulic system (if applicable)
__
attendance at the Approved Training Organisation (ATO).
• weight and balance. __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
• the use of the check lists, drills for normal flight and __
emergency drills.
__
Aim:
Exercise 1a: To familiarise the student with:
• Emergency procedures escape drills and emergency
fire drills. __
• the characteristics of the helicopter, its external features, • the Rotorcraft Flight Manual (or Pilot's Operating
Handbook).
cockpit layout, systems, and controls drills, checklists and
procedures any course material provided by the ATO together with
•
recommended publications for study during the course.
Exercise 1b - Emergency Procedures: To learn the action to
be taken in the event of: Teaching Points:
• fire on the ground and in the air, Cover all the learning points in a logical sequence using the
• engine, cabin and electrical system fire, aircraft as a training aid getting the student to identify the
main components and systems of the helicopter while
• system failures (where appropriate), explaining their purpose.
• escape drills including the location and use of emergency There is a great deal to cover in these two lessons so it is
equipment and exits.
advisable to have the lesson plan readily to hand and work
through each learning point to avoid going into too much
Motivation: detail at the same time ensuring that all the necessary items
The knowledge gained in this exercise underpins the whole of have been covered. Whilst too much detail should be avoided
the course. Understanding how the helicopter works will make bear in mind that the student will usually be fresh and eager for
subsequent lessons easier to understand and save valuable knowledge so full advantage should be taken of this desire to
training time both in the air and on the ground. learn. Explanations may be simplified if necessary but care
must be taken to avoid the student forming a false impression
Airmanship / TEM: of how a system or control works which may be difficult to
correct later.
• the use of Checklists,
Cover the drills for Engine Fire on Start Up, Engine Fire in
• Approaching and leaving a helicopter and procedures to
Flight and Electrical Fire in Flight in detail and get the student to
be observed when 'airside' e.g. No Smoking, switch off
practise aircraft escape drills physically rather than just talk
mobile phones,
about them. Discuss other systems failures and avoid
• thorough pre-flight inspection, creating a negative impression of helicopter flying by
explaining that these are rare occurrences. However a pilot
• knowledge of emergency drills, the helicopter's
emergency equipment and fire extinguisher types must be able to deal with all potential emergencies.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 68

__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ Show the student a thorough external check on the aircraft,

__ with particular reference to items that are probably completely

new to him or her (e.g. main rotor, tail rotor, transmission etc)
__ Reinforce the classroom instruction with practical exercises,
__ e.g. reading the checklist; practical escape drills; dry use of fire

__ flighting equipment and physical identification of components

on the helicopter.
__ Avoid confusing the student by presenting too much detailed
__ information at this initial stage. The use of models and training

__ aids is helpful when explaining aircraft systems especially

where it is not easy to visualise how a component works by
__ looking at its exterior.

__ Relate this exercise to the student's flying background, level

__ of experience and general aviation knowledge.

__ Discuss ground school requirements and how these will be

integrated with flight instruction as a precursor to each air
__ exercise.
__ This lesson is often combined with Exercise 2: Preparation for

__ and Action after Flight.

__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 1a: Familiarisation with the helicopter:
(A) characteristics of the helicopter, external features;
(B) cockpit layout;
(C) systems;
(D) checklists, procedures and controls

Exercise 1b: Emergency procedures:

(A) action if fire on the ground and in the air;
(B) engine, cabin and electrical system fire;
(C) systems failures;
(D) escape drills, location and use of emergency
equipment and exits.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 69

 __
2 __
__
PREPARATION FOR AND ACTION AFTER FLIGHT __
__
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION __
Aim Documents: Show the student all the documents required by __
To introduce the student to the preparation necessary before
legislation to be on board the helicopter in flight. Explain the __
commencing a flight.
significance of each and its bearing on airworthiness.
__
Review
Inspections and checks
__
Exercise 1a & 1b
While walking to the helicopter, point out that the student
should always note: __
Motivation
• wind velocity.
__
Stress the fundamental part that proper preparation for flight
• the presence of any helicopter or obstacle that might
__
plays in flight safety. Explain that a high percentage of
helicopter accidents and incidents are due to poor preparation affect the starting of the rotors or the departure __
and inadequate planning. procedure.
__
Airmanship / TEM • the location of any external fire flighting equipment. __
• Equipment required
Demonstrate the external inspection and the internal checks __
• Maps
and procedures to be carried out before take-off, as appropriate
to type.
__
Teaching Points
Demonstrate seat position, the operation of the harness and
Explain that the sequence of events leading up to the take-off emergency exits together with the brace position.
and departure can be conveniently considered in three phases:
Demonstrate starting and warm-up checks, clutch engagement
• flight planning and starting rotors. Once completed the start up demonstrate
the power checks used, appropriate to type. Upon completion
• checking of helicopter documents of flight demonstrate shut-down checks and procedures
• inspection of the helicopter and completion of checks and appropriate to type.
procedures. Discuss the procedures for parking and security of the
helicopter, and completion of the necessary documentation.
Point out that during the initial stages of training, the flight-
planning phase will be covered by the instructor during Pre-
Flight Briefings. As the course progresses, the student will be TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
required to take part increasingly in all the aspects of Although treated here as a separate exercise, it may be more
preparation for flight. convenient to combine the introduction to Preparation for Flight
Explain that it is the pilot-in-command’s responsibility to ensure with Exercise 3.
that the helicopter is safe and fit in all respects for the intended Student practice of the external inspection, and pre-take-off
flight. procedures, should be carefully monitored until reliable
Explain the need to wear, or have on board the helicopter, proficiency is attained, and should be checked at regular
proper survival equipment, clothing and footwear for existing or intervals thereafter.
anticipated weather conditions in case of an unscheduled Explain the importance of the student becoming familiar with
landing away from base. the helicopter and its components when all is normal and
Explain the procedures for the student to follow, should he or serviceable so that any abnormality becomes readily and easily
she discover a defect or unserviceability in the training apparent when conducting the pre flight inspection.
helicopter during the inspection or pre-take-off phase. Stress
that students should not fly the helicopter if they have any
doubts about its airworthiness.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 70

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 2: Preparation for and action after flight:
(A) flight authorisation and helicopter acceptance;
(B) serviceability documents;
(C) equipment required, maps, etc.;
(D) external checks;
(E) internal checks;
(F) seat, harness and flight controls adjustments;
(G) starting and warm-up checks clutch engagement
and starting rotors;
(H) power checks;
(I) running down system checks and switching off the
engine;
(J) parking, security and picketing;
(K) completion of authorisation sheet and
serviceability documents.
 __
3 __
__
AIR EXPERIENCE __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS
__
Review Exercise 1- Familiarisation with the Helicopter and
Exercise 2 - Preparation for and action after flight
Teaching Points
__
It is not intended that the flying instruction given in this period
should be formal in nature but students should be allowed to
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
get accustomed to the sensations of rotary-wing flight, the __
Aim attitudes of the aircraft when climbing and descending and, __
To introduce the student to rotary wing flight particularly, the ability to reduce speed to zero (i.e. hover) in the
air. They may be given the feel of the controls without any __
Review
attempt to explain their effects in detail but emphasising their __
Exercise 1 & 2 sensitivity and the need not to let go of them.
__
Motivation The student should be encouraged to relax and pay particular
attention to the need for fresh air and the action to be taken in __
By the end of this lesson the student will be able to make a
judgement to continue to learn to fly or not.
the event of feeling unwell. The student should assist in lookout __
Airmanship / TEM
throughout the sortie stressing the need to keep the eyes out of
__
the cockpit as much as possible and to develop a basic scan
pattern. __
• Lookout
Talk about communications in the cockpit environment __
• Use of Checklists
• Handing Over/Taking Over Control
avoiding the natural instinct to make eye contact with the other
person in order to maintain external lookout.
__
• Aircraft Limitations This period can also be used to show the student the
immediate vicinity of the airfield pointing out the local
Explain landmarks and providing a general impression of the circuit area
• how to enter and leave the helicopter with the rotors with particular reference to any other flying that may be taking
turning place.

• that seat belts or harnesses should be done up at all times

during flight

• the necessity for positive hand-over and take-over of the

controls as discussed in Part 1.
the need for a constant and thorough lookout for other
•
aircraft. Describe the clock method of reporting aircraft to
the other crew member.
the need for flight clothing commensurate with the
•
weather, area of operation and role being performed.

Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS

• Student will be nervous and tense -encourage the student

to relax and enjoy the flight confusing the student in the
air. A thorough explanation is necessary before flight.
Emphasis must be made on using the horizon and attitude,
not on the instruments

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 72

__
__ AIR EXERCISE
__ Identify the main components of the helicopter. This can be

__ done during the instructor's external check, but care should be

taken not to confuse the student with too many details.
__ Seat the student in the pilot's position in the helicopter and give
__ a full passenger and crew briefing. Explain the general function
__ of the controls and instruments. Demonstrate adjustment of
the controls for comfort and safety, as applicable to type.
__ Carry out a short familiarisation flight, pointing out prominent
__ landmarks and giving the student an opportunity to handle the
__ controls in cruising flight. Student performance should not be

__ criticised or corrected at this stage and ensure all checks are

completed by using a checklist.
__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTION
__ As this is to be the student's first flight training exercise, ensure
__ that everything is explained painstakingly. Emphasise this as

__ necessary, since all future flight training exercises are based

around the basic principles learned in this exercise.
__ This exercise should be tailored to the student's previous flying
__ experience if applicable. It is important that the student has an
__ enjoyable and pleasant experience. The instructor must set the
highest standard of airmanship and procedures throughout.
Students will often get very tense in the earlier air exercises.
The instructor should make every effort to ensure that the
student is comfortable and relaxed as much as possible. Stress
the need for correct, comfortable posture in these early stages.
Introducing short in-flight relaxation exercises from time to time
to prevent the student from tensing muscles may be helpful
during earlier flights.
Ensure that the helicopter is reasonably stable before handing
over control to the student.
Emphasise the use of verbal confirmation before commencing
any turns.
The use of a model helicopter will make preparatory instruction
much more effective.

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 3: Air experience:
(A) to introduce the student to rotary wing flight;
(B) flight exercise.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 73

 __
4 __
__
EFFECTS OF CONTROLS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS
__
Theory of flight: Describe the visual and instrument indications resulting
__
• definitions from various cyclic control movements.
__
• helicopter controls Explain that the cyclic a sensitive control and that the
disc responds rapidly to the rate of movement of the __
Function of flight and engine instruments
cyclic so smooth controlled movements should be __
Function of ancillary controls made. Also emphasise to the student that the cyclic is
not self centering and will need continual adjustments __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION to maintain attitude. __
• Collective pitch control __
Aim
For the student to learn:
Moving the collective causes an equal change of pitch __
• the primary and secondary effects of flight controls in
to all main rotor blades. The primary effect of moving
__
flight
the collective alone, in cruising flight, is a change in
height. __
• the effects of: Explain that there are secondary effects comprising __
(a) air speed;
(b) power changes (torque);
changes of attitude, heading and RPM. For this reason, __
(c) yaw (sideslip);
(d) disc loading (bank and flare);
the collective is seldom moved without coordinating
movements of the cyclic, pedals and throttle. This __
aspect will be covered in the following exercise.
(e) controls of selecting hydraulics on/off;
(f) control friction. • Throttle
Move the twist grip to open and close the throttle.
(g) instruments;
(h) use of carburettor heat or anti-icing control. Explain the function of the throttle as appropriate to the
type. The primary effect is RPM control (engine and
• the use of ancillary controls.
rotor RPM). Explain that there are secondary effects
Review comprising YAW and MAP changes.

Exercise 2: Preparation for Flight • Tail rotor pedals

Exercise 3: Air Experience Movement of the pedals causes a change in pitch of the
tail rotor blades. The result of this is a yaw. Stress that,
Motivation in the cruise, this yaw is a large skidding motion. Explain
that there are secondary effects comprising roll, RPM
This exercise introduces the helicopter controls and their
changes and IAS errors. The pedals should not be used
functions with the associated indications and use of the
to change the helicopter’s direction of flight.
instruments.
• Ancillary controls
Airmanship / TEM
Describe the use of the ancillary controls (e.g.
• Lookout carburettor heat, mixture, trim, rotor brake, anti-ice,
• Handing Over/Taking Over windscreen, de-fogging, heater, etc.) as appropriate to
type.
• Aircraft Limitations

Teaching Points Common

Errors
COMMON ERRORS
• Cyclic pitch control
Moving the cyclic causes the rotor disc to tilt. As a result • Particular care must be taken when demonstrating the
of this, the helicopter will either pitch or roll, or a effect of the throttle and collective pitch lever to avoid
combination of the two, depending on the direction in confusing the student in the air. A thorough explanation is
which the cyclic is moved. Explain that there are necessary before flight.
secondary effects comprising changes in altitude,
• Emphasis must be made on using the horizon and attitude,
airspeed and RPM.
not on the instruments
HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 74
__
__ AIR EXERCISE • Tail Rotor Pedals

__ Re-establish a straight and level cruise.

__ Before take-off: Demonstrate the effects of right and left pedal movement,

__ • make sure the student is seated comfortably and ensure

all checks are completed by using a check list
pointing out the visual and flight instrument indications.
Student practice
__ • demonstrate the correct use of frictions, trims and control
__ adjustments, as appropriate to type
• Ancillary Controls
As appropriate to type:
__ • demonstrate the effect of cyclic control movements on
Demonstrate the use of ancillary controls.
__ the rotor disc, including how the horizon is used as a
reference to interpret the helicopter’s attitude Student practice
__ • demonstrate the effect of collective lever on the pitch of • All Controls
__ both blades when raising and lowering the control
Have the student practise simple flight manoeuvres by
__ • demonstrate opening and closing the throttle application of the basic principles of this exercise. Stress the

__ • demonstrate the effect of pedals on the pitch of the tail

rotor
need for smooth operation. Rather than demand accuracy at
this stage, monitor the controls to avoid excessive control
__ movements by following through as necessary.

__ In Flight:
• Cyclic Control TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ Establish a straight and level cruise at a safe altitude.
__ Demonstrate pitching movement in the normal range.
As this is to be the student’s first flight training exercise, spare
no pains to explain everything carefully. Emphasis is necessary,
__ Point out the sensitivity or lag, as appropriate to type. since all future flight training exercises are based around the
__ Student practice
When the student demonstrates reasonable
basic principles learned in this exercise.
This exercise should be tailored to the student’s previous flying
competency, point out the flight instrument indications. experience if applicable.
Students will often get very tense in the earlier air exercises.
Re-establish a straight and level cruise. The instructor should make every effort to ensure that the
Demonstrate rolling movement (gentle and medium turns) student is comfortable and relaxed as much as possible.
Ensure that the helicopter is reasonably stable before handing
Student practice
over control to the student.
Point out flight instrument indications Emphasise the use of verbal confirmation before commencing
Re-establish a straight and level cruise. any turns.
Demonstrate a combination of pitching and rolling The use of a model helicopter will make preparatory instruction
movements. much more effective.
Stress the need for correct, comfortable posture in these early
Student practice
stages.
Point out flight instrument indications.
• Collective Control LESSON CHECKLIST
Re-establish a straight and level cruise.
Exercise 4: Effects of controls:
Demonstrate the effects of raising and lowering the (A) function of flight controls, primary and secondary
collective, pointing out the visual and flight instrument
effect;
indications.
(B) effects of:
Student practice.
(a) air speed;
• Throttle
(b) power changes (torque);
Where appropriate to type, re-establish a straight and level (c) yaw (sideslip);
cruise. (d) disc loading (bank and flare);
(e) controls of selecting hydraulics on/off;
Demonstrate the effects of opening and closing the (f) control friction.
throttle, pointing out the visual and flight instrument (g) instruments;
indications.
(D) use of carburettor heat or anti-icing control.
Student practice

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 75

 __
5 __
__
POWER AND ATTITUDE CHANGES __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS Speed Decrease __
Flight guide: engine, transmission and airspeed limitations Explain to decrease the speed the disc is tilted back with __
Flapback
the cyclic, the nose rises to a more nose up attitude and
__
Power required diagram
the aircraft slows down. As the speed decreases, the disc
'flaps' forward and the cyclic must be moved further back __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
to maintain the deceleration. When the speed is close to __
the desired speed the nose attitude is reselected to the
attitude for the required speed. __
Aim
__
Is for the student to learn how to maintain a specified
airspeed, how to change that airspeed by changing the
Power changes
__
fuselage attitude and the relationship of the cyclic position
Explain how the height of the aircraft is controlled by
collective lever. When the lever is raised the power __
to the airspeed and how to make power changes.
increases because of the correlater linkage and the __
Review aircraft nose will yaw. The reverse is true when the lever
is lowered and consequently to maintain the heading the
__
Exercise 4: Effects of Controls
use of pedal is required when changing power. Increases __
Motivation and decreases in collective pitch will result in attitude
__
This exercise will enable the student to maintain and change
the aircraft airspeed.
changes which should be anticipated.

AIR EXERCISE
__
Airmanship / TEM
Demonstrate airspeed changes.
• Positive hand over of controls
Student practice
• Lookout
Demonstrate power changes.
• W/V
Student practice
• Monitor /scan of engine temperatures and pressures
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
• Helicopter limitations
Teaching Points If the student is able to cope, this exercise can be combined
with Exercise 6.
Describe how to conduct attitude and power changes as follows:
Students will often tend to pay excessive attention to the flight
Speed Increase instruments in this exercise. Care must be taken to ensure that
a proper scan between the instruments and external
Explain that to increase the speed from balanced cruise
references is established and that a good lookout is maintained.
flight it is necessary to tilt the rotor disc further forward
with the cyclic which will result in the nose dropping to It should be explained that it takes a certain time for speed
a new attitude. As the aircraft accelerates the rotor disc changes to occur and attempts to hurry the process can lead to
will tend to 'flapback' so to maintain the acceleration it over controlling. Therefore the student should be encouraged
is necessary to move the cyclic progressively forward and to SELECT, HOLD and ADJUST. It is recommended that initially
reselect the attitude for the required speed. In light speed changes only between 40-80kts is practised.
helicopters with an effective horizontal stabiliser the
increase in down wash force tends to maintain the
fuselage attitude relatively constant over a large part of
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
the speed range.
• Over controlling on the cyclic, usually caused by failure to
appreciate the lag in control response.

• Failure to maintain selected attitude.

• Incorrect Throttle movement.
• Failure to appreciate and correct for yaw.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 76

__
__ Changes of airspeed during the early stages of this air exercise

__ will result in changes of altitude. It is important therefore, to

conduct this lesson at 1000 feet AGL or more, in good weather
__ conditions with a defined horizon.

__ Where appropriate to the aircraft type, demonstrate the

__ methods of changing manifold pressure at constant rotor RPM

and changing rotor RPM at constant manifold pressure.
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes:
(A) relationship between cyclic control position, disc
attitude, fuselage attitude and air speed;
(B) flapback;
(C) power required diagram in relation to air speed;
(D) power and air speed changes in level flight;
(E) use of instruments for precision;
(F) engine and air speed limitations.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 77

 __
6 __
__
STRAIGHT AND LEVEL __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Flight guide: engine, transmission and airspeed limitations Make appropriate movement to the collective lever to
correct climb or descent back to level flight at the same time
__
Flapback
preventing/correcting yaw with pedals. __
Power required diagram
Adjust attitude, power and yaw pedals as required to settle __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION accurately in level flight at the nominated airspeed ensuring
__
Aim
balance ball and/or string is in the middle. Note that attitude
of the aircraft is not significantly different between 40- __
The aim is for the student to learn how to utilise speed control __
and power changes to achieve level balance flight at specified AIR EXERCISE __
airspeeds. (Note: straight and level flight means at constant
altitude and heading) Demonstrate straight and level balance flight at cruise power __
Review Student practice __
Exercise 4: Effects of Controls Demonstrate airspeed changes whilst maintaining altitude __
Exercise 5: Power and Attitude Changes Student practice __
Motivation TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS __
This exercise will utilise speed control and power changing
techniques learned in last exercise to achieve a level balanced If the student is able to cope, this exercise can be combined
__
flight at specified airspeeds. with Exercise 5.

Airmanship / TEM Students will often tend to pay excessive attention to the flight
instruments in this exercise. Care must be taken to ensure that
• Positive hand over of controls a proper scan between the instruments and external
• Lookout references is established and that a good lookout is maintained.
• W/V It should be explained that it takes a certain time for speed
• Monitor /scan of engine temperatures and pressures changes to occur and attempts to hurry the process can lead to
over controlling. Therefore the student should be encouraged
• Helicopter limitations to SELECT, HOLD and ADJUST. It is recommended that
Teaching Points initially speed changes only between 40-80kts are practised.

Describe how to maintain straight and level flight as follows: Where appropriate to the aircraft type, demonstrate the
methods of changing manifold pressure at constant rotor RPM
Explain that the basic rules to remember from previous and changing rotor RPM at constant manifold pressure.
exercises are that the collective lever controls height and
the cyclic controls the attitude therefore the airspeed.
Describe the power and airspeed settings used for straight
and level cruise flight as appropriate to type.
Describe how to maintain airspeed at a constant altitude
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
and airspeed by the use of visual and instrument cues, such
as the relationship between the disc and the horizon, cross • Failure to hold attitude long enough to allow the speed to
checking with the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI etc. stabilise resulting in over controlling on the cyclic.

Describe how to conduct speed changes between 40-80kt in • Poor rotor RPM control usually caused by the lack of
level balanced flight as follows: anticipation of the effect of changing airspeed.

Select the attitude to accelerate or decelerate, using trim or • Failure to correct yaw during power changes.
control friction if appropriate, to the desired speed and • When flying straight and level controlling height with
check with the altimeter and VSI to see whether climbing or
cyclic and speed with power.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 78

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 6: Straight and level:
(A) at normal cruising power, attaining and
maintaining straight and level flight;
(B) control in pitch, including use of control friction or
trim;
(C) maintaining direction and balance, (ball or yaw
string use);
(D) setting power for selected air speeds and speed
changes;
(E) use of instruments for precision.
 __
7 __
__
CLIMBING __
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS
__
__
Flight guide, Power Limitations & Performance Data Once the aircraft is assessed to be established in the climb
the student should then check the airspeed, VSI, Altimeter, __
Optimum Climb Speed, Best Rate of Climb, Best Angle of
Climb
Compass, Power and make the necessary adjustments to the __
Power Required Diagram
appropriate control .
__
Explain that before reaching the required altitude that it is
necessary to anticipate the 'level off' and the same mnemonic __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
can be applied: __
Aim
__
For the student to learn how to climb at given speeds, reommended
airspeed and power settings.
ATTITUDE: Move the cyclic forward to adopt the
helicopter in a straight and level attitude __
Review POWER: Lower collective to required power to maintain __
Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes. straight and level flight __
Exercise 6: Straight and Level Flight. TRIM: Apply the necessary pedal to maintain balance __
Motivation
flight
__
When learning to fly helicopters being able to climb with Describe how the level off is performed visually using the __
precision is an integral part of the basic handling of the aircraft. helicopter attitude and the horizon. Once the aircraft is
assessed to be established in straight and level flight the
__
Airmanship / TEM student should then check the airspeed, VSI, Altimeter,
• Lookout compass, power and make the necessary adjustments to the
appropriate control .
• Helicopter limitations
• Control Handover
AIR EXERCISE
Teaching points
Demonstrate descending and level off at various speeds and
Explain using the Power Required Diagram and the POH: the
power settings.
different speeds for optimum climb best rate of climb and best
angle of climb, that are achievable when altering power and Student practice
airspeed. Give examples when and why the different
techniques may be used. TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
Explain the importance of initially adopting straight and level
Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the
attitude, before commencing a climb and performing a lookout,
manoeuvre, especially above the aircraft, - LOOK OUT
including above the aircraft altitude, emphasising the difficulty
and CHECK IN!
in seeing aircraft.
Describe how cyclic is used for airspeed corrections, collective
A mnemonic commonly used for climbing is APT:
for altitude corrections and pedals used to maintain balanced
flight and although the cyclic is used to initiate the climb after
ATTITUDE: Move the cyclic aft to adopt the helicopter
practice the procedure should be a co-ordination exercise
climb attitude for the desired climbing
among all three controls.
POWER: Raise collective to recommended climb power It may be possible to combine Exercises 7, 8 & 9 to make
efficient use of time and airspace
TRIM: Apply the necessary pedal to maintain balanced
flight
Describe how the climb attitude is performed visually using the
helicopter attitude and the horizon.
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS

• On levelling out from the climb, reducing power before

speed increases.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 80

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 7: Climbing:
(A) optimum climb speed, best angle or rate of climb
from power required diagram;
(B) initiation, maintaining the normal and maximum
rate of climb, levelling off;
(C) levelling off at selected altitudes or heights;
(D) use of instruments for precision.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 81

 __
8 __
__
DESCENDING Describe how the descent attitude is performed visually using __
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS
the helicopter attitude and the horizon. Once the aircraft is
assessed to be established in the descent the student should __
Flight guide, Power Limitations & Performance Data
then check the airspeed, VSI, Altimeter, Compass, Power and __
Optimum Descent Speed, Best Rate of Descent, Best
make the necessary adjustments to the appropriate control.
__
Angle of Descent, Carburettor Icing
Explain that before reaching the required altitude that it is
__
Power Required Diagram
necessary to anticipate the 'level off' and the same mnemonic
can be applied: __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION __
Aim
POWER: Raise the collective to the required power
setting for the desired level flight speed __
For the student to learn how to descend at given speeds ATTITUDE: Move the cyclic forward to prevent nose up __
Review
pitch, and select the helicopter attitude for the __
Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes.
desired level flight speed
__
Exercise 6: Straight and Level Flight. TRIM: Apply the necessary pedal to maintain
balanced flight __
Motivation __
When learning to fly helicopters being able to descend with
Describe how the level off is performed visually using the __
precision is an integral part of the basic handling of the aircraft.
helicopter attitude and the horizon. Once the aircraft is
assessed to be established in straight and level flight the __
Airmanship / TEM student should then check the airspeed, VSI, Altimeter,
compass, power and make the necessary adjustments to the
__
• Lookout
appropriate control.
• Carburettor Heat, if applicable
• Helicopter limitations AIR EXERCISE
• Control Handover Demonstrate descending and level off at various speeds and
Teaching points power settings.
Explain using the Power Required Diagram and the POH, the Student practice
optimum descent speed, best rate of descent speed, best
angle of descent, and the different rates of descent (ROD)
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
achievable when altering power and airspeed, giving examples Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the
when and why the different techniques may be used. manoeuvre, especially below the aircraft, - LOOK OUT;
Explain the importance of initially adopting a straight and level ATTITUDE; INSTRUMENTS
attitude, before commencing a descent and performing a Describe how cyclic is used for airspeed corrections, collective
lookout, including below the aircraft altitude, emphasising the for altitude corrections and pedals used to maintain balanced
difficulty in seeing aircraft below the horizon. flight and although the cyclic is used to initiate the descent after
If the helicopter requires the application of carburettor heating practice the procedure should be a co-ordination exercise
emphasise the dangers of carburettor icing when reducing among all three controls.
power to descend. If the helicopter is equipped with a carburettor - explain the
A mnemonic commonly used for descending is PAT: formation and dangers of carburettor icing, and explain the
carburettor heating system and its operation.
POWER: Lower the collective to the required power It may be possible to combine Exercises 7, 8 & 9 to make
setting for the descent efficient use of time and airspace
ATTITUDE: Move the cyclic aft to prevent nose down
pitch, and select the helicopter attitude for the
desired descent speed Common
COMMON ERRORS
Errors

TRIM: Apply the necessary pedal to maintain

balanced flight
• Failure to maintain attitude caused by chasing the aircraft
instruments.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 82

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 8: Descending:
(A) optimum descent speed, best angle or rate of
descent from power required diagram;
(B) initiation, maintaining and levelling off;
(C) levelling off at selected altitudes or heights;
(D) descent (including effect of power and air speed);
(E) use of instruments for precision.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 83

 __
9 __
__
TURNING __
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
POH Optimum Angle of Bank, for Rate 1 & Medium Turns Climbing and Descending Turns __
Describe how to perform turning in the climb and in the __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION descent as follows: __
Aim Perform a lookout, including above, and then initiate a __
For the student to learn how to turn the helicopter on a new
climb. Once the climb has been established use lateral
cyclic to turn, noting the reduced rate of climb during the __
heading in level flight and whilst climbing and descending.
turn and control/correct with collective application. Note __
Review that returning to level attitude during the climb will
restore the original rate of climb.
__
Exercise 6: Straight and Level Flight
Perform a Lookout, including below, and then initiate a __
Exercise 7: Climbing
descent. Once the descent has been established use __
Exercise 8: Descending
lateral cyclic to turn. Note the increased rate of descent
__
Motivation during the turn and control with collective application.
Note that returning to level attitude during the descent __
When learning to fly helicopters it is necessary to be able to alter
the direction of the helicopter in a controlled and accurate
will restore the original rate of descent. __
manner. __
Airmanship / TEM
AIR EXERCISE
Demonstrate medium level turns left and right on to
__
• Lookout nominated headings using the gyro heading indicator and
• Helicopter limitations compass.
• Control Handover Student practice
Teaching points Demonstrate medium climbing and descending turns left
Level Medium Turns and right on to nominated headings using the gyro heading
indicator and compass.
Explain that before any turn is attempted it is necessary to Student practice
perform an effective lookout, especially in the direction of
Demonstrate medium level turns left and right on to
turn.
nominated headings using the gyro heading indicator and
Describe how lateral cyclic is used to roll to the desired angle compass.
of bank, noting that the cyclic is affected by rate of
Student practice
displacement so should be a smooth controlled movement.
The bank angle should be selected by reference to the
horizon.
Explain once in the turn the ASI, VSI, Altimeter, Power,
balance all should be checked and the student should return
to looking outside and referencing the horizon and bank
angle. Describe how cyclic is used for airspeed corrections,
collective for altitude corrections and pedals used to maintain
balanced flight and how it will be necessary to repeat the
check during the turn.
Explain that the student should anticipate when the new
desired direction is reached and begin to roll level before the
direction is obtained. To roll level use lateral cyclic to place Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
the helicopter in a level attitude. Once level, the instruments
should be checked for precision and necessary adjustments
made for straight and level flight. • When turning, using the pedals to assist in the turn, causing
out of trim flight.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 84

__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the

__ manoeuvre, especially in the direction of turn and above and

below when descending and climbing.
__ It should be noted that in a helicopter with side-by-side seat
__ configuration, there may be an offset seating visual error. This is

__ due to the fact that the helicopter is turning through the

longitudinal axis, from which the student position is offset. This
__ can lead to incorrect fore and aft attitude selection and should
__ be corrected in the turn. It is important that turns be practised in

__ both directions to show the different visual references in the

helicopter.
__
__ It is usual for the student to spend too much time looking in at

__ the instruments during the turn/climb/descent and over control

the helicopter, especially with instruments that lag. An
__ effective scan and lookout should be used to climb/descend

__ accurately. Because of the need for safety and accuracy the

student should be taught how to LOOK OUT and CHECK IN!
__ Students also have a tendency to assist the turn using the
__ pedals, (especially fixed wing pilots). This needs to be
__ monitored and corrected if it occurs.

__ Once the student is comfortable with the basic handling during

a turn the instructor can introduce turning on to headings using
the Compass and demonstrate the changes of compass when
rolling level on to a Magnetic Heading of North and South. The
student can also learn how to turn on to heading using the
Directional Gyro, and emphasise the need to check the
Directional Gyro before turning, and Gyroscopic Errors.
However the Directional Gyro removes the Compass turning
errors.
Note that any errors should be correctly identified before any
corrections made (e.g. it is possible for the student to note a
rate of climb and adjust the collective, when the rate of climb
was caused by the helicopter attitude. Therefore requiring a
cyclic correction).
Explain that the student should anticipate when the new
desired direction is reached and begin to roll level before the
direction is obtained. To roll level use lateral cyclic to place the
helicopter in a level attitude. Once level, the instruments should
be checked for precision and if necessary adjustments made
for straight and level flight. LESSON CHECKLIST
It may be possible to combine Exercises 7, 8 & 9 to make
efficient use of time and airspace Exercise 9: Turning:
(A) initiation and maintaining medium level turns;
(B) resuming straight flight;
(C) altitude, bank and co-ordination;
(D) climbing and descending turns and effect on rate
of climb or descent;
(E) turns onto selected headings, use of gyro heading
indicator and compass;

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 85

 __
10 __
__
BASIC AUTOROTATION __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
• H. V. Diagram Teaching Points __
• Flight Manual Explain that the helicopter is fully manoeuvrable in autorotation. __
• Aerodynamics of Autorotations State the manufacturer’s Indicated Airspeed and RPM for __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
minimum rate of descent in autorotation.
__
Aim
Describe the entry, as follows:
__
For the student to learn autorotation At a safe altitude, straight and level cruise, into wind, over a __
(A) safety checks, verbal warning and look-out;
suitable area, complete airmanship checks.
__
(B) entry, development and characteristics;
Lower collective.
__
(C) control of air speed and RRPM, rotor and engine
Use throttle to prevent overspeed, as appropriate to type.
__
limitations; When collective is fully down, split needles and select
recommended engine RPM. __
(D) effect of AUM, IAS, disc loading, G forces and density
altitude; Prevent yaw. __
re-engagement and go-around procedures (throttle __
over-ride or ERPM control);
Explain that:
Heading and airspeed are controlled with cyclic, as in
__
danger of vortex condition during recovery;
(F) powered flight.
gentle and medium turns in autorotation techniques;
(G) Changes in speed will cause the RRPM to increase and
demonstration of variable flare simulated engine off decrease.
(H)
landing.
RPM is controlled by collective.

Review Point out that turns in autorotation increase the rate of descent
Climbs, descents and turns and RPM.

Motivation
In powered flight the rotor drag is overcome by engine power
but when the engine fails or is deliberately disengaged some
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
other means is required to maintain the RPM. This is achieved
by allowing the helicopter to descend and lowering the
collective lever so that the resultant airflow provides the driving • Allowing the nose to drop during entry.
force to turn the blades. • Allowing aircraft to yaw during entry and re engagement.
Airmanship / TEM • Over controlling on cyclic on entry.
Pre-entry checks, to include: • Closing throttle before collective lever is fully down.

Pre-landing check. • Over speeding the engine by not closing the throttle as
collective lever is lowered.
Lookout, particularly below in the descent and above in the
go-around. • Harsh re-engagement with a tendency to over pitch on go-
around with low RPM.
Select suitable precautionary landing area.
• Rapid throttle engagement and raising collective lever on
Verbal warning. go-around causing Overspeed.
Post-entry checks as appropriate to type. Ensuring safe airspeed, before initiating go-around, to
•
Aircraft performance limitations, specifically RPM. prevent Vortex Ring state.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 86

__
__ Describe the go-around as follows:

__ At a safe altitude, rejoin the needles, using the throttle as

appropriate to type.
__ Apply climb power.
__ Select or maintain climb airspeed.
__
__ Explain that whereas the reaction has to be quick in the event of
an actual engine failure, the accent during this introduction will
__ be on smoothness and accuracy.

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 10: Basic autorotation:

(A) safety checks, verbal warning and look-out;
(B) entry, development and characteristics;
(C) control of air speed and RRPM, rotor and engine
limitations;
(D) effect of AUM, IAS, disc loading, G forces and
density altitude;
(E) re-engagement and go-around procedures (throttle
over-ride or ERPM control);
(F) vortex condition during recovery;
(G) gentle and medium turns in autorotation;
(H) demonstration of variable flare simulated engine
off landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 87

 __
11a __
__
HOVERING __
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Ground Effect Regaining the hover from movement in any direction __
Tail Rotor Drift/Roll requires two attitude changes: one to stop the movement, __
Flight guide performance charts:
and a second to stabilise the helicopter.
__
• Hover in-ground effect
All cyclic movements should be small. Cyclic trim should be
employed, if applicable. __
• Hover out-of-ground effect
Collective
__
• HV Graph - Risks Associated
Point out the following: __
• Over-pitching- Rotor Stall
The collective controls the height above ground. __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION Changes in collective pitch will produce yaw and RPM __
Aim changes unless prevented. __
For the student to learn how to hover IGE. Throttle __
Review Where appropriate to type, describe the use of the throttle __
Exercise 4 - Effects of Controls
to maintain RPM. __
Motivation
When an in-flight low RPM condition exists, explain that if __
It is essential to helicopter operations to be able to hover a
the condition is allowed to deteriorate to a dangerously low
RPM, Rotor Stall can occur with severe or fatal __
helicopter holding a given position relative to the ground, consequences. Explain that immediately the throttle must
maintaining a constant height and heading as a prerequisite be increased and simultaneously the collective lowered, as
to a safe landing. appropriate, to recover from the low RPM condition.
Airmanship / TEM Emphasize the importance of avoidance and early
recognition (via: engine noise, warning horn or light) of a low
• Lookout RPM condition.
• Engine limitations
Pedals
• Wind speed and direction
Point out that the pedals control heading.
• Downwash
Describe the effects of pedal control movements on
• Tail rotor clearance heading and RPM.

Teaching Points Describe the visual cues used to maintain the hover, and
stress the importance of looking well ahead of the
The hover helicopter.
Define hovering as maintaining a constant height and
heading over a given ground position.
State the hover height, as appropriate to type.
Explain that facing into the wind results in the helicopter
being easier to control and uses less power.

Explain the effects of controls at the hover. Common

COMMON ERRORS
Errors
Cyclic
Point out the following: • Tenseness on the controls, particularly the pedals.
The cyclic controls the disc attitude which in turn controls
the helicopter’s position over the ground. A change of disc
attitude is followed by a change in fuselage attitude. This
results in the helicopter moving over the ground. In some
types of helicopter there is an appreciable lag in this chain of
events.
HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 88
__
__ AIR EXERCISE
__ Demonstrate the use of the cyclic at the hover into wind.

__ Student practice with the cyclic only, until a hover can be

__ maintained without excessive effort.

__ Demonstrate the use of the collective.

__ Student practice.

__ Demonstrate the use of the pedals.

Student practice.
__ Student practice using all controls.
__ Demonstrate the differences in power required to hover in and
__ out of the wind, with the ground effect, and over different types
__ of surface (e.g. tarmac, long grass).

__ Demonstrate gentle forward running touchdown.

__ Demonstrate down wash and explain specific hazards for

example snow, dust and litter.
__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__
__ This exercise demands a high degree of coordination and
should not be taught until the student has acquired a
__ reasonable state of competence in Exercises 1 to 6. Introducing
it earlier than this could lead to frustration and undue fatigue for
both student and instructor.
An alternative technique is to use slow flight to introduce
hovering. This procedure takes the form of low, slow flight into
the wind across a suitable clear area. Speed and height are
progressively reduced in successive passes until the helicopter
is creeping forward at a walking pace in ground effect and is
then momentarily halted before transitioning into forward flight
again. These momentary pauses are in fact periods of hovering,
however brief, and are gradually extended as competency
improves, until prolonged periods of hovering are achieved.
This procedure is outlined in Exercise 13.
Whichever technique for teaching the hover is used, the
LESSON CHECKLIST
student will generally tend to tire quickly. Air exercises should
Exercise 11a: Hovering:
be kept short and terminated as soon as the first signs of fatigue
appear. (A) demonstrate hover IGE, importance of wind effect
and attitude, ground cushion, stability in the hover
Initially the student may not be able to use more than one
and effects of over controlling;
control at a time, and it may even be necessary to limit the travel
(B) student holding cyclic stick only;
of that control.
(C) student handling collective lever (and throttle)
Allow frequent rest periods to enable the student to relax, and only;
try to practise other exercises or perform other demonstrations (D) student handling collective lever, (throttle) and
to give the student a break from hovering. pedals;
Keep a close watch on the temperatures, pressures and wind (E) student handling all controls;
velocity during prolonged hovering. (F) demonstration of ground effect;
(G) demonstration of wind effect;
(H) demonstrate gentle forward running touchdown;
(I) specific hazards for example snow, dust and litter.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 89

 __
11b __
__
HOVER TAXIING AND SPOT TURNS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Flight guide: Performance charts No turns or any movements from the hover should be __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
initiated until the helicopter is settled in an accurate hover at
the required RPM and power setting. __
Aim The continuous use of high power in this exercise means __
For the student to learn how to: that a careful watch should be kept on engine temperatures __
• turn at the hover
and pressures. Prolonged hovering out of the wind should
__
• hover-taxi.
be avoided on some types of helicopter because of the
dangers from carbon monoxide in the cockpit. __
• perform a gentle forward running landing. In some helicopters at certain C of G configurations (i.e. high __
• maintaining height and heading.
cabin loading) it is possible to reach the aft cyclic limits
__
Review
when hovering downwind. Warn the student of this
possibility and describe the safe recovery actions when: __
Exercise 11a: Hovering __
Motivation
• turning into the wind
__
Manoeuvring close to the ground and obstacles is necessary to
• landing straight ahead
__
position the helicopter on the airfield ready to transition and to
return to the parking area after landing. It is also necessary to
• Hover-taxiing
State the height and ground speed to be used, and relate
__
complete a lookout turn before take off and moving off in any them to the safety considerations.
direction. Describe the effects of the controls.
Airmanship / TEM Describe technique for gentle forward running landing.

• Lookout: obstacles
AIR EXERCISE
• Helicopter limitations Hovering turns
Teaching Points Demonstrate 360° hovering turns in each direction,
Turn at the hover commencing into the wind and pausing at each 90° point.
Describe the techniques for making hovering turns, and Student practice
stress the following points:
Hover-taxi
The effects of weathercocking must be taken into Demonstrate hover-taxiing into the wind.
account.
Student practice
There can be problems with yaw control and a need for
increased power when the helicopter is downwind, or Demonstrate hover-taxiing out of the wind.
crosswind, in strong wind conditions. Student practice
Lookout is important during all hovering manoeuvres and, Running Landing
in particular, for low obstacles that are hard to see and
that can snag the landing gear or tail rotor. Demonstrate gentle running landing.
Student practice.
In strong or gusty wind conditions, a turn away from into the
wind should be in the opposite direction to the torque
reaction (i.e. to the left in a helicopter with a counter-clock
turning rotor). In this way it is possible to ensure that there is
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
sufficient tail rotor control available. If control limits are
reached at this stage, a safe return to into-wind is easily
• Inability to recognise attitude changes until the aircraft
accomplished.
moves.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 90

__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ Dual instruction in this exercise should be carried out in a wide

__ range of wind conditions. This will prevent the situation arising

where the dual instruction is given on a calm day and the
__ student meets the problems of strong winds when solo on
__ another.

__ Pausing at each cardinal point enables the instructor to point out

the different cyclic positions into the wind. When the student is
__ competent, complete the 360° turn without pause.
__ Whenever possible, when hover-taxiing, keep the skids parallel
__ to the helicopter movement in case of engine failure or the

__ need to run the helicopter on to the ground in an aft C of G

condition.
__ Turns around the tail are covered separately in Exercise 17.
__ Sometimes the student will use cyclic instead of pedal to help
__ turn the helicopter, particularly in strong winds. This should be

__ avoided.

__ When the student is proficient at the basics, introduce some

hover patterns requiring taxiing and pedal turns.
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 11b: Hover taxiing and spot turns:

(A) revise hovering;
(B) precise ground speed and height control;
(C) effect of wind direction on helicopter attitude and
control margin;
(D) control and co-ordination during spot turns;
(E) carefully introduce gentle forward running
touchdown.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 91

 __
11c __
__
HOVERING AND TAXIING EMERGENCIES __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS AIR EXERCISE __
Flight guide: Height velocity chart, overpitching, emergency Engine failure in the hover __
procedures. Demonstrate into wind as follows:
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION Give a verbal warning.
__
Aim Close the throttle.
__
For the student to learn how to land safely following an engine Counteract yaw and drift.
__
failure/hydraulic failure (where appropriate) at the hover or
hover-taxi and recognise over-pitching in order to take the
Cushion the landing.
__
corrective action.
Student practice
__
Review
Engine failure at the hover taxi
__
Exercise 11a & 11b: Hovering/Hover taxi and spot turns
Demonstrate into the wind.
__
Exercise 12: Take-off and landing (when covered) Student practice.
__
Motivation Hydraulic failure in the hover/hover taxi __
Malfunctions, whilst very rare can happen in the hover/hover Demonstrate into wind as follows: __
taxi and because of the proximity to the ground, swift corrective
action is required to minimise damage.
Give verbal warning
Turn off hydraulics
__
Airmanship / TEM
Carry out landing in accordance with flight guide

• Selection of a suitable area for practice Student practice as appropriate

• Wind speed and direction Over-pitching
Teaching Points
Use technique as appropriate to aircraft type
Point out that at normal hover or hover-taxi heights, it will not be
Student practice.
possible for the pilot to enter autorotation. In fact, lowering the
collective following an engine failure will result in a heavy
landing. This manoeuvre should not be considered an
autorotation; the pilot relies on the inertia in the rotor system to
land safely.
Describe the reaction of the helicopter when the engine fails:
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
• yaw
• drift
• Failure to distinguish between drift and yaw.
• sink.
• Visual reference on the ground immediately in front of the
Explain that the yaw and drift must be corrected before aircraft.
touchdown. Sink should be controlled by use of the collective,
• Yawing out of wind.
as appropriate to the type of helicopter and the height above
ground, to cushion the landing. • Over controlling of the controls causing Pilot Induced
Oscillations.
Explain that should engine failure occur at the hover-taxi, the
pilot should avoid any rearward movement of the cyclic and • Never allow the student to remove hands from controls in
accept a run-on landing. the hover without positive change over of control.
• The Student will, initially, find hovering extremely fatiguing
and will need regular rest to prevent loss in ability.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 92

__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ This exercise should be introduced by providing the student

__ with plenty of warning before each practice. The manoeuvre

can then be speeded-up to flight test standards where the
__ student is given minimal warning of the practice engine failure.
__ Closing the throttle and cushioning the landing with the
__ collective takes a good deal of guide dexterity in most
helicopters. Since the aim of this exercise is for students to
__ react to an engine failure, there is little point in their learning
__ throttle control. In other words, the instructor should control the

__ throttle.

__ Tail-rotor failure at the hover or hover-taxi, which does require

coordinated use of the throttle and collective by the student,
__ should be practised at a later stage in training.

__ Always ensure that the surface is suitable for this exercise,

__ This is a good exercise to demonstrate to the student the

__ landing stage of an autorotation. It is a good skill to practise just

before starting a full-on autorotation exercise.
__ Exercise caution, as the student may react to the simulated
__ engine failure by rapidly lowering the collective. Be sure to give

__ a verbal warning before closing the throttle.

__ Over-pitching can best be demonstrated at maximum all up

mass.
Hydraulic failures/de-selection at low speeds can result in
strong and rapid feedback forces especially in helicopters
without hydraulic accumulators. Often the hydraulic switch is
located only on the pilot’s side and therefore consideration
needs to be given as to how the instructor covers the controls
while the hydraulics are de-selected.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 11c: Hovering and taxiing emergencies:

(A) revise hovering and gentle forward running
touchdown, explain (demonstrate where applicable)
effect of hydraulics failure in the hover;
(B) demonstrate simulated engine failure in the hover
and hover taxi;
(C) demonstrate dangers of mishandling and over-
pitching.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 93

 __
12 __
__
TAKE-OFF AND LANDING __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS • Knowledge of the preconditions of over-pitchingand __
Dynamic rollover low RPM
__
Ground resonance • Recognition of the symptoms for low RPM
__
Flight guide: checks
• Skill in applying the appropriate recovery technique
__
Over- pitching - Rotor Stall
Describe the symptoms of incipient dynamic rollover, avoidance
and recovery action: __
PREPARATORY • Landing __
Describe the procedure for landing from the hover into wind, as __
Aim appropriate to type and including:
__
For the student to learn how to take off to, and land from, the
hover into wind, cross wind and down wind.
the need to start the manoeuvre from a stable and accurate
hover __
Review the effects of controls during landing from the hover: __
Exercise 11a Hovering • use the cyclic to maintain position. Stress the need to __
Exercise 11b Hover Taxiing and Spot Turns
avoid sideways or rearwards drift. __
Exercise 11c Hovering and Taxiing Emergencies
• use the collective to control the rate of descent __
Motivation
• use the pedals to prevent yaw.
Point out the need to anticipate the increase in ground effect
__
Full and accurate control of the helicopter in the take-off and
during a landing in light or nil wind conditions.
landing phase is vital to flight safety.
Point out the need to anticipate ground resonance, if applicable
Airmanship / TEM
to type.
• Lookout
• Engine consideration
• Pre-takeoff /after take off/pre-landing checks
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
• Wind speed and direction
Teaching Points LANDING:

Take-off • Over controlling on cyclic and collective lever during latter

stages of descent.
Describe the procedures for take-off to the hover into wind,
as appropriate to type, and including: • Failure to appreciate attitude changes, looking downwards.
pre-take-off checks • Pulling back or pushing forward on cyclic after touchdown.
effects of controls during take-off: • Failure to lower collective lever fully after touchdown.
cyclic to maintain position over the ground • Attempting to land with an unstable hover.
collective to gain height TAKE-OFF:
pedals to prevent yaw. • Failure to appreciate attitude changes and the need for
Hover check as appropriate to type, but including: corrections.

centre-of-gravity check • Slowness in correcting yaw.

power required to hover • Incorrect use of the collective lever and throttle resulting in
a rapid climb out of the ground cushion, over speeding and
control response normal.
over pitching.
Point out the dangers of over-pitching- leading to low Rotor
• Failure to ensure correct control position before initiating
RPM and Rotor Stall. As appropriate to the type, describe the
take-off.
avoidance and recovery actions, including:

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 94

__
__ AIR EXERCISE
__ Demonstrate the take-off to the hover into wind.

__ Demonstrate hover into wind check.

__ Student practice

__ Demonstrate landing from the hover into wind.

__ Demonstrate take off and landings cross wind and down wind

__ Student practice

__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

__
__ Do not teach this exercise unless the student can consistently
maintain a steady hover.
__ It is essential that horizontal and yawing movements are
__ corrected before a landing is made. Should movement in either

__ plane exist whilst descending to land the student should be

made to immediately abandon the landing and return to hover by
__ raising the collective smoothly enough to return to safe hover
__ height. Once in the hover a conscious effort to relax the student

__ should be made before a further attempt.

Ensure students keep looking at their reference points in front of
__ the helicopter and not down at the ground.
__ Monitor the collective closely on the initial attempts to land so as
to guard against sudden and excessive movements. Ensure
once landing is achieved, the collective is smoothly lowered full-
down.
It is generally an advantage to strive for smoothness and
accuracy before speed during these manoeuvres.
Student technique should nonetheless be developed to the
point where contact with the ground is made and broken cleanly,
particularly in helicopters prone to ground resonance.
When the student is working smoothly and accurately, introduce
lifting from the ‘skids light’ condition to a low hover before going
to normal hover height to preclude dynamic rollover.
Be aware that, when getting close to the surface, some
students try to ‘feel’ the ground by rocking the cyclic laterally.
As with hovering, this exercise is very tiring; break it up by
practising other exercises when necessary. LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 12: Take-off and landing:

(A) pre-take-off checks or drills;
(B) look-out;
(C) lifting to hover;
(D) after take-off checks;
(E) danger of horizontal movement near ground;
(F) danger of mishandling and overpitching;
(G) landing (without sideways or backwards
movement);
(H) after landing checks or drills;
(I) take-off and landing crosswind and downwind.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 95

 __
13 __
__
TRANSITIONS FROM HOVER TO CLIMB __
AND APPROACH TO HOVER __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Note: Transitions can be taught in conjunction with the lesson Complete pre-take off checks __
on circuits unless a student displays problems with the Establish a steady hover into wind __
concepts associated with the transition.
Complete after take off checks __
Ground effect
Establish a steady hover into wind. __
Translational lift
Make a lookout turn and check that the area is clear. __
Dissymmetry of lift and flap back
Select an outside reference to help in directional control, __
Tail rotor drift and ease the cyclic forward slightly to initiate movement.
__
Vortex ring
Flight guide:
Apply lateral cyclic to overcome inflow roll effect.
__
At the same time, if required, adjust power sufficiently to
maintain height as ground effect is lost and translational __
Height velocity chart
lift is acquired. __
Climb and descent power Apply enough forward cyclic to overcome flap-back. __
Airspeed settings Select the climb attitude and power. __
PREPARATION INSTRUCTION Prevent yaw throughout and adjust the attitude as
required to maintain the climb attitude.
Aim
The aim is for the student to learn how to:
Transition from forward flight to the hover (standard
• conduct a look out turn approach)
• transition from the hover to the climb Explain that the transition to the hover involves two
separate requirements that have to be combined into one
• transition to the hover from the descent
coordinated manoeuvre:
• demonstrate a variable flare simulated engine off landing.
Height reduction
Height must be reduced from the approach altitude to the
Review hover height above ground. Explain the constant angle
Straight and level flight, climbs and descents, hovering and approach, describing the visual indications.
autorotations.
Motivation
The term transition covers all flight to and from the hover. The
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
constant angle approach is particularly important as it is used in
circuits and future advanced exercises.
• Failure to correct yaw with power changes.
Airmanship / TEM
• Applying too much power during transition to climb, over
• Lookout including the lookout turn pitching.

• Wind velocity • Failure to anticipate loss of Translational Lift when

approaching hover.
• Checks
• Incorrect judgement of apparent groundspeed and closing
Teaching Points angle.
Transition to the climb Incorrect use of cyclic and collective lever during approach
•
Describe the transition from the hover to the climb as to hover.
follows:

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 96

 __
Speed reduction: Speed must be progressively reduced TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS __
from the approach airspeed to a zero groundspeed at the
hover. Varying approach angles and/or wind conditions will The concept of making an approach at a constant angle and at a __
cause the airspeed to vary a great deal from one approach to progressively decreasing ground speed can be a difficult one
__
another. It is vital, therefore, that the student learns to refer
to groundspeed only.
for the student pilot to grasp. The use of perspective diagrams
in pre-flight briefing is essential. __
The instructor should be prepared for the fact that, in the early __
Describe the procedure as follows:
stages, the student will almost certainly fail to anticipate the __
Approach the landing spot into the wind at a specific altitude
and airspeed.
amount of power required when translational lift is lost coming
to the hover. This will often lead to undershooting. __
Select a constant approach angle (sight picture). Another problem resulting from this is underestimation of the __
Initiate the approach by reducing power and commencing a pedal requirements. Explain that the greater the power required __
progressive decrease in airspeed. to establish the hover, the greater the pedal movement
required to keep the helicopter straight, and this can be __
Maintain the constant approach angle with the collective.
corrected only by using an outside reference. __
Establish the constant ground/closing speed (a fast walking
Emphasise the need to assess the approach in relation to the __
pace), and maintain it with the cyclic.
Anticipate the loss of translational lift.
groundspeed and sight picture. This can be accomplished only
__
Establish a hover over the selected spot.
by looking outside the helicopter, with an occasional cross-
check of the instruments. __
Prevent yaw or sideways drift. Ensure that the pedals are used to make the helicopter move __
straight with the direction of travel when close to the ground.
__
Describe the go-around (missed approach) procedures as Students should be encouraged to go-around if the rate of
__
appropriate to type and local conditions.
Explain that wind velocity will significantly affect helicopter
descent is high and the airspeed is low.
__
performance and handling characteristics, as appropriate to
type.

AIR EXERCISE
Demonstrate inflow roll, flap-back and a transition from the
hover to the climb.
Student practice
Demonstrate a transition to the hover, showing the visual cues
of overshooting/undershooting the constant angle approach
and the actions required to re-establish the constant approach
angle and the correct rate of closure.
Student practice
Demonstrate the go-around procedures.
Student practice LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 13: Transitions from hover to climb and approach

to hover:
(A) look-out;
(B) revise take-off and landing;
(C) ground effect, translational lift and its effects;
(D) flapback and its effects;
(E) effect of wind speed and direction during transitions
from or to the hover;
(F) the constant angle approach;
(G) demonstration of variable flare simulated engine off
landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 98

 __
14a __
__
CIRCUIT, APPROACH AND LANDING __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS AIR EXERCISE
__
Local aerodrome procedures. Demonstrate a circuit. __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION Student practice __
Aim When circumstances permit, demonstrate: __
For the student to learn how to fly an accurate circuit circuit spacing: speed and circuit size variations, and __
Review acceptance and/or compliance with Air Traffic Service __
All previous exercises as required.
instructions and clearances.
__
Motivation
Student practice
__
Circuits remain an excellent way of consolidating all the previous
When a reasonable standard has been reached in normal circuits;
__
air exercises in one convenient sequence. describe the application of Exercise 14c (Emergency
Procedures) to the various segments of the circuit, as
__
Airmanship / TEM
applicable to type and local conditions; and __
Circuit patterns are used at aerodromes and field sites to ensure a
safe separation of aircraft operating at an aerodrome and as an Demonstrate go rounds __
exercise circuits remain an excellent way of consolidating all the Student practice __
previous air exercises in one convenient sequence.
Demonstrate emergencies in the circuit. __
• Lookout Student practice
• Checks
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTOR
• RT procedures
This exercise should be introduced when a reasonable level of
• Wind velocity competence at transitions and the preceding exercises has
• Spacial awareness and spacing with other traffic been reached. Otherwise the result will be time-wasting and
hard on the student’s morale.
• Local noise abatement procedures
When flying in the circuit encourage the student to strive for
Teaching Points perfection, but not to the detriment of look-out by concentrating
too much on the instruments.
With the aid of suitable visual aids, describe the circuit pattern to
be used, specifying directions, speeds, distances, heights, etc. Impress upon your student to ‘go around’ rather than trying to
make a good approach from a poor one.
Where applicable, explain the use of the radio and the
significance of Air Traffic Service instructions and clearances. Correct any persistent errors, but by this stage, students should
be self critical enough to recognise and remedy most faults
Where applicable, describe local procedures for joining and
themselves.
leaving the circuit including noise abatement considerations.

Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS

• Failure to look out in turns.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 100

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 14a: Circuit, approach and landing:

(A) revise transitions from hover to climb and approach
to hover;
(B) circuit procedures, downwind and base leg;
(C) approach and landing with power;
(D) pre-landing checks;
(E) effect of wind on approach and IGE hover;
(F) crosswind approach and landing;
(G) go-around;
(H) noise abatement procedures.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 101

 __
14b __
__
STEEP AND LIMITED POWER APPROACHES __
AND LANDINGS __
__
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS
__
__
Flight guide: Describe the technique for carrying out a zero
speedlanding, as follows: __
Limitations
Approach the selected landing spot as required.
__
Load and density altitude performance charts
When the approach is almost completed, and __
Vortex ring
groundspeed is close to zero, anticipate loss of __
Over-pitching - Rotor Stall translational lift by applying sufficient power to minimise
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
the rate of descent.
__
Aim
Let the helicopter sink gently through the cushion on to
the ground. __
For the student to learn additional approach and landing __
techniques for use under varying conditions
Point out that this type of landing requires recce prior
confirmation that the selected spot is suitable for landing. __
Review
Running landing __
Exercise 12: Take-off and Landing
Explain that this type of landing can be used in similar
Exercise 13: Transitions from Hover to Climb and Approach to conditions as the zero speed landing. Although it is easier to
Hover maintain directional stability and requires less power to
Motivation perform because translation lift is maintained until landing
on a large, flat, smooth surface such as a runway is
Although the techniques learned in Exercises 7 and 11 are
essential.
those that should continue to be used under optimum
conditions, situations such as high all-up weight, high density Describe the technique for carrying out a running landing, as
altitude, unfavourable wind conditions, limited power or
obstacles close to the flight path may dictate the use of Approach the selected landing area as required.
advanced techniques. As the approach is completed, run on at slow walking
pace.

• Lookout: obstacles Apply sufficient power to cushion the landing.

• Helicopter limitations After landing, maintain the cyclic and collective positions
until forward movement stops.
• Checks
Approaches
• Wind Velocity
Explain that in operational conditions it is sometimes
• Vortex Ring
necessary to approach to land at an angle other than
• Ground Effect standard, as follows:
Teaching Points
Zero speed landing

Explain that this type of landing is useful in conditions where

it is not desirable to approach or hover, such as in dust, Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
powdery snow or turbulence. It requires less power than a
normal approach to a hover.
• Failure to anticipate height to level off.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 102

__
__ Steep approach TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ This approach is for avoiding obstacles on the final approach
path. Point out that airspeed will be lower than normal and
Introduce these techniques in a flat, clear training area ideally.

__ that more power will be required.

This exercise should be flown in light wind conditions.

__ Always prepare for a zero speed landing.

Limited power situations can be achieved by loading the
helicopter or by limiting the amount of power the student is
__ Stress the need to maintain reasonable airspeed for as long allowed to use, as appropriate to type.
__ as possible owing to the danger of a vortex ring state
occurring or of insufficient power to prevent a high sink rate
Zero speed landings can, and should, be practised from any
__ and a hard landing.
type of approach.

__ Shallow approach
Point out the similarities of the running landing to an engine
failure in the hover with regard to groundspeed and pedal
__ Explain to the student that a shallow approach requires less control.
__ power than a standard or steep approach. It should be Initially, when you are demonstrating steep approaches use
__ employed when the approach path is free from obstacles an open area, preferably with a line of trees or bushes over

__ and where conditions limit the power available, or where

maximum power is available but inadequate for the use of
which you can shoot the approach. Ensure that the student can
see the intended landing spot over the trees.
__ standard techniques.

__ Stress that care should be taken to avoid making the

__ approach angle too shallow, i.e. flat. This requires more

power and can lead to problems in decelerating to a hover
__ because of the possibility of the tail striking the ground.

__
__ AIR EXERCISE
Review the standard approach to the hover into wind pointing
out changes in power required due to ground effect in the latter
stages. Note and compare the power required, after
demonstrating with the following techniques:
standard approach to a zero speed landing
standard approach to a run-on landing
steep approach to a zero speed landing
shallow approach to the hover
shallow approach to a zero speed landing.
Student practice
Demonstrate a flat approach (i.e. too shallow) and point out the
difference in power required.
Demonstrate a variable flare simulated EOL.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 14b: Steep and limited power approaches and

landings:
(A) revise the constant angle approach;
(B) the steep approach (explain danger of high sink rate
and low air speed)
(C) limited power approach (explain danger of high
speed at touch down);
(D) use of the ground effect;
(E) variable flare simulated engine off landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 103

 __
14c __
__
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES __
Missed Approach and Go Around __
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS
The student will have had demonstrated the go-around __
Flight guide technique in Exercise 14a. However, it is important that the
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
student should be able to recognise the necessity for, and
procedure to be used for a missed approach, go around, and __
Aim climb back into the circuit, without prompting and un- __
For the student to learn how to conduct:
assisted. The Instructor should ensure that the student is
monitoring the rate of descent, speed and power available __
• an abandoned take-off; throughout the descent in order to identify a possible __
• a missed approach and go-around;
• a hydraulic off landing (if applicable);
requirement for a go around at all stages of the approach.
Student practice of a go around with a Vy climb back into
__
• a tail rotor control or tail rotor drive failure (briefing only) the circuit including the completion of the appropriate __
• simulated emergencies in the circuit to include: checks and radio calls, should be undertaken prior to solo
__
(a) hydraulics failure;
Simulated Emergencies in the Circuit / Hydraulic Landing __
(b) simulated engine failure on take-off, crosswind,
downwind and base leg; If safe to do, the hydraulic failure demonstration should take __
(c) governor failure.
place initially in flight at altitude, demonstrating how to
__
Review
recover the aircraft to an appropriate safe flight condition
before conducting the relevant flight guide procedures. __
Exercise 10; Basic Autorotation This can then be progressed to conduct the approach and
appropriate landing technique in accordance with the flight
__
Exercise11c; Hovering and Taxiing Emergencies
guide recommendations.
Exercise13; Transitions from Hover to Climb and Approach to
Hover Simulated Engine Failure on crosswind, downwind, base and
finals
Exercise14a; Circuit approach and Landing
The techniques taught in Exercise 10 Basic Autorotation,
Motivation
should now be developed to demonstrate how to conduct
The ability to detect and manage a malfunction or emergency simulated engine failures during the various stages of the
safely is essential before the student is permitted to conduct circuit. It would be appropriate to also introduce the
his first solo flight. students to elements of practice forced landings from Ex
21. The student should also have had demonstrated and
Airmanship / TEM practised basic EOLs from Ex 19 prior to going solo. During
• Lookout the practice circuits the landing sites to be used in the case
• Wind W/V of an engine failure should be identified and PFLs practised
• ATC calls to those sites.

• Vortex Ring
• Checks Common
COMMON ERRORS
• Touch drills
Errors

Teaching Points
• Incorrect technique when levelling off from climb.
Abandoned Take Off
• Failure to appreciate drift when across wind.
The importance of conducting after take-off checks before
• Failure to select the correct approach angle and failing to
transitioning from the hover should be stressed including
commence the descent immediately the correct approach
the necessity to immediately land back on the ground if an
angle is reached.
abnormality is detected.
• Excessive rates of descent with low airspeed.
During the transition from the hover, if a malfunction or
emergency is detected, then if safe to do so, the climb • Undershooting the landing point.
should be stopped and a controlled descent, back to the Incorrect hover height.
ground, into wind should be conducted. During practice/ •
demonstrations possible precautionary/emergency landing Harsh use of controls and poor control.
•
sites should be identified on the climb out path.
HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 104
__
__ Governor Failure When training the student for aircraft malfunctions it is

__ As appropriate to the aircraft type the student would in important to initially build confidence by demonstrating careful,
safe de-selection of the appropriate systems to show the
__ Exercise 4 have had demonstrated the effects of the
governor. If safe to do, the governor failure demonstration relevant indications, handling effects and how to rectify/

__ should take place initially in flight at altitude, demonstrating mitigate in a safe timely manner.

__ how to recover the aircraft to an appropriate safe flight

condition before conducting the relevant flight guide
Once this is satisfactorily achieved pilots must then learn how
to identify a malfunction, diagnose and carry out the appropriate
__ procedures. actions in accordance with the FM/POH. A useful procedure to
__ This can then be progressed to conduct an approach and follow using an adaptation of the DODAR decision making cycle
is:
__ appropriate landing technique in accordance with the flight
guide recommendations. As part of the training the
__ recognition of and recovery from low and high rotor rpm
Detect - a malfunction can be detected by any, or all of the

__ conditions should be demonstrated and practised.

senses, not only visually by a warning light or gauge
indication. It could be aurally by a warning horn or noticing
__ Tail Rotor Failure
unusual noises, it could be the smell of burning or feeling of

__ Tail rotor failures at this stage are normally only a discussion

a vibration through the controls.

__ with the instructor using the relevant flight guide to explain

Obtain Information – once a possible malfunction is
detected then the pilot must use their CRM skills to gain all
__ the various tail rotor malfunctions and the appropriate
techniques to be employed. Later in the syllabus, when the
relevant information by cross checking for other aircraft
__ student handling skills have been developed, it may be
indications, using crew members, passengers, ground

__ possible to fly the appropriate tail rotor failure/malfunction

observers, ATC, etc to gain as much information as possible
before continuing on to the next stage.
__ recovery techniques.
Decide – once all the information is collated and the
__ AIR EXERCISE diagnosis is complete, a decision can then be made as to
the most appropriate course of action.
Demonstrate abandoned take-off.
Act – take the appropriate action in accordance with the
Student practice
FM/POH/flight reference cards emergency procedures.
Demonstrate missed approach and go-around.
Review – if time permits review the above stages and
Student practice adapt/modify as necessary to ensure a safe outcome.
Demonstrate simulated emergencies in the circuit.
Student practice The time taken to complete the above sequence will be
dictated by the degree of urgency of the malfunction i.e. an
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS engine failure in a single engine helicopter will require it to be
completed in seconds, whereas a non critical malfunction such
Prior to teaching aircraft malfunctions and emergency as a generator failure could be reasonably dealt with in minutes.
procedures to students it is important that they understand When experiencing a malfunction the pilot must still follow the
how the principles of Threat and Error Management can assist old adage of:
them in such situations.
Aviate – establish an appropriate safe flight condition e.g.
Before the flight it is important that the procedures in the
straight and level flight, autorotation, orbit, land etc.
aircraft flight guide (FM) or Pilot Operating Handbook
(POH) are fully briefed and understood including, where Navigate – it may be appropriate to turn away from high
appropriate, the manufacturer’s definitions for Land ground, not enter controlled airspace, avoid DVE, select a
Immediately, Land as soon as Possible and Land as soon as landing site to conduct a precautionary landing or divert
Practicable. to an airfield.
A sound technical knowledge of the helicopter systems will Communicate – a radio call to an appropriate agency to
assist the pilot in making an informed decision when faced with inform them of the situation, the degree of urgency, any
an unusual situation. It is important during the aircraft technical proposed actions and request assistance if required. Crew
knowledge training that the pilot understands how and where and passengers should be briefed, which may be an
the cockpit indications are taken from, any common faults or explanation of the malfunction and what actions you are
indications and how to differentiate between a system fault and taking, (especially if diverting or conducting a precautionary
a gauge/warning light malfunction. landing)! In the case of an emergency landing a warning to
adopt the pre-briefed 'Brace Position' would be included.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 105

 __
During progressive training for non critical malfunctions the
__
instructor should introduce the fault in a realistic, unannounced
manner which will allow the student the ability to practise the __
full 'DODAR' process of detection, diagnosis and corrective __
actions. An example of this could be the failure of a hydraulic,
governor or electrical system. During cruise flight the __
instructor could distract the student momentarily while de- __
selecting the system. Once the student has conducted the
__
above actions the exercise should be completed to its
conclusion as much as is safely possible. Where a particular __
malfunction requires that the pilot conducts a precautionary __
landing, the instructor should ensure that the student is taught
to fly the aircraft safely to that site, while carrying out all __
necessary actions, radio calls and landing site assessments. __
When teaching critical malfunctions such as engine, tail rotor __
failure etc in single engine helicopters it is important to pre warn
the student. Notwithstanding that, the student must also be __
taught to recognise the symptoms of unexpected engine/ tail __
rotor failures.
__
It is worth mentioning that emergencies may not be confined to
__
mechanical or electrical faults, for example, doors opening in
flight, passenger illness or behaviour and bad weather. __
A useful technique, to introduce at this point is the pre-take __
off/departure ‘eventualities’ brief. This short self brief, said out
loud, might cover what action to take in the event of an engine
__
failure at various heights, where to land and the action to be
taken in the event of a door coming open. It can be adapted to
suit the aircraft type, airfield and student’s ability.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 14c: Emergency procedures:

(A) abandoned take-off;
(B) missed approach and go-around;
(C) hydraulic off landing (if applicable);
(D) tail rotor control or tail rotor drive failure (briefing
only)
(E) simulated emergencies in the circuit to include:
(a) hydraulics failure;
(b) simulated engine failure on take-off, crosswind,
downwind and base leg;
(c) governor failure.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 106

 __
15 __
__
FIRST SOLO __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
All necessary examinations completed. Teaching Points __
Medical held and current. Instructor’s observation of flight and debriefing __
Meteorological and air traffic conditions are suitable, the __
Helicopter is fully serviceable with sufficient fuel, etc. AIR EXERCISE __
Ensure that the student can operate the required systems Take-off and Landing
__
and equipment and use R/T communication. Lift offs and landings should be reasonably smooth and
__
The instructor is qualified to send the student first solo. consistently vertical. They should be with no yaw, sideways or
rearward drift. Hovering should be well controlled. __
Advise control tower where applicable.
Transition and Climb __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION A clearing turn should precede the transition as a normal __
Aim
airmanship manoeuvre. The transition to the Upwind Leg __
For the student to conduct a minimum of one circuit without an
should be smooth and well controlled as regards airspeed and
power settings. __
instructor on board.
Crosswind, Downwind and Base Legs __
Review
The circuit should be consistently safe. The student should be __
Exercises 11a - Circuit, Approach and Landing aware of any inaccuracies and able to correct them without
Local Operating Procedures assistance from the instructor.
Motivation Final Approach
The first solo is a very important and never-to-be-forgotten The student should be able to fly a safe approach and able to
experience in a pilot’s career. correct large deviations from the selected approach angle.
Airmanship / TEM Reduction of forward speed should be smooth and
progressive. The approach should consistently terminate with a
Brief student for first solo. This should be a short briefing, hover over the selected spot at the recommended height.
to inform the student of the following; Emergencies
(I) the change of attitude from reduced and laterally The student must be able to recognise and take corrective
displaced weight; action for any emergency during the first solo trip, including an
engine failure from any point in the circuit.
(ii) the danger of low tail, low skid or wheel during
hover, landing;
(iii) dangers/recovery from of loss of RRPM and
overpitching;

(iv) pre take-off checks;

(v) into wind take-off;
(vi) procedures during and after take-off;
(vii) normal circuit, approaches and landings;
(viii) action if an emergency. Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
Student Solo
A student’s first solo can be considered when the following
• Ensuring student is prepared for change in Centre of Gravity
requirements have been met:
and cyclic position.
A safe standard has been reached in Air Exercises 1 - 14
A safe and acceptable standard has been reached in circuits.
HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 108
__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ The first solo is a very important and never-to-be-forgotten

__ experience in a pilot's career. It gains even more importance in

a multi student course environment, particularly with a student
__ who is a slow learner. In this case it is generally necessary to
__ play down the significance of the first solo to prevent low

__ morale and an even slower rate of learning. Avoid referring to

“average hours to first solo” or condoning a spirit of
__ competition between students who are at the same phase of

__ the training curriculum.

__ The pre-solo flight should not exceed 45 minutes in order to

keep fatigue to a minimum.
__ It is not advisable to tell students that they are about to fly solo
__ until just before the actual flight. The possible apprehension

__ could delay the very flight that you are planning for them.

__ Before sending the student on the first solo, carry out sufficient
dual circuits to confirm consistency and competency, and that
__ suitable conditions exist.
__ Observe the flight and debrief the student afterwards

__ encourage the student to critique the flight too as this will form
an important part of future learning.
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 15: First solo:

(A) instructor's briefing, observation of flight and
debriefing;
(B) warn of change of attitude from reduced and
laterally displaced weight;
(C) warn of low tail, low skid or wheel during hover,
landing;
(D) warn of dangers of loss of RRPM and overpitching;
(E) pre-take-off checks;
(F) into wind take-off;
(G) procedures during and after take-off;
(H) normal circuit, approaches and landings;
(I) action if an emergency.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 109

 __
16 __
__
SIDEWAYS & BACKWARDS HOVER __
MANOEUVRING __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
The wind can affect the cyclic position depending upon __
Flight guide - Limitations
the direction and speed relative to the helicopter and __
Centre of Gravity there can be tendency for the helicopter to 'weather cock'
__
Wind Direction
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
when travelling sideways
Collective – controls the height. Small adjustments may
__
be required in power and to maintain rotor RPM during __
Aim the manoeuvre. Height should be referenced to features __
For the student to learn sideways and backwards hover
manoeuvring into and out of the wind.
outside the helicopter.
__
Review
Pedals – control the heading of the helicopter. While the
helicopter is downwind the airflow through the tail rotor __
Exercises 11a, 11b and 11c - Hovering
may become disturbed creating unstable yawing and __
Motivation
when crosswind a weather cocking tendency may
cause an increased rate of turn. Both should be __
The ability to fly sideways and backwards safely and accurately
prevented/ overcome with appropriate pedal input. __
for short distances is often required in helicopter operations.
Sideways flight into the wind;
__
Airmanship / TEM
Emphasise that before starting the manoeuvre a look
• Lookout sideways towards the direction the helicopter is intending
to travel is essential. A reference point to the side should
• Obstructions
also be selected to assist in accuracy in the sideways hover.
• Wind W/V and Weather Cocking During the manoeuvre the lookout should then be broken
down to looking both forward of the helicopter and the
• Helicopter Temperature & Pressure Limits
direction of travel, as looking only in the one direction will
• Stability make the exercise harder to achieve. The lookout and scan
• Helicopter Sideways & Backwards Speed Limits should be moved continuously between the direction of
travel, the helicopter heading, the height and the
• Hover Height instruments.
Teaching Points
Lookout

Explain the importance of the lookout before commencing

manoeuvring in order to identify any obstacles, other
aircraft and ensure adequate tail clearance.
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
Controls
• Students making too large an attitude change, and moving
Describe the helicopter controls’ specific function during
sideways and backwards manoeuvring: too fast.
• Students failing to maintain the selected attitude and
Cyclic - controls the helicopter direction of travel and subsequently over controlling on the cyclic.
ground speed. Ground speed should be slow and
constant throughout this manoeuvre. Cyclic movements • Poor height control.
should only be small to initiate small attitude changes to • Failure to maintain heading or "pedalling" on the yaw pedals.
prevent over-controlling while anticipating the lag of the
• Poor look out.
cyclic control. Caution should be exercised as cyclic stop
limits may be reached due to the aircraft CoG and change Clearing Spot Turn before Backwards Hover.
•
in W/V.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 110

__
__ Describe how the cyclic should be displaced into the AIR EXERCISE
__ direction of travel to initiate the manoeuvre. This will alter
the helicopter disc attitude and then the helicopter will
Demonstrate sideways hovering, in both directions, while

__ move in the direction of travel. Collective should be used to

heading into wind.

__ maintain the height. Pedals are used to maintain the

helicopter heading. To stop the sideways movement the
Student Practice

__ cyclic should be used to reselect the normal hover attitude,

Demonstrate sideways hovering, in both directions, whilst out
of wind including recovery from excessive pitch nose down.
__ collective to maintain height and pedals to maintain
Student Practice
__ helicopter heading.
Demonstrate backwards hovering while heading into wind.
__ During sideways hovering it is possible for one skid to be
Student Practice
__ lower than when in the normal hover attitude. Hovering too
low or allowing the aircraft to sink during sideways hovering Demonstrate backwards hovering while heading out of wind.
__ may lead to inadvertent ground contact, which could cause Student Practice
__ the aircraft to roll over.
Demonstrate a combined sideways and backwards hovering
__ Backwards flight heading into wind: manoeuvre.

__ Emphasise that before any backwards manoeuvre it is

critical to perform a spot turn to ensure that the helicopter
Student Practice

__ will be travelling into a safe and unobstructed area. Describe TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ how, when moving backwards the helicopter will have a
Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the
__ nose up attitude. Consequently the tail and tail rotor will be
lower than when in a normal hover attitude. Therefore the manoeuvre, especially in the direction of travel. Make a

__ hover height should be increased before commencing the thorough reconnaissance of the area to be used for sideways
and backwards hovering for obstructions, F.O.D., and ground
__ manoeuvring.
Describe how a reference point in front of the helicopter
features. The exercise will be performed close to the ground.

should be selected to assist in maintaining helicopter Initially the student may find it difficult to maintain a constant
heading. The cyclic should be moved aft, which will cause a heading/speed/height, which often leads to over controlling.
nose up attitude and the helicopter will then start to hover References are useful for a student to gain accuracy. For
backwards. It is essential that a slow speed is maintained sideways hovering, where possible, choose a line feature in
as excessive speed can cause the airflow over the front of the helicopter to follow. For backwards hovering
horizontal stabiliser to produce a nose down tendency, choose a feature in front of the helicopter. The student may not
which may not be possible to correct by aft cyclic when anticipate the wind, the weather cocking effects and sink rate.
attempting to recover . The collective is used to maintain Therefore as the exercise will be performed close to the ground
height and the pedals to maintain the helicopter heading. careful monitoring of all the controls is important.
The student can find this exercise fatiguing and it may be
Sideways and backwards flight out of the wind: necessary to break up the lesson with other simple exercises.
Once the student is proficient in this exercise it is possible to
Explain that how once competent in manoeuvring sideways
combine manoeuvres with spot turns (Exercise 16), in relation
and backwards into wind, the exercises can be repeated out
to flying a square pattern over the ground with the helicopter
of wind. Describe the different cyclic positions required
heading in various directions.
relative to the wind, and how hovering sideways or
backwards out of wind will require the helicopter to If long distances are required to be travelled while hovering
overcome the wind before the helicopter will begin to backwards, then frequent stops and clearing spot turns should
move. Explain why the power requirements will differ with be performed for safety.
weight and wind direction relative to the helicopter and why Explain that it is preferable to hover taxi the helicopter in a
attention will be required to ensure power limits are not forward direction rather than sideways or backwards, due to
exceeded during any manoeuvres. difficulties with lookout and engine failure considerations.
Hover taxiing in a forward direction also improves helicopter
Combination of sideways and backward manoeuvring: stability and pilot control.
Explain that how once competent in manoeuvring sideways If the engine failed during sideways hover, the student must
and backwards into, and out of wind, it is possible to use a stop the sideways movement with cyclic, maintain heading
combination of the techniques to fly the aircraft in any given
with pedals, allow the helicopter to settle and cushion the
direction and hold any given heading.
landing with collective. Not preventing the helicopter from
sideways movement with ground contact may lead to the
helicopter rolling over.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 111

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__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
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__

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 16: Sideways and backwards hover manoeuvring:

(A) manoeuvring sideways flight heading into wind;
(B) manoeuvring backwards flight heading into wind;
(C) combination of sideways and backwards
manoeuvring;
(D) manoeuvring sideways and backwards and heading
out of wind;
(E) stability and weather cocking;
(F) recovery from backwards manoeuvring (pitch nose
down);
(G) limitations for sideways and backwards
manoeuvring.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 112

 __
17 __
__
SPOT TURNS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS
__
Flight Manual – Limitations Controls; __
Centre of Gravity Describe the helicopter controls’ specific function during
__
Wind Direction spot turns:
Cyclic - controls the position over the ground. The cyclic __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION will need to be moved into wind to maintain position and __
Aim
prevent drift. Cyclic movements should only be small to
__
For the student to learn how to turn the helicopter on the
initiate small attitude changes to prevent over-controlling
whilst anticipating the lag of the cyclic control. Caution __
spot through 360,˚ while maintaining a constant position and should be exercised as cyclic stop limits may be reached __
height by turning about due to the aircraft CoG and change in W/V.
__
• the pilot position; Collective – controls the height. Small adjustments may
be required in power and to maintain rotor RPM during __
• around the tail rotor;
the manoeuvre. Height should be referenced to features __
• about the geometric centre; outside the helicopter.
__
• by making a square and safe visible clearing turn; Pedals – control the rate of turn of the helicopter.
__
Review
Exercise 11a, 11b and 11c - Hovering
While the helicopter is downwind the airflow through
the tail rotor may become disturbed creating unstable __
yawing and when crosswind a weather cocking
Exercise 16 - Sideways & Backwards Hover Manoeuvring tendency may cause an increased rate of turn, both
Motivation should be prevented/overcome with appropriate pedal

Having already learned the 90 degree 'lookout turn' in previous

exercises this exercise will teach how to turn the aircraft safely Turning Around Geometric Centre;
through 360 degrees in order to check clearance all around the Describe how this turn uses the vertical axis of the
aircraft before manoeuvring. helicopter as the centre of the circle, and the helicopter
Airmanship / TEM rotates around the vertical axis (generally taken as the
rotor mast). Pedals are used to initiate the turn in the
• Lookout desired direction and then to control the rate of turn at a
steady, constant rate.
• Obstructions
• W/V
• Helicopter Temperature & Pressure Limits
• Helicopter Sideways & Backwards Speed Limits
• Hover Height Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
Teaching Points
Lookout;
• Failure to control rate of turn resulting in erratic movement.
Explain the importance of the lookout before commencing
any turns in order to identify any obstacles, other aircraft • Failure to correct drift.
and to ensure adequate safe tail clearance. Describe how • Poor rotor RPM control and failure to anticipate effect of
during the lookout that reference points for the turn are large yaw pedal applications.
selected to assist in accuracy and that whilst the aim is to
• Failure to maintain a constant height.
perform 360˚ spot turns at a constant rate, initially the
turns will be broken down into 90º quadrants. • Poor Lookout in all directions before commencing turn.

• Failure to adjust for wind direction and speed during the turn.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 114

__
__ Turning Around Tail Rotor; TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ Describe how this turn uses the tail rotor as the centre of
the circle, and the helicopter prescribes a circle around the
Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the

__ tail rotor. The cyclic is applied laterally to move the

manoeuvre, especially in the direction of travel. Make a
thorough reconnaissance of the area to be used for spot turns
__ helicopter sideways in the direction of turn. At the same
for obstructions, F.O.D., and ground features. Initially the turns
__ time the pedal should be applied in the direction of turn.
This technique is useful for turning the helicopter in
can be broken down into 90º quadrants using reference points

__ confined areas as it may protect the tail rotor from

in each quadrant.

__ Turning Around Pilots Position;

Initially the student may find it difficult to maintain a constant
rate of turn, which often leads to over controlling with the
__ Describe how this turn uses the pilot’s position as the pedals. The student may not anticipate the wind and weather

__ centre of the circle, and the helicopter prescribes a circle

around the pilot's position. The cyclic is applied laterally to
cocking effects and, as the exercise will be performed close to
the ground, careful monitoring of all the controls is important.
__ move the helicopter sideways in the direction of turn. At the The student can find this exercise fatiguing and it may be
__ same time the pedal should be applied in the direction of necessary to break up the lesson with other simple exercises.

__ turn.
Square and Safe Visibility Turn;
Once the student is proficient in spot turns it is possible to
combine manoeuvres with sideways hovering (Exercise 16), in
__ Adopt a slightly higher than normal hover height. Hover taxi relation to flying a square pattern over the ground with the
__ sideward whilst maintaining, at least an aircraft length helicopter heading in various directions.

__ ideally in the direction the pilot can see (i.e. pilots side). Spot

__ turn through 90 degrees so the tail is now in the know clear

area where the aircraft was previously positioned. Repeat
__ as required through around the 4 sides of the square until

__ back at start position whilst maintaining a lookout for

obstructions.

AIR EXERCISE
Demonstrate 360˚spot turns, about the geometric centre in
both directions.
Student Practice
Demonstrate 360˚ spot turns, around the tail rotor in both
directions.
Student Practice
Demonstrate 360˚ spot turns, around the pilot position in both
directions.
Student Practice
Demonstrate square and safe visibility clearing turn.
Student Practice

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 17: Spot turns:

(A) revise hovering into wind and downwind;
(B) turn on spot through 360º:
(a) around pilots position;
(b) around tail rotor;
(c) around helicopter geometric centre;
(d) square and safe visibility clearing turn.
(C) rotor RPM control, torque effect, cyclic limiting
stops due to CG position and wind speed and
direction.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 115

 __
18 __
__
HOVER OGE AND VORTEX RING __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Flight guide: low rate of descent to a normal hover height maintaining the
__
• Limitations
same ground position.
Describe how then it is possible to bring the aircraft to a __
• Critical wind azimuth areas steady controlled hover from forward flight, at altitude __
• Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE)
using, outside and inside references to maintain heading,
prevent drift and control height. __
• Performance - HV Graph, LTE and OGE Hover Charts
Explain where OGE Hover operations are conducted within __
Principles of Flight: the HV or Height-Velocity Diagram's shaded areas (avoid __
• Vortex Ring areas), prolonged exposures for training purposes must be
minimised. __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION __
Aim
Vortex Ring
__
For the student to:
Revise the requirements for Vortex Ring state and describe
that how at low airspeeds with ROD and high power __
• Recognise and carry out the recovery actions for LTE. settings, (such as in the OGE hover, steep approach, __
• Learn Hovering OGE
downwind approach etc), it is possible to get into initially,
incipient, then the full stage of vortex ring, if the
__
• Recognise and carry out the recovery action for the inappropriate action is taken to correct a rate of ROD (which
can be as low as >300ft/ min).
__
incipient stage of vortex ring.
Explain how incipient vortex ring will be induced in the flight
Review
exercise at a safe height under controlled conditions, the
Exercise 13: Transitions symptoms to look for and the recovery action to be taken.
Exercise 11a: Hovering
LTE
Motivation
Revise the requirements for LTE and describe that how, at
Hover OGE has applications in later exercises such as confined low airspeeds, with high power settings, (such as in the
areas operations. While at low airspeeds without immediate OGE hover, steep approach, downwind approach etc), it is
ground references (and not monitoring) the instruments it is possible to reduce the effectiveness of tail rotor and the
possible to mishandle the aircraft and get into a LTE or Vortex aircraft’s directional stability. Explain that LTE is generally
Ring condition. Therefore it is essential to to be able to identity considered to be an insufficient tail rotor thrust associated
the requirements for LTE/Vortex Ring in order to avoid them with a control margin deficiency, which can result in an
and, if encountered, recognise the symptoms and carry out the uncommanded rapid yaw rate. This yaw may not subside of
correct recovery actions. its own accord and, if not corrected, can result in the loss of
a helicopter.
• Lookout:
Explain how LTE will be induced in the flight exercise at a
• Helicopter limitations: temperatures and pressures, power safe height under controlled conditions, the symptoms to
and transmission limits as applicable. look for and the recovery action to be taken.
Teaching Points

OGE Hover
Describe what the OGE hover is, when it would be utilised
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
and how it will be practised in later exercises Ex 26, 28 and 29.
Explain how a power check is conducted in the IGE to • Caused by pilot inattention to flight regime, especially during
establish the available power margin. Then how, by use of low speed orbit and downwind manoeuvring.
forward and side reference markers, it is possible to climb
• Exercise can overly worry the student.
vertically until outside of IGE and establish a steady hover by
controlling drift height and power. Then describe how it is
possible, by use of the references, to descend slowly with

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 116

__
__ AIR EXERCISE
__ Demonstrate hover IGE and power check
__ Student practice
__ Demonstrate hover OGE

__ Student practice

__ Demonstrate coming to, and maintaining steady hover OGE

__ from forward flight at altitude.

__ Student practice

__ Demonstrate at safe height, the requirements, recognition

and recovery for incipient vortex ring state.
__ Student practice
__ Demonstrate at a safe height, the requirements, recognition
__ and recovery for LTE.

__ Student practice

__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ Make a thorough reconnaissance of the area before and during
__ the lesson, looking particularly for bushes, fences, rocks,
stumps and loose articles (FOD), as you will be operating close
__ to the ground.
For the Hover OGE demonstration a suitable obstacle with
vertical extent, e.g. a large bush or small tree should be used to
provide vertical reference. There should be a choice of lateral
and longitudinal reference points available.
For the HOGE from forward flight/Vortex Ring/LTE
demonstrations it is very likely that the ATO has a prescribed
minimum height for the exercises which should be adhered to.
Although the exercises should generally be conducted into
wind they could be conducted out of wind. However the onset
of the symptoms is likely to be more rapid and unpredictable
and therefore this should be taken into account when deciding
the safe height for the exercises to be commenced from.
Although it is unlikely that a student should wish to intentionally
practise Vortex Ring and LTE by himself, it should be explained
that these exercises are only to practised with an instructor!

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 18: Hover OGE and vortex ring:

(A) establishing hover OGE;
(B) drift, height or power control;
(C) demonstration of incipient stage of vortex ring,
recognition and recovery (from a safe altitude);
(D) loss of tail rotor effectiveness.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 117

 __
19 __
__
SIMULATED EOL __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
The Avoid Curve Teaching Points __
The effects of weight, disc loading, density altitude and RRPM Review the procedures for basic autorotation and describe __
decay in autorotation. the technique for landing as follows:
__
The autorotative flare Ensure that a safe landing area is within autorotative range __
Flare theory
and check the wind velocity.
__
Flight guide emergency procedures
Enter autorotation and select airspeed for the minimum rate
of descent. __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION When certain that the landing will be in the safe area, close __
the throttle completely, where appropriate to type. __
Aim At the appropriate height above the ground, commence the __
The aim is for the student to; flare and vary the amount of flare as required to control
speed, RoD and RRPM. __
(A) understand the effect of weight, disc loading,
density attitude and RRPM decay; As appropriate to type at the specified height either level __
(B) revise basic autorotation entry; the aircraft and apply collective pitch as required to __
(C) practise optimum use of cyclic and collective to control
speed or RRPM;
reduce the rate of descent and cushion the landing.
Alternatively use the collective lever to check the RoD __
descent before levelling the aircraft and cushioning the
touchdown with the remainder of the collective lever. A
(D) practise variable flare simulated EOL;
slight accelerative attitude may be required to perform a
(E) have demonstrated constant attitude simulated EOL; running landing.
have demonstrated simulated EOL from hover or hover
(F) Prevent yaw throughout with the pedals.
taxi;
have demonstrated simulated EOL from transition and
(G)
low level.

Review
Exercise 10: Basic autorotation
Exercise 11c: Engine Failure in the Hover or Hover-taxi
Motivation
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
The primary purpose of autorotations is to save crew and
passengers from injury following an in-flight engine failure or • Incorrect flare height and failure to hold the flare.
similar major emergency. In practice autorotations, there is also
• Failure to recover to touchdown attitude, thus endangering
the need to avoid damaging the helicopter. These skills can be
the tail rotor.
acquired and maintained only with practice in varying conditions
and configurations.. • Failure to correct for drift or yaw.
Airmanship / TEM • Incorrect use of the collective lever either too early or too
late.
• Pre-entry checks Failure to lower collective lever after aircraft has stopped or
•
• Post-entry checks as appropriate to type lowering too quickly during the landing run.
• Aircraft performance limitations Making a second flare if run on speed appears too fast.
•
• Wind speed and direction Moving cyclic rear-wards on touchdown.
•
• Suitable landing area
• Lookout

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 118

__
__ Describe the post-landing procedures: TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ Ensure that the cyclic is in a neutral or forward position.
Avoid moving the cyclic aft during or after touchdown.
EOL training is not without risk. However careful planning/
__ Lower the collective slowly to the bottom position. Care
preparation and good use of CRM and TEM should mitigate
the associated risks.
__ must be taken if the tail boom is pitching due to forward
Prior to entry all the conditions should be verified as suitable
__ movement on the ground.
including the wind (not too little/too strong, no gusts,
__ Carry out pre-take-off checks. turbulence or wind shear, aircraft weight (too heavy high RoD;

__ Explain that, where EOLs are considered unsafe in light of the

too light low RRPM) and the landing area (not waterlogged, long
grass, uneven etc). It is advisable to initially conduct a a datum
__ aircraft’s performance characteristics, the wind conditions,
aircraft weight, unstable ground conditions, or the density
autorotation to a power recovery to verify these factors and

__ altitude conditions, power terminations to the hover or hover-

establish an entry point for the EOL. As a final check, at a
minimum of 300' AGL the aircraft should be 'straight and level,
__ taxi may be used to provide continuation in autorotation no yaw or drift, good RoD, RRPM in limits, correct airspeed and
__ practice. going to make the area'. If one of these parameters is not

__ Describe the technique for carrying out a power termination to

the hover or hover-taxi, as appropriate to type and local
correct or, if in doubt, a 'go around' is advisable.
There is a need for the instructor to follow through on the
__ conditions: controls during autorotational landings. Take care that you do
__ Ensure that a safe landing area is within autorotational
not make the exercise worthless by inadvertently leading,

__ range.
rather than following, through.

__ Enter autorotation and select the airspeed for minimum rate

This exercise should be practised only in areas known to be
safe and suitable for an EOL.
__ of descent. Reduce power to idle as appropriate to type.
The student should practise autorotations in as many varied
__ Ensure that the RPM is in the correct range.
At a safe height, adjust RPM as appropriate.
conditions as possible, because the type of autorotative flare
will vary. Varying conditions include the wind, aircraft weight,
At the appropriate height, flare. air density and size/, surface of the selected landing area.

At the appropriate height, level the aircraft. Both zero-speed and run-on touchdowns should be practised
and the student taught when to employ each technique.
Apply power to stop sink and establish a hover or hover-taxi;
preventing yaw and drift. This is a stressful and demanding exercise for both student and
instructor. Resist the temptation to attempt ‘just one more’ at
the end of the lesson, as you will usually find the student’s
AIR EXERCISE performance will get worse, not better.
Demonstrate a variable flare autorotation into wind terminating Brief the student on the school’s policy on autorotations to
in a power recovery. touchdown. Most schools do NOT allow them to be practised
Student practice (dual only) solo.

Demonstrate a variable flare autorotation into wind terminating

in a simulated EOL.
Student practice (dual only)
Demonstrate constant attitude simulated EOL.
LESSON CHECKLIST
Student practice (dual only) Exercise 19: Simulated EOL:
(A) the effect of weight, disc loading, density attitude
Demonstrate simulated EOL from hover or hover taxi.
and RRPM decay;
Student practice (dual only) (B) revise basic autorotation entry;
Demonstrate simulated EOL from transition and low level. (C) optimum use of cyclic and collective to control
Student practice (dual only) speed or RRPM;
(D) variable flare simulated EOL;
(E) demonstrate constant attitude simulated EOL;
(F) demonstrate simulated EOL from hover or hover
taxi;
(G) demonstrate simulated EOL from transition and
low level.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 119

 __
20 __
__
ADVANCED AUTOROTATION __
__
GROUND SCHOOL Extending the range __
Flight guide: Limitations Point out that there is no benefit from exceeding the __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
manufacturer’s recommended maximum range speed, and __
Aim
that exceeding autorotational VNE will result in drastic rotor
RPM decay. __
For the student to learn how to vary range in autorotation by Describe the techniques, speeds, and RRPM to be __
the use of: used for the range/maximum range autorotations and __
• range autorotations; the resultant angle of descent, RoD and distance __
• low speed autorotation;
achievable.
__
• constant attitude autorotation 'S' turns;
Point out that it is advantageous to reduce the airspeed to
minimum rate-of-descent speed as early as possible in
__
• turns through 180° and 360°; order to reduce the rate of descent to more desirable __
• the effects on angles of descent, IAS, RRPM and effect
proportions.
__
of AUM.
Reducing the range __
Review Describe the techniques, speeds, angles of bank and __
Entry to Autorotation and power terminated/touchdown
autorotations
RRPM to be used in the low speed, constant attitude,
'S' turns and turns through 180° and 360° autorotations
__
and the resultant angle of descent, RoD and distance
Autorotational flight envelope, including airspeed and rotor
achievable.
RPM limitations
Low Speed
Effects of airspeed, RRPM, turns and RoD on range and angle
of descent when in autorotation. Describe the hazards associated with the low speed
autorotation including high RoD, RRPM control and
Motivation
directional stability and how it is important to keep a positive
Autorotation at the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed is airspeed (ideally 10-20kts). Explain how in a strong wind
the ideal. It is vital, that the student be capable of taking full condition this may result in a negative or rearwards
advantage of the helicopter’s capabilities in autorotation to movement across the ground, which can be utilised if trying
reach the intended landing spot. to achieve an LS underneath or close to the aircraft.
Airmanship / TEM Stress the height loss and need to increase airspeed to the
minimum rate-of-descent speed as soon as possible, in
• Safety checks order to reduce the rate of descent to manageable
proportions.
• Safe landing area
• Lookout
• Wind velocity Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
Teaching Points
State the airspeed and RRPM for maximum range and VNE in • Trying to turn into wind when too low. Emphasise that wind
autorotation. Point out the increase in rate of descent, as is only one of the factors involved.
appropriate to type. • Allowing the speed to drop too low when re-engaging after
Minimum Rate of Descent; constant attitude autorotation.

• Continuing the flare too near the ground.

Indicate what the typical distance, angle of descent and
RoD would be using the aircraft minimum rate RoD • Re-applying power before putting the aircraft into an
autorotation speed. accelerating attitude thus risking vortex ring.

• Poor RPM control, in varying load conditions.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 122

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 123

 __
Constant Attitude TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS __
Describe the hazards associated with the constant attitude
autorotation especially the high RoD, RRPM control and
On the initial demonstration of each type of range variation, __
directional stability and how it is important to maintain the
use the same line feature (such as a fence or road
perpendicular to direction of travel) as a reference point to enter __
recommended airspeed. Describe how this technique can
be utilised to achieve an LS close to the aircraft or at
when the aircraft is directly over it and pick a feature in the __
night/poor visibility where a flare height cannot be judged
middle distance to assist with heading and yaw control. Always
enter using the same height, speed or power setting. This
__
and the constant attitude EOL could be used.
ensures that the student appreciates the difference in distance __
Emphasise the need to maintain the aircraft attitude in the
recovery and the need to apply an element of forward cyclic
and angle of descent for each technique.
__
when raising the collective lever to prevent speed
After teaching the individual methods of range variation,be
__
reduction, - which if reduced could lead to vortex ring as the
sure that students understand that these are the basics, and
that they usually have to use combinations to make the landing __
power is applied at low airspeed with a high RoD.
spot. When students have grasped the basics, introduce __
Turns situations that require them to assess and use a combination of
different techniques. __
Describe the hazards associated with turns in autorotation
Emphasise that, when you vary the range, the helicopter __
especially the high RoD, RRPM control and maintaining
attitude/airspeed. Explain that normally the minimum RoD should be returned to the normal autorotational touchdown __
airspeed should be used in the turns but this can be varied to profile by 300 feet.
__
extend/shorten the radius of turn to achieve a nominated
LS.
In some helicopters, there is a high risk of the engine and rotor
overspeeding occurring when the disc is loaded. Instructors __
Explain how the 'S' turns can be used effectively to lose should be particularly vigilant during student’s practice and __
height when close to a LS whilst maintaining airspeed. teaching the student to anticipate the increased disc loading
__
Explain how the 180° turn can be used from downwind to
turn back into wind and what the typical height loss can be in
with collective pitch.
__
the turn.
Explain how the 360° turn can be used in light wind
conditions to achieve an LS directly underneath the aircraft

AIR EXERCISE
Over the same selected point at a safe height (normally
minimum 1500-2000 agl) demonstrate the following
autorotation techniques, highlighting in each case the angle
of descent, the RoD and distance achievable:
Demonstrate datum autorotation
Student practice
Demonstrate range autorotation
Student practice LESSON CHECKLIST
Demonstrate maximum (extended range) autorotation Exercise 20: Advanced autorotation:
Student practice (A) over a selected point at various height and speed;
(B) revise basic autorotation: note ground distance
Demonstrate constant attitude autorotation
covered;
Student practice (C) range autorotation;
Demonstrate low speed autorotation (D) low speed autorotation;
Student practice (E) constant attitude autorotation (terminate at safe
altitude);
Demonstrate ‘S’ turns in autorotation (F) 'S' turns;
Student practice (G) turns through 180 ° and 360 °;
Demonstrate 180/360 turns in autorotation (H) effects on angles of descent, IAS, RRPM and effect
of AUM.
Student practice

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 124

 __
21 __
__
PRACTICE FORCED LANDINGS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Flight guide: Emergency procedures Describe the actions that should be taken, time, height and __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
other factors permitting, during a forced landing including the
aircraft engine relight procedures.
__
Stress that pilots should be aware of wind velocities at all times. __
Aim
It is always preferable to be into-wind on a forced approach, but __
For the student to learn how to carry out a safe forced landing
following an engine failure
a suitable landing area is the prime consideration. In other
__
Review
words, it is better to land down-wind in an open field when the
only alternative is to land in tall trees with the wind on the nose. __
Autorotations: Exercises 10, 19 & 20. Discuss requirements of a forced landing area in relation to size, __
Motivation shape, surrounds, surface and slope. __
Although helicopter engines are nowadays generally reliable, Remind the student that turns and speeds above or below the __
failures do still occur. The lives of pilots and their passengers
are dependent on pilot skill and judgement in achieving a safe
manufacturer’s recommended speed in autorotation increase
the rate of descent substantially. __
landing should an engine failure occur. Discuss the relationship between stored energy __
Airmanship / TEM (kinetic/potential), RRPM, airspeed and height. __
• Safety checks
Discuss the problem associated with ditching a helicopter.
Discuss the techniques of forced landing into trees,
__
• Safe landing area mountainous terrain and built-up areas.
• Recovery altitude or height Point out that an engine failure when flying at low level and low
• Wind velocity speeds, over obstacles will result in a forced landing that is
difficult to successfully accomplish without damage and injury.
• Lookout
For this reason, pilots should never fly lower or slower than is
• Verbal warning necessary.
Teaching Points Discuss re-engagement and go around procedures appropriate
Describe the immediate actions that must be taken in the event to type.
of an engine failure:
Enter autorotation
Select a suitable landing area Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
Plan approach
Select airspeed(s) and heading(s) in order to make the • Continuing to turn into wind too low.
selected area
• Neglecting checks or concentrating too much on checks to
Transmit MAYDAY the detriment of judgement.
Identifly the cause of failure and correct it if possible Failure to adjust flight path when going around or to select
•
Actuate the ELT (if equipped with guide control) another landing area if too low.

Warn passengers • Not deciding early enough on the type of touchdown to be

carried out resulting in confusion at the later stages.
Switch off electrics if fire is suspected
• Failure to correct for drift and maintain balanced flight.
Land.
Continuing the flare too near the ground.
Re-engagement and go around procedures from practice
Re-applying power before the aircraft accelerates, thus
forced landing. •
risking vortex ring.
Poor choice of landing area.
•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 126

__
__ AIR EXERCISE
__ Demonstrate forced landings from a height that will allow the

__ full procedure to be carried out without haste.

__ Student practice

__ Demonstrate practice forced landings of increasing difficulty

from different altitudes.
__ Student practice
__
__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

__ This is not a procedure that can be allotted a certain time period for

__ the course and left at that. After students are competent they
should be given surprise practice engine failures without
__ sufficiently warning them on as many dual flights as possible. This

__ enables students to practise the procedure regularly and will

develop the judgement skills necessary to consistently make the
__ selected area, practise the immediate actions and simulate the
__ radio calls.

__
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 21: Practice forced landings:
(A) procedure and choice of the forced landing area;
(B) forced landing checks and crash action;
(C) re-engagement and go-around procedures.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 127

 __
22 __
__
STEEP TURNS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS AIR EXERCISE __
Flight guide: Power Limitations Demonstrate steep/maximum bank rate turns in both __
Requirements for a Steep Turn
directions. __
Offset Seating
Student practice __
Demonstrate steep autorotative turns. __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION Student practice. __
Aim Demonstrate the effect of wind on turns at low level. __
For the student to learn how to carry out; Student practice.
__
• steep (level) turns (30 degrees bank) __
• maximum rate turns (45 degrees bank if possible)
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__
• steep autorotative turns Emphasise the importance of a good lookout before and during
the turn. __
Review
This is an excellent coordination exercise of all controls at __
Exercise 9: Turning altitude, but when practised at low level, emphasise the __
Motivation dangers of sinking in a turn towards the ground and of drifting in
strong wind conditions towards obstacles.
__
Operationally, the steep turn is a flight manoeuvre that can be
used for traffic, obstacle or terrain avoidance. It is included in
the pilot flight training for this reason.
Airmanship / TEM

• Lookout
• Power limitations
• RRPM limits
Teaching Points
Describe the visual cues, vibration, control feedback and where
applicable, instrument indications in order to maintain balance,
attitude, RRPM, disc loading, bank and co-ordination.
Review the effects of controls in the turn.
Describe the effect of wind on the radius of turn at low level.
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS

• The student often fails to appreciate that speed is reduced if

cyclic is used to maintain height.
• In autorotative turns, it is sometimes not fully appreciated
that there is a lag between collective lever application and a
change in RRPM which can lead to over controlling.
Furthermore, if the attitude is not held there is a very quick
increase/decrease of airspeed.

• Out of balance flight.

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LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 22: Steep turns:
(A) steep (level) turns (30 ° bank); Page 193 of 562
Annex to ED Decision 2011/016/R
(B) maximum rate turns (45 ° bank if possible);
(C) steep autorotative turns;
(D) faults in the turn: balance, attitude, bank and
co-ordination;
(E) RRPM control and disc loading;
(F) vibration and control feedback;
(G) effect of wind at low level.

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23 __
__
TRANSITIONS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Flight guide
Initially use the yaw pedals to keep the aircraft pointing at
the reference feature. As the speed increases past
__
Limitations approximately 25 kts check the balance and adjust the pedal __
Ground effect/translation lift/flapback
setting accordingly. Stabilise the helicopter at 50kts
__
maintaining height.
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION Describe how to transition back to the hover as follows:
__
Aim From 50 kts adopt a slight decelerative, nose up, attitude
__
For the student to learn how to transition from the hover into
whilst at the same time lowering the collective lever
sufficiently to prevent the aircraft climbing. __
forward flight while remaining close to the ground and then
transition back to the hover. As the helicopter slows down, translational lift is lost and __
Review
the collective has to be progressively applied to maintain __
Exercise 13 Transitions from the hover to climb and approach to
height. Heading should be maintained using yaw pedals
throughout. __
hover. As the power is increased the additional downwash over __
Motivation the horizontal stabiliser can tend to pitch the aircraft more __
When hover taxiing large distances or when an aircraft is
required to hover quickly, ( for example crossing a runway of a
nose up which should be overcome by use of cyclic.
As the speed approaches zero adopt the hover attitude and
__
large airport), it may be necessary to accelerate into forward bring the helicopter to a steady hover before reducing
flight remaining close to the ground and then return to the height to a normal hover height.
hover.
Airmanship / TEM AIR EXERCISE
Demonstrate the effect of wind on transitions
• Lookout
Demonstrate the transition from the hover into forward flight
• W/V while remaining close to the ground and then transition back to
• Helicopter limitations the hover.
Student practice
Teaching Points
Describe how the transition from the hover into wind can be TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
conducted as follows;
This is essentially an advanced coordination exercise which
Before transitioning conduct a lookout turn, ensure the area increases confidence when close to the ground and is a prelude
ahead is clear and select a reference feature ahead as an to Exercise 24 Quickstops.
aiming point. If required, the exercise may be broken down into transitioning
Establish a higher than normal hover height before initiating from the hover and transitioning to hover required before
a gentle transition. Use the collective to maintain height to combining the exercise.
compensate for loss of ground effect and the disc tilt. As the
speed increases it will be necessary to lower the collective
lever to prevent a height gain due to translation lift.
Throughout the acceleration it will be necessary to Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
compensate for the effects of 'flapback' by applying
forward cyclic to maintain the accelerative attitude.
• Students usually have difficulty controlling height and
engine rpm due to the fairly large power changes involved,
particularly at the transition stage.
• Constant practice is required before a student reaches the
required degree of accuracy.

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LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 23: Transitions:
(A) revise ground effect, translational lift and flapback;
(B) maintaining constant height, (20-30 ft AGL);
(C) transition from hover to minimum 50 knots IAS and
back to hover;
(D) demonstrate effect of wind.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 131

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24 __
__
QUICK STOPS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Dangers of Vortex __
Dangers of High Disc Loading
Maintain height throughout with the collective.
__
Over Pitching
Maintain RPM throughout with the throttle.
__
Prevent yaw with the pedals.
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION Explain that the deceleration will initially be gentle and
gradual, from a fairly low speed of entry, in order to __
Aim concentrate on smoothness and accuracy. The __
For the student to learn how to come to the hover into wind
manoeuvre can be speeded-up as necessary after the
basic ability has been acquired.
__
from various speeds, maintaining a constant altitude;
Explain that when you are making a more rapid __
• into wind
deceleration there is a larger change of attitude in the flare __
• from cross wind and downwind terminating into wind and a greater resultant tendency to gain height. This, in
__
Review turn, will require larger collective movements to prevent a
climb and larger pedal movements to prevent yaw. __
Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes
Point out that at no time should the flare be so harsh that it __
Dangers of vortex ring
Dangers of high disc loading
is necessary to split the needles in order to prevent an
overspeed. It is important, however, to explain and
__
Motivation demonstrate the recovery sequence should this happen
inadvertently.
Rapid decelerations straight ahead are a useful exercise for
developing coordination and accuracy during training. They are Review the dangers of potential vortex ring state when
also a means of aborting a departure from larger confined areas. reducing speed downwind or height is lost at low or no
Those involving a level minimum radius turn have practical forward airspeed.
application in the avoidance of obstacles or bad weather
conditions under operational conditions.
Quick stops from cross wind and downwind terminating
Airmanship / TEM into wind

• Lookout Describe the technique for performing a rapid deceleration

involving a level turn from crosswinds into wind, as follows:
• Engine and airframe limitations.
From cruise at 30 to 50 feet AGL, from level flight,
• Wind speed and direction
commence a level, balanced turn.
Teaching Points Initiate a flare while in the turn whilst maintaining height.
Straight ahead into wind Roll out heading into wind.
Describe how to carry out a rapid deceleration straight ahead
into wind as follows:
From straight and level at 50kt, 20-30ft agl with cruise
power set, commence a gentle flare with cyclic control
while simultaneously lowering the collective lever to
maintain height and maintain direction with yaw pedals.
At low forward speed, start levelling the helicopter.
As the aircraft slows anticipate the loss of translational lift
by applying collective lever and establish a hover.
When safely established in high hover descend out of the
avoid curve into low hover without delay.

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__ Turn and Flare

__ Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS From straight and level at 50kt, 30-50ft agl with cruise
power set, commence a turn through 180 degrees. Once
__ established in the turn commence a flare to reduce speed
__ • Lack of accurate yaw control due to large power changes. using the collective lever to maintain height.

__ • Maintaining the flared attitude after zero ground speed. Maintain 30kts until within 30 degrees of the wind (to
prevent LTE).
__ • Over pitching due to lack of anticipation of throttle
movement when increasing power to establish hover after As the aircraft slows anticipate the loss of translational lift
__ making a Quick Stop. by applying collective lever and establish a hover. When
__ • Lack of awareness of possible Vortex Ring State during
safely established in high hover descend out of the avoid

__ deceleration stage of Quick Stop.

curve into low hover without delay.
Discuss the forward distance covered versus radius of turn.
__ • Failure to correct yaw with power changes.

__ • Applying too much power during acceleration, over pitching. AIR EXERCISE

__ • Slow to rejoin the needles. Demonstrate a straight-ahead deceleration from cruising

flight into wind.
__ Student practice
__ Demonstrate a rapid deceleration involving a 90° turn into wind
__ As the aircraft slows anticipate the loss of translational lift
by applying collective lever and establish a hover. Student practice
__ When safely established in high hover descend out of the Demonstrate a rapid deceleration involving a 180° turn
__ avoid curve into low hover without delay. into wind using 'flare and turn' and 'turn and flare'
__ Come to a hover or resume forward speed. techniques.
Student practice
Maintain height throughout.
Maintain balanced flight and prevent yaw. TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
Decelerations involving a turn into wind require a high level of
Describe the techniques of performing a rapid deceleration
coordination and accuracy. They should be introduced as an
involving a level turn from the down wind terminating into
advanced exercise towards the end of the training syllabus.
wind.
It is important to stress smoothness and accuracy. The student
Flare and Turn should initially master gentle decelerations from airspeeds
From straight and level at 50kt, 30- 50ft agl with cruise outside the avoid areas of the height/velocity diagram for the
power set, commence a flare with cyclic control whilst helicopter to the hover, with the accent on smoothness,
simultaneously lowering the collective. accuracy of height and RPM. Overpitching, yaw and tail rotor
drift are common errors in the early stages and should be
As speed reduces, commence 180 degree turn whilst
corrected before speeding up the manoeuvre.
maintaining height in the turn with collective lever.
After smoothness and accuracy have been established, the
Maintain 30kts until within 30 degrees of the wind (to
entry speeds can gradually be increased to the cruise and the
prevent LTE).
rate of deceleration increased.
As the aircraft slows anticipate the loss of translational lift
Loss of height in the turns and when translational lift is lost is a
by applying collective lever and establish a hover. When
common fault.
safely established in high hover descend out of the avoid
curve into low hover without delay.
LESSON CHECKLIST
Discuss the forward distance covered versus radius of
turn. Exercise 24: Quick stops:
(A) use of power and controls;
(B) effect of wind;
(C) quick stops into wind;
(D) quick stops from crosswind and downwind
terminating into wind;
(E) danger of vortex ring;
(F) danger of high disc loading.

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25a __
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NAVIGATION __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS Explain that successful navigation flights commence with __
Maps/charts: symbols, scales, etc. thorough planning. Begin by deciding the route to be flown
__
Navigation Computer
and selecting the appropriate maps.
__
Mental Dead Reckoning (MDR) The route may be a straight line between the point of
departure and destination, but need not necessarily be so. __
Departure and arrival procedures The most appropriate route may involve a turning point to __
Track selection: drift lines, increments
NOTAM's
avoid for example, built up areas, controlled airspace,
inhospitable terrain __
Weather reports and forecasts Describe how to select an appropriate height/attitude to fly __
Lost procedures the route. Measure the true track and calculate magnetic __
Radio procedures
headings and groundspeed. Select suitable checkpoints
and measure distances. Calculate times between __
Publications checkpoints and total time for the flight. Calculate fuel __
Helicopter documents usage for each leg and total fuel required for the whole flight
__
Flight plans/notifications including the required reserves. Obtain the frequencies of
the ATC units to be used en route, including any Nav aids __
Minimum equipment to be carried on board and note this on the planning sheet. Check the flight plan for __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
gross or obvious errors. Complete a flight planning log
transferring relevant details as required on to the map for __
easy reference.
Aim
The following aspects should be taken into consideration
The aim is for the student to learn how to plan and conduct for planning a cross country flight (the MATED brief is used
a navigational flight as an illustration of a useful aide memoir):
Review
Exercise 6: Straight and level
Met - Interpretation of weather information by use of the
Exercise 7: Climbing appropriate significant weather charts, TAFs, METARS,
Exercise 8: Descending observation etc for the time period and route of the flight.
Ascertain the suitability of the en route weather and
Exercise 9: Turning
winds to be used for flight planning purposes . Identify
Motivation any hazards and threats and the mitigations to put in place
As part of the course a pilot has to complete a solo cross to overcome them.
country flight of 100nm with full stop landings at two Aircraft- the suitability of the aircraft for the flight to
aerodromes different from the aerodrome of landing. The ability include; fuel planning, AUM, CoG, ( take off and landing),
to navigate is also required to be demonstrated in Section 3 of Aircraft documentation including; ARC/ Maintenance
the Licence Skill Test. requirements, insurance, CofA, Registration, MEL, other
NAA legal requirements.
• Lookout
• W/V
• Helicopter limitations
• Flight Planning
• Legal aspects Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
Teaching Points
Flight Planning • The major fault in both Mental DR and map reading is
The principles used in visual navigation are part of the PPL calculating in terms of fixed wind speeds and forgetting the
Theoretical Knowledge syllabus and these should be relative slowness of the helicopter, and the greater effect of
covered prior to this lesson. wind.

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__ aTc - NOTAMs for departure/en-route/destination/ Consider the following items:

__ alternate airfields/LS Airfield information, plates, flight

plan where appropriate, airspace restrictions, controlled
High ground/obstructions – are you near any?

__ airspace, prohibited and danger areas Navigational aids,

Entering controlled airspace – are you close?

__ radio frequencies and services available. Lost/diversion

plan.
Limited experience, low time or student pilot – let them
know
__ Exercise – The navigation plan! Route to be flown, maps PAN call in good time – don't leave it too late
__ and charts of appropriate scales, turning points, true Met conditions – is the weather/daylight deteriorating?
__ track, wind corrections, magnetic headings to be flown,
Endurance – fuel remaining; is it getting low?
__ airspeed / groundspeed route times. Altitudes to be
flown; minimum altitude, the safety altitude for the leg or If in doubt consider a precautionary landing whilst
__ route. Fuel planning including fuel consumption, trip fuel, fuel/weather/daylight/terrain permits you to do so!
__ diversion fuel, minimum land fuel, total fuel required,
En-route Diversion
__ Duties – if operating multi-crew; crew brief. FI/student
division of responsibilities. Passenger brief
An en-route diversion may be necessary due to

__ insufficient fuel to reach your destination, deteriorating

weather , passenger request, aircraft malfunctions etc.
__ Explain the importance of phases of flight: In such cases it may be advisable to orbit around a known
__ Pre Departure procedures position, draw a line on your chart or follow a line feature

__ Filing a flight plan, booking out, ATIS /ATC liaison, airfield

to your alternate, estimate the distance and time to the
alternate and fuel required. Check the terrain, hazards and
__ procedures, pressure settings. Organising cockpit
management, including organisation of the cockpit
airspace along the proposed route using GNSS and radio

__ including maps, flight log , aircraft checklist, pens,

navigation aids to assist.

__ passenger briefing, safety equipment etc

Departure/En route
Degraded Visual Environment (DVE)
Explain that if you encounter a deteriorating visual
Setting heading procedure, altitude, timings/ ETAs, fuel environment (DVE) it requires a timely decision to turn
calculations, instrument checks, radio calls. Maintenance back, divert or land before becoming disorientated. A
of altitude/heading/speed. Making heading and ETA 180° turn in cloud can easily become a death spiral for
corrections using 1:60 rule, drift lines, MDR. Log keeping. those pilots not proficient in instrument flight.
Use of RT/navaids. Weather assessment / decision Arrival and aerodrome joining procedure
making. Transiting controlled airspace . Where available call ATC for joining instructions including
Uncertain/lost procedure circuit direction, runway, altimeter setting, joining
direction/procedure, traffic information, helicopter
When uncertain of position the following should be landing area.
considered:
Post Flight
Check compass heading, DI and time Security of helicopter, refuelling, closing of flight plan,
Check steering correct heading with flight log post-flight administration.
Calculate distance travelled since last known point – if
AIR EXERCISE
not long apply +/- 10% along track and then draw
30˚drift lines either side of track and this should be the Fly the cross-country exercise as prepared
area you are in Demonstrate VFR navigation/map reading techniques at
Read the map from ground to map - identify a major/ various heights and speeds and using different scale maps as
unique landmark appropriate.
Inform ATC – ask for help Student practice
Immediately that you confirm you are lost stay calm,
and remember your training TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
If the cloud base permits, climb to your Safety Altitude. It is important to expose the student to as many different types
Make a note of the time if you are in contact with an of terrain and airspace as possible and not to just train in the
ATSU, requesting assistance local area. Therefore consideration should be given to long
navigational training flights landing away at different airfields.

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LESSON CHECKLIST (c) maintenance of height or altitude and heading;
(d) revisions of ETA and heading:
__
Exercise 25a: Navigation:
(1) 10 ° line, double track and track error and
(A) flight planning:
closing angle;
(a) weather forecast and actuals;
(2) 1 in 60 rule;
(b) map selection and preparation and use;
(3) amending an ETA.
(1) choice of route:
(e) log keeping;
(2) controlled airspace, danger and prohibited
(f) use of radio;
areas;
(g) use of navaids (if fitted);
(3) safety altitudes and noise abatement
(h) minimum weather conditions for continuation of
considerations.
flight;
(c) calculations:
(i) in-flight decisions;
(1) magnetic heading(s) and time(s) en-route;
(j) transiting controlled or regulated airspace;
(2) fuel consumption;
(k) uncertainty of position procedure;
(3) mass and balance.
(l) lost procedure.
(d) flight information:
(C) arrival and aerodrome joining procedure:
(1) NOTAMs, etc.;
(a) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace;
(2) radio frequencies;
(b) altimeter setting;
(3) selection of alternate landing sites.
(c) entering the traffic pattern;
(e) helicopter documentation;
(d) circuit procedures.
(f) notification of the flight:
(e) parking;
(1) pre-flight administrative procedures;
(f) security of helicopter;
(2) flight plan form (where appropriate).
(g) refuelling;
(B) departure:
(h) closing of flight plan (if appropriate);
(a) organisation of cockpit workload;
(I) post-flight administrative procedures.
(b) departure procedures:
(1) altimeter settings;
(2) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace;
(3) setting heading procedure;
(4) noting of ETAs.

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25b __
__
NAVIGATION PROBLEMS AT LOW __
HEIGHTS AND REDUCED VISIBILITY __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Maps/charts: symbols, scales, etc. later stage than when operating at a higher altitude, __
Mental Dead Reckoning (MDR)
therefore reducing the amount of time a pilot has to react. __
Track selection: drift lines, increments
Operating at low level reduces the options for a landing site __
Weather reports and forecasts
in the case of an autorotation, forced or precautionary
landing. Wind velocity at low level is susceptible to surface
__
Lost procedures friction, local topography, mechanical turbulence, up and __
Radio procedures
down drafts and can be very difficult to predict.
__
Actions in the event of encountering DVE __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION Explain that a continuing significant number of accidents are
due to pilot disorientation in a DVE. Research has __
Aim demonstrated the strong relationship between pilot __
For the student to learn how to navigate at low level in
reduced visibility.
experience, helicopter handling characteristics and
available visual cues. Whilst most pilots receive limited __
Review
basic training in 'flight with sole reference to instruments', __
Exercise 25a: Navigation
the competence in this skill can deteriorate rapidly and
therefore cannot be relied upon to safely extricate the
__
Motivation unprepared pilot from an inadvertent IMC situation.
Analysis indicates that any, or a combination of, the
It is important that a student understands the difficulty of following three scenarios could result in a serious accident:
navigating at low level and the actions to be undertaken in the
event of encountering DVE.
Loss of control when attempting a manoeuvre to avoid a
Airmanship / TEM region of impaired visibility, i.e. backtracking, climbing
• Lookout above or descending below the DVE.

• W/V Spatial disorientation or loss of control when transferring

to instrument flight following an inadvertent encounter
• Helicopter limitations with IMC.
• Flight Planning Loss of situational awareness resulting in controlled flight
• Legal aspects into terrain/sea/obstacles or a mid air collision.

Teaching Points
Actions before descending
Explain that prior to descending to low level it ts important
to ensure that the aircraft is descending into a clear open
area free of obstacles especially pylons and wires. It is
advisable to reduce the speed to descend at Vy and conduct
a form of checks similar to the pre-land checks including
fuel, radio calls, engine temperature and pressures
(carburettor heat) wind and altimeter setting.

Hazards and Difficulty of operating at low level Common

COMMON ERRORS
Describe how, when operating at low level, the pilot’s visual Errors

range is reduced and the apparent groundspeed is

increased. Therefore map reading becomes more difficult. • Over-emphasis on map details tends to confuse a student
With the reduction of visual range the acquisition of pilot.
obstacles, other aircraft and birds can happen at a much

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 138

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__ Explain that if a pilot experiences DVE other risk factors may
come into play:
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ A low level of ambient light.
During the low flying, stress the changes in visual cues and (if

__ Poor defined or no visual horizon.

you are using a large-scale map) the speed at which the
helicopter moves over the map. If possible, expose the student
__ Few, if any, visual cues from the ground plane.
to different scales of map, particularly 1:500,000 and

__ Changes of speed and height are not perceivable.

1:250,000.

__ Reducing height does not improve the perception of the

Students should have had some exposure to Exercise 14c
Emergency Procedures, Exercise 27: Sloping Ground and
__ horizon or cues on the ground. Exercise 29: Confined Areas before being sent on the first solo
__ The view from the cockpit is obscured due to cross-country. This is to ensure that they are capable of landing
at a suitable site in the event they have to make a precautionary
__ precipitation/misting.
or emergency landing.
__ The cloud base is lowering causing an unintended
descent to retain similar forward visual cues. Enhanced ground instruction in the principles of threat and error
__ management, weather interpretation, planning and route

__ Serious consideration should be given to terminating

t h e
assessment, decision making on encountering DVE including
reversing course or conducting a precautionary landing should
__ flight and conducting a safe, controlled precautionary be given prior to the flight exercise.

__ Precautionary Landing Wherever possible, flight simulation should be used to

__ It should be noted that a 'precautionary' or 'forced' landing demonstrate to student pilots the effects of flight into DVE and
to enhance their understanding and need for avoidance of this
__ that is made in response to an aircraft malfunction/
emergency or deteriorating weather, will invariably be an potentially fatal flight regime.
__ 'off airfield' landing. Therefore the techniques prescribed

__ for the recce, approach and departure in Exercise 14 & 29

should be utilised even if in an abbreviated format.

AIR EXERCISE
Demonstrate a descent and a navigational flight at low level
Student practice.
Demonstrate a precautionary landing simulating
encountering DVE.
Student practice.

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 25b: Navigation problems at low heights and in
reduced visibility:
(A) actions before descending;
(B) hazards (for example obstacles and other aircraft);
(C) difficulties of map reading;
(D) effects of wind and turbulence;
(E) avoidance of noise sensitive areas;
(F) actions in the event of encountering DVE;
(G) decision to divert or conduct precautionary landing;
(H) bad weather circuit and landing;
(I) appropriate procedures and choice of landing area;
(J) precautionary landing.

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25c __
__
RADIO NAVIGATION __
__
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Maps/charts: symbols, scales, etc.
GNSS
__
Track selection: drift lines, increments (a) selection of waypoints;
__
Weather reports and forecasts (b) to or from indications and orientation;
__
Radio procedures (c) error messages; __
GNSS operation (d) hazards of over-reliance on the use of GNSS in the __
VOR/ADF NDB/VHF DF continuation of flight in DVE.
__
Use of en-route terminal radar Use of VHF Omni Range:
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;
__
Aim
(b) selection and identification;
__
The aim is for the student to learn how to navigate by use of
(c) OBS/CDI functions;
__
radio navigation aids.
(d) to or from indications and orientation;
__
Review
(e) determination of radial;
(f) intercepting and maintaining a radial;
__
The principles of the operation of radio navigational aids are part
of the PPL Theoretical Knowledge syllabus and this should be (g) VOR passage;
covered prior to this lesson (h) obtaining a fix from two VORs.
Motivation
Use of ADF NDB:
It is important that a student understands the availability,
use and limitations of radio navigational aids to be able to utilise (a) availability, AIP and frequencies;
them. (b) selection and identification;
Airmanship / TEM (c) orientation relative to the beacon;
(d) homing.
• Airmanship/TEM
• Lookout Use of VHF/DF:

• W/V (a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

• Helicopter limitations (b) RTF procedures and ATC liaison;

(c) obtaining a QDM and homing.
• Flight Planning
NOTAMs
•
Teaching Points
The principles of the operation of radio navigational aids are part
of the PPL Theoretical Knowledge syllabus and this should be
covered prior to this lesson. The user guide for the specific Common
COMMON ERRORS
navigational aids fitted to the aircraft will explain the operation Errors

of the individual instrument to be used. If possible the operation

of radio navigation aids should be practised either by use of an • At low levels the wind direction can be affected considerably
FNPT, computer based training or with the aircraft on the by terrain and large errors may occur if a constant check is
ground prior to getting airborne. Once the student is familiar not kept on the wind.
with the operation of the aid the following elements should be
demonstrated and practised in the air: • Aviate - Navigate - Communicate.

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__ Use of en –route terminal radar:

__ (a) availability and AIP;

__ (b) procedures and ATC liaison;

__ (c) pilot’s responsibilities;

__ (d) secondary surveillance radar (if transponder fitted):

__ (1) transponders;
__ (2) code selection;

__ (3) interrogation and reply.

__ Use of DME:

__ (a) station selection and identification; LESSON CHECKLIST

__ (b) modes of operation: distance, groundspeed and time to
Exercise 25c: Radio navigation:
__ run.
(A) use of GNSS:
__ AIR EXERCISE
(a) selection of waypoints;

__ Demonstrate the use of radio navigational aids

(b) to or from indications and orientation;
(c) error messages;
__ Student practice. (d) hazards of over-reliance on the use of GNSS in
__ the continuation of flight in DVE.

__ TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS (B) use of VHF omni range:

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;
__ Enhanced ground instruction in the principles of threat and error
management, weather interpretation, planning and route
(b) selection and identification;
© OBS;
assessment, decision making on encountering DVE including
(d) to or from indications and orientation;
reversing course or conducting a precautionary landing should
be given prior to the flight exercise. (e) CDI;
(f) determination of radial;
Wherever possible, flight simulation or computer based training (g) intercepting and maintaining a radial;
should be used initially to demonstrate and give the student
(h) VOR passage;
practice of the principles and operation in the use of radio
(i) obtaining a fix from two VORs.
navigation equipment.
(C) use of ADF equipment: NDBs:
Wherever possible, flight simulation should be used to (a) availability, AIP and frequencies;
demonstrate to student pilots the effects of flight into DVE and (b) selection and identification;
to enhance their understanding and need for avoidance of this (c) orientation relative to the beacon;
potentially fatal flight regime.
(d) homing.
(D) use of VHF/DF:
(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;
(b) RTF procedures and ATC liaison;
(c) obtaining a QDM and homing.
(E) use of en-route or terminal radar:
(a) availability and AIP;
(b) procedures and ATC liaison;
(c) pilots responsibilities;
(d) secondary surveillance radar
(if transponder fitted):
(1) transponders;
(2) code selection;
(3) interrogation and reply.
(F) use of DME:
(a) station selection and identification;
(b) modes of operation: distance, groundspeed
and time to run.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 141

 __
26 __
ADVANCED TAKE-OFF, LANDINGS AND __
__
TRANSITIONS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Flight guide:
Teaching Points
__
Limitations
Landing and take off out of wind
__
Load and density altitude performance charts
Describe the effects of hovering/ transitioning out of wind
__
Vortex ring
including the difference in ground effect, translational lift
and directional stability. __
Over-pitching - Rotor Stall Describe the technique for taking off when out of wind __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
as follows: __
Tilt the disc towards the relative wind to avoid the __
Aim tendency to roll away from the wind and drift down wind.
As the helicopter leaves the ground, reposition the cyclic
__
For the student to learn additional take-off and landing techniques
to maintain ground position. __
Review
Describe the technique for landing out of wind as follows: __
Exercise 12: Take-off and Landing
From a steady accurate hover, lower the helicopter on to __
Exercises 13 & 23: Transitions
Motivation
the ground avoiding over-controlling. The skid that is likely
to touch the ground first is dependent on wind
__
Although the techniques learned in Exercises 12, 13 and 23 are direction,CoG and direction of rotation of rotor blades.
those that should continue to be used under optimum When on the ground the rotor disc should be maintained
conditions, situations such as high all-up weight, high density level with cyclic as the collective lever is lowered. Over-
altitude, unfavourable wind conditions or obstacles close to the controlling on the pedals may cause large power
flight path may dictate the use of advanced techniques for a fluctuations.
take-off, transition to the climb, approach and landing. Another Running take-off
practical application is in conditions of restricted visibility, such
Explain that this is not a conventional take off for a
as snow, dust or sand.
helicopter especially one with a skidded undercarriage.
Airmanship / TEM The take off path must be level, firm and clear of
obstacles as even slight up slope, soft ground or long
• Lookout: obstacles grass will require a higher power setting.
• Helicopter limitations Describe the technique for a running take off as follows:
• W/V Raise the collective lever until the aircraft is light on the
• Avoid Curve skids and gently move the cyclic forward to achieve
Landing Site Recce acceleration.
•

Size - is it large enough? Common

Errors
COMMON ERRORS
Shape - is the Ls aligned with the wind/direction of approach?
Surrounds - are there any obstacles on the approach/
• Slow to appreciate dangers of down wind approach i.e.-
overshoot? Vortex Ring Condition: High Rates of Descent, Low
Slope - is the LS flat? Airspeed, Possible loss of yaw control.

Surface - is the surface firm/even? • Exceeding maximum power available.

• Misjudging height and distances required.

• Failure to recover in the event of reaching Cyclic limits /

control stops.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 142

__
__ As the speed increases allow the aircraft to fly off the Zero speed landing

__ ground. Care must be exercised as the helicopter

breaks contact with the ground as there can be a
Explain that this type of landing is useful in conditions where
it is not desirable to approach to a hover, such as in dust,
__ tendency for the helicopter to pitch 'nose down' and powdery snow or turbulence. It requires less power than a

__ this must be counteracted with cyclic control. normal approach to a hover but more power than a running
landing.
__ Cushion creep take-off
Describe the technique for carrying out a zero speed landing
__ Point out that this type of departure is very economical in
power required, since it involves making maximum use of as follows:
__ the ground cushion until translational lift has been acquired.
Approach the selected landing spot as required.
__ It does, however, require a relatively flat departure path that
is free of obstacles. This technique can be effective in When the approach is almost completed, and
__ circumstances where it is not possible to take off into wind. groundspeed is close to zero, anticipate loss of
__ Describe the technique for carrying out a cushion take-off,
translational lift by applying sufficient power to minimise
the rate of descent.
__ as follows:
Let the helicopter sink gently through the cushion on to
__ Carry out a hover check at a low hover in maximum the ground.
__ ground effect facing into wind.

__ Lookout
Point out that this type of landing requires careful prior
confirmation that the selected spot is suitable for landing.
__ Initiate slow forward movement with cyclic.
Running landing
__ Apply sufficient power to prevent sink.
Explain that this type of landing can be used in similar
__ Maintain gentle acceleration, staying in maximum ground
effect.
conditions as the zero speed landing. Although it requires

__ As the ground effect is lost and translational lift is

less power to perform and is easier to control the directional
stability as translational lift is maintained throughout the
acquired, select climb power and airspeed. approach, a large, flat, smooth surface such as a runway is
essential.
Stress that, in order for this type of take-off to be Describe the technique for carrying out a run-on landing, as
effective, all control movements must be gentle and follows:
Vertical take-off over obstacles
Approach the selected landing area as required.
Explain that this type of departure should only be
considered if there is no reasonable alternative as the As the approach is completed, run on at slow walking
power requirement is greater and the helicopter will be pace maintaining translational lift throughout.
operating in the avoid curve. Apply sufficient power to cushion the landing.
Describe the technique for carrying out a vertical or After landing, maintain the cyclic and collective positions
towering take-off, as follows: until forward movement stops. Maintain heading
throughout with pedals.
Establish a low hover into wind and complete a power
check and take-off checks. Approaches

Apply sufficient power to initiate and maintain a gentle Explain that in certain conditions it is sometimes necessary
vertical climb. to approach to land at an angle other than standard, as
follows:
Ensure that the climb is vertical by reference to obstacles
ahead and to the side of the helicopter. Steep approach

As the transition point is reached, check for a positive rate This approach is for avoiding obstacles on the final
of climb, the aircraft is clear of the obstacles and that approach path. Point out that airspeed will be lower than
there is still sufficient power margin for the transition. normal and that more power will be required.
Then ease the cyclic forward so that the helicopter Always prepare for a zero speed landing.
transitions and continues to climb. Stress the need to maintain airspeed >30kts for as long as
As translational lift is attained, select a climb attitude and possible owing to the danger of a vortex ring state
apply climb power. occurring or of insufficient power to prevent a hard
landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 143

 __
Shallow approach A go around must be considered if any of the following are
experienced:
__
Explain to the student that a shallow approach requires
less power than a standard or steep approach. It should be • directional stability becomes difficult or the rear cyclic
__
employed when the approach path is free from obstacles stop is reached. __
and where conditions limit the power available, or where
• excessive power is required to control the __
maximum power is available but inadequate for the use of
standard techniques.
approach.
__
Stress that care should be taken to avoid making the • the RoD is > 300 fpm with speed less than 30kts. __
approach angle too shallow, i.e. flat. This requires more Go around
__
power and can lead to problems in decelerating to a hover
because of the possibility of the tail striking the ground.
Explain that throughout the approach to the hover the pilot
__
must be prepared to conduct a 'go-around' should the
aircraft RoD, power requirement, or speed become __
Crosswind and downwind transitions
excessive. __
Explain that wherever possible crosswind and downwind
transitions should be avoided as they require more power,
Discuss the technique to be employed for the go-around __
they can be difficult to control and require a larger clear take
and why it is important to ensure airspeed is >30kts before
power is applied to arrest the RoD and establish the climb. __
off/landing area.
__
Describe the techniques for a downwind transition from the
hover as follows:
AIR EXERCISE __
Review the standard take off and landing techniques then __
Cushion transition is the preferred technique if a long
open flat take-off area is available. From a low hover
demonstrate take offs and landings out of wind.
__
gently accelerate forward using power to maintain height. Student practice
__
When translational lift is obtained and positive airspeed
indicated on the ASI the maximum power available
Review normal transition to and from the hover including an LS
recce. __
should be used to establish best rate of speed. If there are Student practice
obstacles present then the best angle of climb speed Demonstrate the following transitions:
should be used.
Running take-off
Vertical transition should only be used if the take off path Cushion creep take-off
does not permit a cushion transition and HOGE
performance has been established. It is conducted from Vertical take-off
the low hover and a vertical climb is established. When Running landing
above the obstacle height and before the vertical climb Zero speed landing
decreases apply gentle forward cyclic to achieve
Cross wind/downwind takeoff/landing
translation lift avoiding loss of height. Climb away using
best rate or angle of climb as appropriate. Steep approach
Go-around
Explain the techniques for the downwind transition to the
hover as follows: Student practice

Fly the circuit at an appropriate height extending the TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
'into wind' leg for about twice the normal length as the
aircraft will drift towards the landing site when turning on Initially this exercise should ideally be taught on a flat, firm, level
to base/final legs. On finals the speed should be open area free from obstacles such as an airfield. in order that
decreased to approx 30-40kts dependent on height. A the best rate of climb and a normal approach can be used. Only
slightly shallow constant angle approach should be flown when proficient in the techniques should obstacles be
with a RoD <300 fpm. Power required will be higher than introduced to demonstrate best angle of climb, vertical take off
normal and direction stability difficult to control, so all and steep approaches.
control movements should be kept to a minimum. A low Once a technique has been demonstrated and the student
hover should be established with the minimum possible practised it, then the exercises can be combined into a circuit
attitude change as the tail will be close to the ground. practising the various transitions to and from the hover.
The techniques in this exercise are further practised using
limited power in Exercise 28.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 144

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 26: Advanced take-off, landings and transitions:
(A) landing and take-off out of wind (performance
reduction);
(B) ground effect, translational lift and directional
stability variation when out of wind;
(C) downwind transitions;
(D) vertical take-off over obstacles;
(E) running take-off;
(F) cushion creep take-off;
(G) reconnaissance of landing site;
(H) running landing;
(I) zero speed landing;
(J) crosswind and downwind landings;
(K) steep approach;
(L) go-around.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 145

 __
27 __
__
SLOPING GROUND __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS Teaching Points __
Dynamic /Static rollover
Explain that sloping ground techniques involve gentle and __
Flight guide: Limitations cautious control movements. The techniques used for __
Tail rotor drift and roll
sloping ground landing are all used for landing on all even
ground or when the pilot is unsure of the firmness of the
__
Ground effect ground e.g. sandy, packed snow, wet/marshy, muddy __
Ground resonance
conditions. __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
Explain that sloping ground operations can be divided into four __
phases:
__
Aim reconnaissance
__
For the student to learn procedures and techniques for
operating from sloping ground
planning/manoeuvring
__
Review
landing
__
Exercise 12: Take-off and landing
take-off.
__
Exercise 26 Advanced take-offs and landings
Reconnaissance:
__
Motivation
Explain that all landing surfaces require careful attention
during landing and take-off. Extra care must be taken where
__
Describe the helicopter’s ability to operate from unprepared the surface is likely to be soft, slippery, or where there are
surfaces and sloping ground. Explain that pilots are frequently obstacles such as rocks or tree stumps.
required to use this ability. Describe how cross-slope landing performance is affected
Airmanship / TEM by cyclic control limitations and the fact that one skid hangs
lower than the other at the hover.
• LS recce Explain how it is possible to reach control stops on a slope
Size - is the slope big enough to land the helicopter especially when out of wind or close to CoG.
ensuring blade/ tail clearance? Explain that landing into wind is always desirable for
helicopter handling, but that there are often occasions
Shape - the shape of the slope in relation to the wind may
when the pilot must ‘trade-off’ wind and slope in order to
dictate direction of landing.
get the best compromise between the ground and
Surrounds - check area free of obstacles, FOD, persons. helicopter limitations.
Slope - does the slope look to be within the limits of the Explain the effect of a slope on ground effect and the power
aircraft/capabilities of the pilot? required to maintain the hover.
Surface - is the surface firm and not slippery (wet grass)? Point out that, in view of the above, it is vital to make a
careful assessment of the ground before attempting to
land.
• W/V
• Helicopter limitations
• Escape path Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS

• Failure to maintain disc attitude.

• Jerky control movements.
• Failure to maintain heading and yaw during power changes.

• Allowing aircraft to roll with one skid in contact with the

ground and rapidly reducing / raising collective lever.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 146

__
__ Manoeuvring Take-off

__ Point out that the tail assembly is particularly vulnerable

during sloping ground operations. Pilots should be
Describe how to take off from sloping ground, as follows:

__ constantly aware of the tail rotor when making hovering

Ensure that the RPM is at the take-off setting.

__ turns which should, whenever possible, always be made Carefully position the cyclic into the slope so that the disc
is horizontal and gently raise the collective maintaining
__ by turning the tail away from a slope and not towards a
slope, when landing upslope in conditions where the the disc position with cyclic so that the helicopter breaks
__ ground levels out behind the helicopter, or when landing contact with the ground vertically. Stress the vital

__ downslope. importance of avoiding any excessive lateral movement.

__ Landing
Prevent yaw throughout.

__ Describe the landing performance and limitations of the Considerations

__ type of training helicopter being used. Point out the dangers of turning rotor blades to persons in
the close vicinity of the helicopter in this type of operation,
__ Describe how to land on sloping ground, with left/right skid
up slope as follows: and in particular, to avoid embarking and disembarking

__ Establish a steady hover.

passengers located uphill of the helicopter due to the
reduced main rotor tip clearance above the ground. Explain
__ Lower the collective gently until the upslope skid that it is the pilot’s duty to brief passengers and ground
__ contacts the ground. crew in this regard, whenever possible.

__ Continue lowering the collective, at the same time Review the dangers of dynamic/static rollover and the need

__ moving the cyclic gently towards the slope keeping the

disc horizontal to prevent lateral movement of the
to ensure before take-off that the helicopter is within C of G
limits and that the landing gear is clear of snags and
__ helicopter. obstacles. Talk through the immediate action required in the

__ When both skids are in full contact with the ground,

smoothly lower the collective until it is fully down.
event conditions likely to lead to dynamic rollover are
encountered, ensuring that this is fully understood by the
student as intervention time is minimal.
Prevent yaw throughout.
When certain the helicopter will not slide, centre the AIR EXERCISE
cyclic.
Select an area of sloping ground well within the helicopter’s
Point out the importance of maintaining flying RPM until limits and demonstrate reconnaissance of, and manoeuvring
the collective is fully down. over, the intended landing area.
Point out the need for smooth and accurate control Student practice
movements and for not overcontrolling. Explain that
Demonstrate right and left skid up slope landings, landing in
with one side of the landing gear in contact with the
both directions, pointing out the difference in helicopter
ground it is possible to induce a rate of roll that is
performance where appropriate.
impossible to counteract with opposite cyclic.
Student practice
Describe the signs that tell you cyclic control limits are
being reached because of excessive slope. Explain that Demonstrate a nose up slope landing.
when they start to occur, or if the helicopter starts to Student practice
slide, the helicopter should be brought smoothly back to
the hover and landed elsewhere. Select an area of sloping ground that is close to the helicopter’s
limits and demonstrate landings and take-offs.
Describe how to land on sloping ground with the
aircraft nose up the slope as follows: Student practice
Select an area of sloping ground that is beyond the helicopter’s
limits and demonstrate the indications that the limits are being
The technique for landing nose upslope is the same approached, and the methods of aborting the landing.
as that above. The first contact will be made with the Student practice
front of the skids and the cyclic is moved forward to
keep the disc level as the collective is lowered. Demonstrate wind/slope trade-off.

Caution should be exercised as both wheeled and Student practice of reconnaissance and selection of landing
skidded aircraft are prone to sliding down the slope points.
when conducting a nose up slope landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 147

 __
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS __
The performance and techniques involved with different types __
of helicopter on sloping ground vary. This exercise should be
tailored to meet the performance of the training helicopter. __
(1) Students tend to be very tense when introduced to __
sloping ground operations. They will be likely to __
overcontrol and will tire quickly. It is vital that the
__
student is proficient at hovering and standard take-offs
and landings before this exercise is introduced. __
(2) Students will tend to look at the ground close to the __
helicopter. Overcontrolling frequently results, and it will __
often be necessary to remind the student to raise his or
her eyes and use the horizon as a datum. __
When students are proficient, let them make the __
(3)
decision where to land so as to judge their own ability to __
evaluate slopes.
__
Start the student on `beginners slopes’ and gradually
(4) increase the severity as proficiency improves. __
Ensure that the student is shown some slopes that are __
(5) a mix of cross slope and up/down slope, so that the
__
helicopter has to be landed diagonally on the slope.
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 27: Sloping ground:
(A) limitations and assessing slope angle;
(B) wind and slope relationship: blade and control stops;
(C) effect of CG when on slope;
(D) ground effect on slope and power required;
(E) right skid up slope;
(F) left skid up slope;
(G) nose up slope;
(H) avoidance of dynamic roll over, dangers of soft
ground and sideways movement on touchdown;
(I) danger of striking main or tail rotor by harsh control
movement near ground.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 148

 __
28 __
__
LIMITED POWER __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS The In-Flight Power Check. __
Flight guide The helicopter should be flown straight and level, normally __
Limitations at the recommended Vy speed, ideally within 500ft AGL of __
Load and density altitude performance charts
the landing site, in smooth air conditions. The power
required should then be noted. The collective lever can then __
Power curve be raised to the maximum power available (ensuring that __
Vortex Ring none of the aircraft limits is exceeded) and note the power
__
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION
achieved. The difference between the 2 readings is the
power able to be used to conduct a landing. The landing __
capabilities of a piston engine helicopter are typically as __
Aim listed below. However they may differ for each type and
should be verified before use: __
For the student to learn how to transition, to and from the hover,
when the power is limited. __
Review
<3 inches MAP available – a running landing is required.
__
Exercise 26 Advanced Take-off, Landing and Transitions.
4 inches MAP available – a zero speed may be conducted
dependent on w/v and surface.
__
Motivation 5 inches MAP available – approach to a low hover. __
Helicopter pilots may wish to operate at maximum all up mass, 6 inches MAP available – HOGE may be possible. __
or, in ambient conditions, where the power margin available 7 inches MAP available – a vertical descent from HOGE
may be limited, or land an aircraft safely with a malfunction that may be possible.
limits the power available. To do this the techniques previously
learned in Exercise 26 can be utilised. It should be stressed to
the student that these techniques should not be used for a take
off with an aircraft that has a malfunction or is operating at Common
COMMON ERRORS
Errors
above all up mass.
Airmanship / TEM
• Take-off:

• Lookout • Pulling cyclic aft as aircraft leaves ground.

• W/V • Incorrect use of collective lever, e.g. jerky movements.

• Landing site recce • Large yaw control movements.

• Helicopter limitations • Exceeding or not using simulated power.

Inaccurate RPM control.
• Power Checks •
In a towering take-off, continuing the vertical climb too long
Teaching Points •
before starting the transition.
Power Checks Hover and/or Landing:
•
Explain that in conditions where it is suspected the power Inaccurate Power Check.
may be limited it is essential to establish the margin •
between power available and power required to take-off or Allowing speed to fall too early so using up all the power
• available too soon.
land before attempting the manoeuvre. This can be
achieved by the following power check procedures: Running on at too high a speed without using all the power
• available.
Not maintaining a constant angle of approach.
•
Under/overshooting a selected landing point.
•
Not making a gradual transition.
•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 150

__
__ The Take-Off Power Check. AIR EXERCISE
__ The aircraft should be established in an IGE hover and the
power required noted. The maximum power available can
Demonstrate the take-off power and the in-flight power checks.
__ be calculated and corrected for temperature and altitude. Student practice
__ The power margin able to be used for take-off is established Review the standard take off and landing techniques then
__ by subtracting the 2 figures. demonstrate take offs and landings out of wind.

__ The take-off capabilities of a piston engine helicopter are Student practice

__ typically as listed below. However they may differ for each

type and should be verified before use:
Review normal transition to and from the hover including an LS
recce.
__ Student practice
__ <½ inch MAP in hand – a running take –off is required
Demonstrate the following transitions with a power limit set by
__ ½ inch MAP in hand – a cushion creep may be achievable
the instructor:
__ 2 inches MAP in hand – a vertical take –off over obstacles
Running take-off
__ The following exercises should be demonstrated and
Cushion creep take-off
__ practised with a power limit set by the instructor utilising
the techniques previously taught in Exercise 26 Vertical take-off
__ Running take-off Running landing
__ Cushion creep take-off Zero speed landing
__ Vertical take-off over obstacles Cross wind/downwind takeoff/landing
__ Running landing Steep approach
__ Zero speed landing Go-around

Approach to low hover Student practise

Approach to hover OGE
Steep Approach
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
Go around.
Initially this exercise should ideally be taught on a flat, firm, level
open area free from obstacles, such as an airfield, in order that
the best rate of climb and a normal approach can be used. Only
when proficient in the techniques should obstacles be
introduced to demonstrate best angle of climb, vertical take-off
and steep approaches.
If the student's performance is initially degraded because they
are concentrating on achieving the power limit, they should
practise the technique without a power limit just using as little
power as possible and then refine the technique.
Once a technique has been demonstrated and the student
practised it, then the exercises can be combined into a circuit
practising the various transitions to and from the hover.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 151

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__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

LESSON CHECKLIST
Exercise 28: Limited power:
(A) take-off power check;
(B) vertical take-off over obstacles;
(C) in-flight power check;
(D) running landing;
(E) zero speed landing;
(F) approach to low hover;
(G) approach to hover;
(H) approach to hover OGE;
(I) steep approach;
(J) go-around.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 152

 __
29 __
__
CONFINED AREAS __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Recirculation __
Height/Velocity Graph Considerations __
Dynamic Rollover __
Legal Aspects including low flying and landing permissions __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION __
__
Aim
__
For a student to learn the procedures and techniques for
conducting a recce, an approach, manoeuvring within, and
__
departing from a confined area. __
Review __
Exercise 18: Hover OGE and Vortex Ring __
Exercise 26: Advanced Take-offs and Landings __
Exercise 27: Sloping ground. __
Motivation
The helicopter’s ability to approach, manoeuvre, land and take-off
from an off airfield Landing Site (LS) or unprepared Landing Site is
Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
one of the most important aspects of helicopter operations. Pilots
will want at some stage to fly passengers to various landing sites
such as hotels, golf courses, sporting venues, etc. Whilst all • Approach and Landing:
these sites can vary in their dimensions, approaches, hazards, • Not appreciating wind effect on rates of descent, height and
elevation, and location, the same basic principles should be speed.
employed. ALS that has obstructions that require a steeper than
• Impatience during approach and landing.
normal approach, where the manoeuvring space in the ground
cushion is limited, or whenever obstructions force a steeper than • Not maintaining a safe clearance from obstacles.
normal climb-out angle is often defined as 'Confined Area'. Over-controlling with cyclic and collective lever with large
•
Airmanship / TEM yaw pedal movements.
Not using sloping ground technique on landing.
•
• Lookout Take-off:
• W/V A student will take off and attempt the vertical climb from a
•
• Recce high hover and thus has less power available to overcome
inertia and climb.
• Vortex Ring
Not making full use of the length of the clearing, and not
• LTE •
selecting the best exit path.
• Power Checks Attempting to "tower" out of too small a clearing or when the
• aircraft's performance is in doubt.
Teaching Points
Describe the different stages of locating, conducting the recce/ If the collective lever is raised excessively overpitching will
• result and rpm can only be regained by lowering the lever.
approach/ manoeuvring and the departure from a confined
There is a marked tendency for students to attempt to climb
• over the approaching obstacle by moving the cyclic aft. This
should be resisted.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 154

__
__ Locating the LS Explain the different types of recce that can be flown as follows:

__ Explain it is unlikely that the LS will be marked or obvious

and consequently it may be difficult to identify from the air.
Orbital - This is normally the easiest technique to fly. It

__ Therefore it may be necessary to employ some of the

involves flying an orbit around the landing site, usually with
the landing site on the 'pilot's side' therefore allowing
__ following techniques to make sure you land in the right maximum visibility of the site. However it requires the pilot

__ place – it should be noted that any co-ordinates given to the

pilot should be double checked before use!
to identify safe precautionary landing sites as he flies the
recce around the LS in case of engine failure. It can be
__ Passengers - The passenger may be familiar with the difficult to fly accurately around a very small site or in strong

__ destination.
wind conditions.

__ Maps - Larger scale maps will have individual buildings and

Fly by - If it is not possible to fly an orbital recce safely all
around the LS (e.g. if the terrain on one side is unsuitable for
__ fields marked.
an emergency landing) it may be possible to fly past the LS
__ GPS - GPS can be accurate down to 100 m. However they
are unlikely to identify an individual LS.
over a suitable area – ideally with the LS on the pilot's side to

__ Photographs - A regularly used site may have a photograph

complete the recce elements. It may be then necessary to
reposition for a second or third 'fly by' which can be
__ in a brochure or an LS directory. achieved by flying the downwind elements away from the

__ Satellite Imagery - A satellite generated picture has the

LS over terrain more suitable for an emergency landing.

__ advantage of giving a plan view from the air. Hover - As a last resort it may be possible to bring the
helicopter to an 'out of ground effect' high hover to recce
__ Directory - More commonly used sites can be found in a the LS.
__ published LS Directory.
However this technique requires training and skilful
__ Other pilots - Speaking to a pilot who has previous been to
an LS.
handling by the pilot as it requires an increased

__ Markers - An LS may have an 'H', helipad or a windsock

awareness of power margins, avoid curve/height
velocity diagram, wind velocity, escape routes, prior
indicating the location identification of an appropriate emergency landing site
in the event of an engine failure while in the high hover.
The recce of a confined area
Explain an airborne recce of an LS is required, even if the Once a pilot is competent at conducting an LS recce it
site has been previously used, to assess the suitability of should be possible to obtain all the necessary information
the site for the individual pilot/aircraft capability, the given from a safe height in as few orbits as possible. However for
w/v, the best approach/departure path, and local hazards. an inexperienced pilot or when faced with a more complex
When conducting the recce, it is necessary to minimise the LS, it may be necessary to conduct a 'high recce' followed
noise/disturbance to the public, and also to fly at a height/ by a ‘low recce'.
speed combination that will offer the best possible chance
of a successful landing in the event of engine failure. Explain that the recce should identify the following points (often
Therefore as a principle: referred to as the 5 S's),

Always fly environmentally and defensively and never Size - Is the LS big enough for me at my experience level to
lower or slower than is necessary! get this size aircraft in and what type of approach shall be
required to fly (e.g. a large area – single angle approach, a
Speed - The recce should be flown at a nominal speed medium sized area – a double angle approach, or a small
close to Vy, but not normally slower than 40Kts or VTOSS. area – a vertical approach) and what type of take-off will I
decide to perform?
Height - The recce should not be flown any lower than is Shape - What shape is the LS in relation to the wind velocity
necessary and ideally not less than 500ft AGL or the (w/v) or direction of approach/departure?
height specified in the RFM 'avoid curve/height velocity
diagram' in case of an engine failure and to avoid Surrounds - Establishing a safe area to fly over (defensively
unnecessary disturbance of the local population. and environmentally) while conducting the recce, including
establishing any markers to be used for the circuit. Establish
the hazards in the immediate LS area and any forward and
lateral markers to be used in the LS to establish the centre
of the area for the manoeuvring /landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 155

 __
Slope - Identify any perceivable slope in the LS. This is Describe the different types of approach that may be required
as follows:
__
normally confirmed by coming to a slightly higher than
normal hover while manoeuvring the LS. Single Angle Approach
__
Surface - Identify the nature of the LS surface for landing __
including ground clearance.
Maintain height until touchdown point is seen.
Hold line of sight with small collective movements.
__
Describe how to fly a circuit as follows:
Maintain a steady, controlled ROD with power/ speed
__
Choose the circuit direction. Sometimes it is not possible combination to avoid Vortex Ring and also to avoid __
with the landing site on the 'pilot's side'. excessive ROD that may require large/rapid collective
__
Fly using markers, at Vy and at a height that would permit
an autorotation to a clear area in the event of an engine
inputs to arrest the ROD.
__
failure.
In later stages reduce speed to slow apparent ground
speed. __
Conduct power check (if not already conducted on the Descend to establish a ground cushion at slightly higher __
high/low recce) and verify the power margin available is than normal hover. __
sufficient for the approach/take off.
Double Angle Approach __
Describe how to conduct the final approach and landing as
follows:
Initially a shallow angle may be flown to a point on the __
Turn on to finals – maintaining initially Vy until the turn is
other side of the LS until the landing area is visible.
__
finished beware LTE. Monitor ROD/Speed/Power margin Once the touchdown point is visible the angle is
__
and – beware VORTEX RING STATE. Note escape routes,
emergency landing areas, wind shear and turbulence and
steepened for final approach to hover.
Hold line of sight with small collective movements.
__
consider a go around using the planned overshoot path if:
Maintain a steady, controlled ROD with power/speed __
• any yaw deviation from selected approach heading
cannot be safely corrected.
combination to avoid Vortex Ring and also to avoid
excessive ROD that may require large/rapid collective
__
inputs to arrest the ROD.
• the power margin is insufficient to continue the
approach safely. In later stages reduce speed to slow apparent ground
speed.
• the rate of descent becomes excessive.
Descend to establish a ground cushion at slightly higher
the closing speed becomes excessive (especially with
• than normal hover.
a rear cyclic application which may indicate a downwind
component).
Vertical Approach
the airspeed falls below 30kts with an excessively high
• Shallow approach to an out of ground effect hover over
rate of descent.
the centre of the LS. Note increased power requirement
and ensure sufficient power margin for controlled
Check again Surface, Slope, Obstruction, wires, FOD
descent.
Reduce groundspeed in final stages ensuring a safe
Descend vertically maintaining ground position by use of
clearance from obstacles.
lateral markers.
Maintain a constant angle approach, ideally to a spot ⅓ of
Maintain a steady, controlled ROD with power/ speed
the way into the area.
combination to avoid Vortex Ring and also to avoid ROD
Ensure tail clearance by use of a lateral marker if required. that may require large/rapid collective inputs to arrest the
Establish slightly higher than normal hover while checking ROD.
surface and slope. Descend to establish a ground cushion at slightly higher
Land using sloping ground technique.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 156

__
__ Describe how to manoeuvre within a confined area as follows: Confirm or reselect take-off path.

__ Explain due to danger of blade strike/tail strike/FOD,

manoeuvring within an LS should only be conducted when
Reposition within area if required.

__ it is entirely necessary to do so. If it is necessary to Select forward and lateral markers as appropriate.

__ manoeuvre, either to park the aircraft or reposition in

preparation for a take-off, then extreme caution should be
Lookout above – check for overhead obstructions.

__ used and it may be advisable to taxi slightly higher and

Transition using appropriate technique.

__ slower than normal, keeping a good look out. Thorough lookout on lifting from the confined area
especially for any aircraft overflying/arriving/departing the
__ Turn About the Tail LS.
__ Adopt a slightly higher than normal hover.
A normal transition using best ROC should be flown
__ Maintain the tail over the same ground position. wherever possible. 'Backtracking' to the rear of the LS extra
__ Turn the aircraft in the direction the pilot can see (i.e., pilot’s room may make extra distance available for the transition. If
the LS is surrounded by obstacles then the vertical climb
__ side).
technique should be used. However vertical climbs which
__ Look out throughout the turn for obstructions.
necessitate prolonged periods in the avoid curve diagram

__ Monitor the blade tips and be aware of overhanging

branches.
should only be used as a last resort.

__ Sideward Movement (Box Turn)

Vertical Climb (to outside ground effect)

__ Adopt a slightly higher than normal hover.

Establish low hover in centre of LS.

__ Hover taxi sideward whilst maintaining heading, at least an

Identify forward and lateral markers to ensure no
forwards/sideward/rearward movement during climb.
__ aircraft length in the direction the pilot can see (i.e., pilots
Smoothly apply power up to maximum power available and
__ side).
Spot turn through 90 degrees so that the tail is now in the
climb vertically while maintaining heading.

known clear area where the aircraft was positioned. Note initial rate of climb decreases with height.

Repeat (if required) until back on to original heading. When clear of obstacles, maintaining a rate of climb, adopt a
gentle transition forward to prevent height loss.
Look out throughout the turn for obstructions.
Monitor the blade tips and be aware of overhanging Note: If insufficient power to maintain the climb then
branches. descend vertically and land back inside the LS.

Describe the procedures for departing from a confined area as AIR EXERCISE
follows:
Introduce the full confined area procedures, using an area that
Prior to the departure from an LS, a thorough 'recce' of the
is large enough to permit a constant angle approach and best
landing site should be undertaken noting hazards,
rate of climb departure.
obstacles, wind velocity, sun position and possible safe
departure routes. A power margin calculation from the RFM Student practice in the same confined area
may be required as may a hover power check as a Demonstrate the full procedure in smaller areas that require
confirmation to establish the exact power margin available. double angle and vertical approaches with vertical climb
Special attention should be paid to the re-calculation of C of departures.
G, weight and loading if passengers/ cargo have been off
loaded or picked up. The pilot should then establish the Student practice in the same areas
climb out path from the LS by asking himself 'what is the Demonstrate go around techniques and aborted departures.
safest way out of here? Student practice
The sequence for takeoff and departure from an LS should
be as follows:

Pre-take-off checks.
Lookout – take-off using sloping ground techniques.
After take-off checks to include power check.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 157

 __
TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS __
This is a comprehensive exercise that may well require more Incorrect wind w/v identification resulting in downwind __
than one session of preparatory ground instruction. If there is a
shortage of suitably confined areas in the local training area,
approach with hard landings and/or excessive power
demands. __
consider planning cross-country navigation exercises to Blade strike/tail strike on unseen obstacles/foreign object __
locations farther afield where there is more scope. damage in the LS. __
When introduced to this exercise, all students will require more
than one orbit of the area to obtain all the information they
Persons being hit by tail/main rotor blades. __
require. Encourage them to cut down this number as their Damage to underside of aircraft due to landing on unseen __
proficiency increases, until experience reduces it to a practical obstruction.
__
minimum. Aircraft rolling over because sloping ground technique not
used for landing/take off. __
Ensure that students pick out a reference near the area so that
they maintain situational awareness. __
Explain that the order in which the five 'S's are presented is __
flexible, and variations are permissible, providing all points are __
covered.
__
Usually the more different types of areas students are exposed
to for demonstration and practice, the more proficient and __
confident they become in this important part of the course. __
Explain the importance of looking for wires on the approach and __
on the final stages of the final approach.
__
Point out that, depending on the wind velocity, it is permissible
to accept crosswind components to take advantage of size, __
shape, and gaps in obstacles (beware wires).
Alert the student to the possibility of wind masking/shear when
descending below the height of the obstacle, normally on the
final stages of the approach.
Landing sites that are remote from an airfield offer various
challenges to the pilot and consequently have resulted in a
significant number of accidents. Unlike at an airfield there is
generally, little or no assistance in the assessment of wind,
guidance on appropriate approach directions or information on
other traffic. Hazards not normally experienced at an airfield
such as wires, obstructions, uneven landing ground, trees,
LESSON CHECKLIST
Foreign Object Damage, livestock and pedestrians are quite
likely to be found and require a heightened degree of situational Exercise 29: Confined areas:
awareness by the pilot who needs to expect the unexpected! (A) landing capability and performance assessment;
The following are common pilot errors that have occurred at off (B) locating landing site and assessing wind speed and
airfield landing sites of which some have resulted in accidents: direction;
(C) reconnaissance of landing site;
(D) select markers;
(E) select direction and type of approach;
Loss of airspeed while turning cross/downwind during an (F) circuit;
LS recce resulting in LTE. (G) approach to committed point and go-around;
Turning on to final approach too high/too fast/too close (H) approach;
leading to an excessive ROD, with low airspeed and power (I) clearing turn;
applied resulting in Vortex Ring. (J) landing;
(K) power check and performance assessment in and
out of ground effect;
(L) normal take-off to best angle of climb speed;
(M) vertical take-off from hover.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 158

 __
30 __
__
BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING __
__
GROUND SCHOOL POINTS __
Flight guide
Describe how due to lag and error of aircraft instruments,
__
Limitations
environmental effects, and unstabilised aircraft, in order to
obtain a complete situational awareness a regular scan of the __
Aircraft Instruments indications, limitations and errors instruments is required to be maintained. The technique __
Human Physiological
normally employed for this is known as the Selective Radial
Scan. Explain that because of the fundamental requirement of __
PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION attitude control in helicopters the AI is used as the centre of the __
scan. The scan then radiates outwards to one of the
instruments DI/ASI/VSI/altimeter for selected information then __
Aim
The aim is to introduce the student to basic instrument flying returning to the AI before scanning the other instruments again. __
techniques. Describe how to carry out the following basic manoeuvres with __
Review
sole reference to instruments;
__
Exercise 7, 8 & 9 Climbing Descending and Turning. Straight and Level Flight at various airspeeds/configurations __
Motivation The pitch attitude which maintains speeds in the range 40- __
It should be stressed that intentional flight in IMC requires an
80kts is normally virtually the same with the AI 'horizon' just __
appropriately certified and equipped helicopter and the pilot to
hold an Instrument Rating. Therefore the aim of this lesson is to
above the 'wings'. To achieve a speed change, select 5˚
nose down to accelerate or 5˚ nose up to decelerate, scan __
the altimeter and VSI for level flight and adjust the
teach the pilot the correct techniques to be employed to
lever/pedals as appropriate. When the desired speed is
recover the aircraft in the event of an inadvertent entry into
achieved, reselect the original attitude and adjust the power
IMC. In this exercise instrument flight will be simulated.
again. As the speed changes it is necessary to counter the
Airmanship / TEM effects of flapback with the cyclic.

• Lookout Level Turns

• W/V Roll on the required bank (normally rate 1, maximum 30˚).
• Helicopter limitations Maintain the same pitch attitude. Adjust the collective to
maintain height and scan for balance. Anticipate the roll out
Teaching Points and roll out on to desired heading. Scan the DI again and
adjust. Remember it is only possible to read the heading
Explain that enhanced ground instruction in weather
accurately with 'wings' level.
interpretation, planning, route assessment , TEM, and Decision
Making on encountering DVE, including the ability to be able to Climbing and Climbing Turns
reverse the course and/or conduct a precautionary landing
If there is sufficient power and the climb is not prolonged,
should avoid inadvertent entry into IMC which is a potentially
there may not be any need to adjust the aircraft speed/
fatal flight regime.
attitude to achieve a nominal 500ft a minute RoC. Apply
Explain how the normal physiological sensations of vertical, collective power while maintaining attitude and scan
balance, rotating, accelerating and decelerating are affected in balance, VSI, altimeter.
flight and how in previous exercises the use of external
references in conjunction with the aircraft instrument
indications have assisted in maintaining a flight condition. Common
Errors
COMMON ERRORS
However when flying with sole reference to instruments any
deviation from the required flight condition will derive solely
from the information provided by the instruments alone and • The student often fails to cross-refer to all his instruments.
pilots can no longer trust their senses to indicate what is going • Lack of Radial Scan.
on.
• Over-controlling, particularly with cyclic, and failing to
appreciate that small attitude changes on the artificial
horizon, if sustained, have large ultimate effect.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 160

__
__ As approaching new height anticipate the level off by 10% AIR EXERCISE
__ of RoC and reset pre climb power. Scan instruments as
before. If a maximum RoC is required then set 5˚ nose up to Demonstrate all the basic instrument flying techniques.
__ select best RoC speed and increase power to maximum Student practice

__ continuous power. Anticipate level off as before and level

off initially by selecting 5˚ nose down to reselect speed and TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS
__ adjust power. Scan instruments as before.
__ To turn in the climb, it is recommended to initiate the climb
When manoeuvres are to be flown by sole reference to
instruments, the instructor should ensure that a suitable
__ first, then commence the turn anticipating an increase in
power to maintain climb. As there is no requirement for a
method of screening is used to simulate IMC for the student

__ synchronised/coordinated climb and turn, straighten out/

without obscuring the instructor’s field of view.

__ level off whichever comes first followed by the other. (Note: for the first flight, the student may need to use external
references to compare the aircraft attitude in relation to the
__ Descending and Descending Turns instrument indications).
__ To descend at the cruising speed decrease power to There is not a minimum numbers of hours for this exercise and
__ achieve 500ft RoD while maintaining attitude and scan it is likely to require a number of flights for the student to
achieve the required standard. It should be acknowledged that
__ balance, VSI, altimeter .To level off, anticipate by 10% RoD
reset pre descent cruise power and scan instruments as IF is a skill which can fade quickly in the absence of continuous
__ before. practice and should therefore be revised throughout the flying

__ To turn in the descent it is recommended to initiate the turn

course.

__ first (which may set up a small RoD) then adjust the power Wherever possible, flight simulation should be used to
demonstrate to students the effects of flying into DVE and to
__ for 500ft RoD descent. As there is no requirement for a
synchronised/coordinated descent and turn, straighten out/ enhance their understanding and need for avoidance of this

__ Recovery from Unusual attitudes

potentially fatal flight regime.

An unusual attitude can occur because the normal scan has

broken down due to a relatively simple task like changing a
transponder code or it can be the result of the pilot
experiencing the 'leans'. In all cases it is fundamental
when instrument flying to believe the instruments and
disregard physiological sensations.
The recommended recovery sequence from an unusual
attitude is:

Wings level - check AI for turn/bank and level the aircraft

Attitude, - check AI for accelerative/decelerative attitude
and correct
LESSON CHECKLIST
Speed, - check ASI, if airspeed is low or excessive do not
apply power until corrected (cross check balance because Exercise 30: Basic instrument flight:
if out of balance airspeed indication may not be accurate) (A) physiological sensations;
(B) instrument appreciation:
Power –set power as required
(a) attitude instrument flight;
(b) instrument scan.
(C) instrument limitations;
(D) basic manoeuvres:
(a) straight and level at various air speeds and
configurations;
(b) climbing and descending;
(c) standard rate turns, climbing and descending,
onto selected headings.
(E) recoveries from climbing and descending turns;
(F) recoveries from unusual attitudes.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 161

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