Module 1: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TOURISM

I. The Psychology of Tourism

A. Motivation for Travel

Several studies on tourist motivations have listed various reasons why people travel. Some of the motivations listed in
travel literature are:

1. escape;
2. relaxation;
3. relief of tension;
4. sun lust;
5. physical;
6. health;
7. family togetherness;
8. interpersonal relations;
9. roots or ethnic;
10. maintaining social contacts;
11. convincing oneself of one's achievements;
12. showing one's importance to others;
13. status and prestige;
14. self-discovery;
15. cultural;
16. education;
17. professional/business;
18. wanderlust;
19. interest in foreign areas; and
20. scenery.

Basic travel motivators can be divided into four classes:

1. Physical motivators — include those related to physical rest, sports participation, beach recreation, relaxing
entertainment, and other motivations directly connected with health;
2. Cultural motivators — include the desire to know about other countries— their music, art, folklore, dances,
paintings, and religion;
3. Interpersonal motivators — pertain to the desire to meet other people, visit friends or relatives, escape from
routine, from family, and neighbors;
4. Status and prestige motivators — concern ego needs and personal development. Included in this group are trips
related to business, conventions, study, and pursuit of hobbies and education. Travel would enhance one's
recognition and good reputation.

B. Travel as a Means to Satisfy a Need and Want

The key to understand tourist motivation is to view vacation travel as a vehicle to satisfy one's needs and wants. Tourists
do not go on vacations just to relax and have fun, to experience another culture, or to educate themselves and their
children; they take vacations in the belief that these vacations will satisfy, either completely or partially, various needs
and wants.

C. Relationship of Needs, Wants, and Motives

The difference between a need and a want is awareness. It is the duty of people involved in marketing to convert needs
into wants by making the individual aware of his need deficiencies. This awareness must be accompanied by motivation.
A motive enables a person to do something. Motivation occurs when an individual wants to satisfy a need. To enable a
person to be motivated to satisfy a need, an objective or goal must be present. An individual will be motivated to buy a
product or service if he perceives that the purchase of that product or service will be beneficial in satisfying the need of
which he is now aware. Thus, it is the role of marketing to suggest objectives such as vacations, cruises, or flights to
satisfy needs, an awareness of which has already been created. This process is described in Figure 1.

II. Push/Pull Model

The push/pull model explains the push and pull forces in human motivation. According to the push/pull model, there are
push and pull forces in human motivation. Internal factors or personal needs "push" people to travel, while external
forces or attractions "pull" them to certain destinations. Much travel is motivated by both push and pull factors. For
example, a college student has begun to feel the "push" to get away from college for rest and relaxation and the "pull"
to travel to a sunny beach for escape, self-discovery, and scenic beauty.

Push factors are the intangible desires that generate within the person. Examples are need to escape, self-discovery, rest
and relaxation, prestige, challenge, and adventure. Pull factors are external travel stimulators such as: scenic beauty,
historical areas, cultural events, and sporting events.

III. Maslow's Theory of Motivation and Travel Motivations

A study of travel motivations found in travel literature indicates that these motivations fit into the hierarchy of needs
model of Abraham Maslow, a famous psychologist. Maslow proposed the following hierarchy of needs as determinants
of behavior:

1. Physiological Needs — hunger, thirst, rest, activity;

2. Safety Needs — safety and security, freedom from fear and anxiety;
3. Social Needs — love, affection, giving and receiving;
4. Self-esteem — self-respect and esteem from others; and
5. Self-actualization — personal self-fulfillment.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

This hierarchy suggests that lower needs demand more immediate satisfaction than the satisfaction of higher needs. The
first need is physical; the other four are psychological. To this original list, two intellectual needs were added. These are:

1. To know and understand — acquiring knowledge; and

2. Aesthetics — appreciation of beauty.
The relationship between needs, motives, and references from tourism and literature is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Maslow's Needs and Motivations Listed in Travel Literature

Need Motive Tourism Literature References

Physiological Relaxation Escape

Relaxation
Relief of tension
Sun lust
Physical
Mental relaxation of tension

Safety Security Health

Recreation
Keep oneself active and healthy
for the future

Social Love and Affection Family togetherness

Enhancement of kinship
relationships
Companionship
Facilitation of social interaction
Maintenance of personalities
Interpersonal relations
Ethnic roots
Show one's affection for family
members
Maintain social contacts

Self-esteem Achievement Status Convince oneself of one’s

achievement
Show one's importance to
others
Prestige
Social recognition
Ego enhancement
Professional / business

Self-actualization Personal fulfillment

Source: Mill, R.C. and Alastair Morrison, The Tourism System Dubuque, IA: Kendal/Hunt, 1998

Those who say that they travel "to escape" or "to relieve tension" are satisfying the basic physiological needs. The
motivation may be for physical or mental relaxation. Passive and active vacationers are motivated by a need for tension
reduction. Passive vacationers are relieved from tension by submitting to the surrounding environment. The active
vacationer, on the other hand, achieves tension reduction through physical activity.
Traveling for health and recreation attempts to satisfy one's safety needs. By taking care of his body and/or mind, the
traveler is protecting himself by assuring his own longevity.

The need for belonging and love pertains to the desire for affection, for giving and receiving love. The organized tour is a
method of encouraging and satisfying one's need for interpersonal relations and social interaction. This motivation is
commonly referred to as the "VFR" market or "visiting friends and relatives." Part of this is the ethnic or roots market
whose desire is to revisit the homeland or previous residence of one's self or one's ancestors. The first group consists of
those who are born somewhere else and would like to return to their own homeland. The second group are those in
later generations who wish to experience the land of their ancestors.

Maslow's concept of the need for esteem has two components—that of self-esteem and that of esteem from others.
The need for self-esteem is shown in the desire to exhibit achievement, competence, and independence. Esteem from
others is explained by the concepts of prestige, status, and recognition. Travel can also boost one's ego since travel may
provide the tourist with a feeling of superiority.

Self-actualization can be regarded as a goal of leisure. Leisure is the state of being free from the urgent demands of the
lower-level needs. Vacations offer an opportunity to reevaluate and discover more about oneself.

The need to know and understand is motivated by the desire for knowledge. Many people travel to learn the cultures of
other countries. Other motivations are education, wanderlust, and interest in foreign parts.

The need for aesthetics is shown in those who travel for environmental reasons— to view the scenery.

Relating travel motivations with Maslow's need theory will produce two tangible benefits. The first benefit is that the
traveler is better understood and better motivated if he or she is recognized as a person consuming products and
services. This will enable the marketer to provide a better product or service to the traveler. The second tangible benefit
is that if one accepts Maslow's idea that the lower-level needs should first be satisfied before the higher-level needs, we
would expect that products and services, including vacations, which are aimed toward the satisfaction of lower-level
needs, would be regarded as a necessity rather than a luxury.

IV. Tourist Motivations

A. The Need for Escape or Change

The greatest reason for travel can be summed up in one word, '{escape"— escape from the dull daily routine; escape
from the familiar, the commonplace, the ordinary escape from the job, the boss, the customers, the house, and the
accelerated pace of modern life.

According to Russ Johnston, a marketing research director, everyone is searching for change. Travel can provide
diversity. It removes a person from familiar surroundings to something that is new and exciting. For example, a business
executive who travels with his wife from his home and stays overnight in a destination wishes to get away from the
routines and demands of his family and profession. An employee who goes to a beach resort is looking for a change from
the daily routine.

B. Travel for Health

Development in the field of medicine has influenced travel for centuries, giving rise to the concept of health tourism.
The search for health and long life has popularized spas, seaside resorts, as well as sun resorts. Majority of people think
of vacationing as a means of regaining one's energy, interest, and enthusiasm for the job.

The mineral water of different springs was believed to cure different ailments, such as rheumatism, heart and circulation
disorders, diabetes, and problems of the kidneys and gall bladder.

Health-related travel is not limited to trips to thermal springs. "Reducing ranches" attract middle-aged women with
weight problems. Romania, with its restorative Gerovital attracts the elderly. Americans suffering from different
maladies go to China or Hong Kong to undergo acupuncture or to the Philippines to consult faith-healers. As populations
begin to age in industrialized societies, health tourism will become increasingly popular.

C. Sports

Interest in sports, either as a participant or a spectator, is attracting large segments of the population. People demand
activity and excitement during their leisure hours to relieve them from the boredom of their work. They indulge in
activities, such as hiking, surfing, scuba diving, mountaineering, and skiing. Millions attend a variety of games, such as
basketball, baseball, tennis, soccer in the United States, Europe, and Latin America. The Olympic Games which are held
every four years attract millions of tourists.

D. Social Contact

Much travel grows out of the social nature of people. Human beings are social animals. They need contact and
communication with others. They feel comfortable in a tour group. In the group, the traveler may develop friendships
that may last for years. Some tour groups have reunions after the tour took place.

According to Charles Metelka, travel increases the "sociability resources" of individuals. It makes them more interesting
to themselves and to others.

E. Status and Prestige

Travel provides the means for ego and self-enhancement. Travel to a poor country can provide the traveler with a
feeling of superiority. Travel can also provide a means of mingling with the wealthy and social elite.

Much travel is done to keep up with the Joneses and to appear knowledgeable about foreign places. Being well-traveled
enhances one's status in society. A trip to an out-of-the-ordinary destination adds glamour to one's personality.

F. Travel for Education

The search for knowledge and truth is inherent in every individual. Travel offers an opportunity to satisfy the urge to
learn. Once an interest has been developed in a destination area, the urge to see that area emerges and the interest
grows as knowledge increases.

Advertising generates interest in a destination but much more persuasive is the interest created by a good book, a
movie, or a television program. When a person reads a book about a place or sees a television program with that place
as backdrop, he or she suddenly discovers a desperate desire to go there. James Michener's Hawaii undoubtedly caused
thousands of readers to want to visit the islands.

Many school teachers go to Europe every summer. College students also go in large numbers either on their own or as
part of study groups sponsored by universities. Thus, students combine travel with learning and receive academic credit
for doing so.

G. Personal Values

The notion of personal values is an important travel motivator. Many people are urged to travel to satisfy personal
values, such as the search for spiritual experience, patriotism, and wholesomeness. Pilgrimages to religious sites or holy
places such as the Vatican, Lourdes, Jerusalem, and Mecca are undertaken for spiritual reasons. Trips to Disneyland in
Los Angeles and Tokyo and to Corregidor in the Philippines are made to satisfy personal values of wholesome
environment and patriotism.

H. Cultural Experience

Cross-cultural exchanges, experiencing how other people live, and fostering international understanding are some of the
reasons to satisfy curiosity about other cultures, lifestyles, and places. Studies conducted among travelers abroad reveal
that seeking a new cultural experience is a primary reason for international travel.
North Americans are attracted to go to Europe because their ancestors came from there and their history classes are full
of stories about it. In Europe, they can 'earn about its culture by viewing its cities and visiting its cathedrals and castles.
Travelers may have the feeling of becoming part of the culture by attending a London theater in England, by joining the
bullfight crowd in Spain, or by drinking beer in Munich.

I. Shopping and Bargain Hunting

To many people, the joys derived from buying certain goods may be the major reason for travel. Millions of travelers go
to Hong Kong, Singapore, and other tax-free ports to shop. Almost everybody wants to buy and to bargain.

Bargain hunting or being able to get special merchandise at a low cost is a travel motivator. Tourists are looking for
places that are inexpensive. They shop not only on the trip but also for a particular trip. Before World War Il, Austria was
a cheap vacation area, but when prices increased, the budget-conscious travelers went to Spain and Portugal. For
persons living in high-cost areas, travel and vacationing in low-cost countries can save money. For example, Americans
find it more expensive to rent a house in New York than in the Philippines.

J. Professional and Business Motives

A great number of people travel for professional and business motives. Conferences and conventions about education,
commerce, and industry increase annually. More than one-half of all airline travel is done by business travelers.
Approximately 60% to 70% of guests who check in at five-star hotels around the world travel for business reasons.
However, a great portion of business travel is mixed with pleasure. For example, a tourist may be attending a convention
in Las Vegas, but may spend half of his time gambling in a casino.

K. Search for Natural Beauty

Travel can satisfy one's search for beauty in the environment and in the scenery. Natural beauty such as the sunset,
trees, mountains, waterfalls, flowers, beaches, valleys, bays, rivers, and lakes is usually pleasurable to the viewer. Most
people are inspired by the beauty of nature. The trips of city dwellers to the rural areas on weekends show man's need
to see beautiful scenery—trees, grass, streams, and the open sky.

V. The Learning Process of a Tourist

An individual will buy a vacation package if he or she has learned that the purchase will satisfy an important need. This
process is shown in Figure 2. The tourist compares various alternatives with a list of criteria to determine which
alternatives will most likely satisfy a particular motive. The resulting inclination will have an effect on the decision to buy.
This inclination may be positive or negative depending on how well a chosen alternative will meet the motivation. The
number of alternatives will vary according to the characteristics of travelers. Travelers who have previously visited many
foreign destinations have a larger number of alternatives to choose from than those who have not. A destination will be
included as an alternative if the destination has previously satisfied the traveler. The level of satisfaction depends on
one's expectation of a situation, as well as one's perception of an actual situation. If the level of expectations is higher
than the actual experience, the tourist will be dissatisfied. For the traveler to be satisfied with a product, service, or
situation, the level of actual experience must be equal to or greater than the level of expectation. Hence, the level of
service given to the vacationer must be given great importance to assure a quality experience and a high level of
satisfaction that will bring the traveler back.

Serving as bridge between the motives of an individual and the perceived alternatives are the criteria used for making a
decision among these alternatives. The criteria used are learned. They are the result of past experiences, as well as
information received from either the commercial or the social environment.

An individual's learning input based on past experience is derived from having experienced the same thing that is being
considered or having experienced something similar. For example, if a person stayed in a particular destination, the
factors that accounted for his satisfaction such as good weather and friendly service will be the criteria by which he
determines where to take his next vacation. Thus, decision criteria are developed or modified from actual experiences.
VI. Effect of Consistency and Complexity on Leisure Travel

Edward J. Mayo and Lance Jervis, in The Psychology of Leisure Travel, believed that individuals differ in the amount of
psychological tension they can handle. Too much repetition or consistency results in boredom and a corresponding
amount of psychological tension greater that he could handle. To reduce the tension, he will attempt to introduce some
complexity in his life. This explains why a tourist, who for many years spent his vacation in a particular vacation spot, will
either change the destination or the method of reaching it.

Similarly, too much complexity may result in more tension than a person can endure. To reduce the level of tension, he
will introduce consistency into that experience. For example, a Filipino tourist in Europe may find the different language
and culture (complexity) need to be balanced by staying in a hotel chain with which he is familiar (consistency).

The traveler who experiences a great deal of consistency in everyday life may compensate by seeking vacations which
offer variety. The opposite is also true.

VII. Classification of Travelers Based on Purpose of Travel

The two major classifications of travelers based on travel purpose are the business travelers and the pleasure/personal
travelers.

A. Business Travelers

Majority of travelers in most developed countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom are
business travelers. They are divided into three categories, namely:

1. regular business travelers;

2. business travelers attending meetings, conventions, and congresses; and

3. incentive travelers.

Regular Business Travelers

Among business travelers, the cost of the trip is shouldered by a company; hence, travel is not influenced by personal
income. The volume and rate of growth of business travel is not greatly affected by the cost of travel. This means that
business travelers will continue even if the price of travel services increases,

Many studies have been conducted to find out the characteristics of regular business travelers. The results of these
surveys revealed that business travelers are well-educated, rich, have high-level jobs, and tend to fly often. More recent
surveys have shown that ratio of women business travelers to men business travelers have grown rapidly. These surveys
show that there are major differences between male and female business travelers. Some of these are:

1. Women business travelers are slightly younger;

2. They tend to stay longer at their destinations;
3. They are more apt to be unmarried than males;
4. They are more likely to attend a meeting or convention;
5. They are more likely to book through a travel agent;
6. They have a greater preference for downtown accommodation facilities closer to work; and
7. They are more concerned with security aspects of accommodation facilities.

Many airlines and hotels are exerting efforts to cater to the business executive travelers. Airlines have been offering
first-class seat service and first-class passenger lounges in airport terminals to these travelers for many years. More
recent innovations include special check-in arrangements, bigger seats, and sleeper seats. Many hotel chains have begun
to allocate whole floors or wings of their buildings for business travelers seeking greater luxury in their accommodations.
The rooms or suites are more spacious, contain more personal "giveaways," and they provide their guests with
complimentary drinks and express check-in and checkout service. Normally, airline and hotel companies add a surcharge
to their regular prices for business executive travelers. They have achieved great marketing successes in doing so.
Airlines, particularly in the United States, have begun to search out and reward frequent flyers by logging their air miles
in airline computers. The rewards offered include discounts on future trips and sometimes even free trips.

Business Travelers Attending Meetings, Conventions, Congresses

Travel Pulse surveys indicate that 20% of all business travel trips are for the purpose of attending meetings, conventions,
and congresses. A congress, convention, or conference is a regular formalized meeting of associations or body or a
meeting sponsored by an association or body on a regular or ad hoc basis.

Conventions are classified into four kinds, namely: international, continental, national, and regional conventions.
International conventions usually involve members and nonmembers from more than two foreign countries, and they
take place in different countries every year. They are generally nonprofit and attract persons with common fields of
interest. Continental conventions have delegates coming from a continent such as North America, Europe, or Asia.
National conventions are meetings organized by associations at the state, provincial, or regional level. Normally, these
organizations hold their conventions within their own regions.

Incentive Travelers

Incentive travel is a special type of business travel. It is travel given by firms to employees as a reward for some
accomplishment or to encourage employees to achieve more than what is required. Incentive trips have risen sharply
according to the Society of Incentive Travel Executive (SITE). Salespeople are given trips for reaching a set goal in overall
sales of a particular item or in the number of new accounts. Experts say that these incentive trips last for five days and
usually include spouses. Prize trips are often combined with business and sales meetings, especially those to foreign
destinations in order to be eligible for tax deduction.

The most popular overseas destinations are Mexico, Spain, the Caribbean, Bermuda, and Europe. Within the United
States, the most popular incentive travel destinations are Hawaii, Florida, Nevada, California, and New Orleans.

The increasing popularity of incentive travel has led to the establishment of incentive travel organizations. They
negotiate with suppliers such as hotels and airlines to determine the cost of incentive travel trips. Thus, they act as
specialized types of tour wholesalers. To their prices, they add a markup of 15% to 20% for their services and costs in
packaging the incentive travel trip.

Corporations usually have the following objectives in buying incentive travel trips:

1. Increase overall sales volumes;

2. Sell new accounts;
3. Improve morale and good will;
4. Introduce new products;
5. Offset competitive promotions;
6. Bolster slow seasons;
7. Help in sales training;
8. Sell slow items; and
9. Obtain more store displays and support consumer promotions.

Companies who buy incentive travel trips are usually those involved in insurance, sales, electronics/radio/television
manufacturing, automobile and truck manufacturing, farm equipment manufacturing, auto parts/accessories/tires,
heating/air-conditioning, electrical appliances manufacturing, office equipment manufacturing, and building materials
manufacturing.

B. Pleasure/Personal Travelers
This group consists of people traveling for vacation or pleasure. They are also called nonbusiness travelers. Experiences
and research have shown that nonbusiness travelers have different spending patterns from business travelers. In
general, the demand for travel services by nonbusiness travelers is elastic with respect to prices. This means that
nonbusiness travelers are very much concerned with the increase in the price of travel services since the cost of travel
is usually shouldered by the traveler himself. The traveler likewise chooses the vacation area.

Traveling for pleasure is the largest segment of the international market and the fastest growing. The reasons for the
growth are the rising income levels in developed countries, urbanization, higher educational levels, increase in leisure
time, and the length of paid holidays.

Pleasure/personal travelers are classified into the following categories:

1. resort travelers;
2. family pleasure travelers;
3. the elderly; and
4. singles and couples.

Resort Travelers

Surveys have shown that resort travelers are better educated, have higher household incomes, and are more likely to
have professional and managerial positions. It is also notable that majority of resort travelers have families with
children.

Family Pleasure Travelers

The family pleasure travelers can be divided into three groups, namely: junior families, midrange families, and mature
families. These are defined according to the ages of the husband and wife and the educational stages of their children as
follows:

1. Junior families. With parents aged 20—34 having preschool and/ or grade school children only;
2. Midrange families. With parents aged 35—44 with grade school and/or high school children only; and
3. Mature families. With parents aged 45 or over with children who are of high school age and older.

Family pleasure travel trips are motivated by three objectives. The first objective is to use travel as an educational
experience for their children. The second objective is to do something different. The third objective is to use travel to
bring the family closer together. The major hindrances to family pleasure travel are the cost of travel, particularly the
cost of transportation, accommodation, food, the ability of the parents to have privacy from their children, and the
problems of organizing and coordinating family pleasure plans.

The Elderly

An examination of population trends in developed countries particularly in North America clearly indicates that the
population is aging. At present, there are many people who are fifty years of age and over, including a greater number of
people in the retirement age category. These population shifts have made the elderly persons a lucrative target for
tourism destination areas. Persons in the "50 plus" age bracket are called active affluents or people with the money and
the desire to travel extensively. Active affluents generally search for learning experiences, cultural enrichment,
socialization, and activities which lead to self-fulfillment.

Singles and Couples

Another important segment of pleasure travel consists of singles and couples. They take their vacations to fulfill their
psychological, intellectual, and physical needs by giving them the opportunity to rest, relax, escape the routine of
pressures of daily living, enjoy the naturalness of life, and to express total freedom. A resort chain that targets singles
and couples is the Club Mediterranee. Club Med is not the only organization which taps the singles and couples pleasure
travel segment; other resorts and destinations particularly in the Caribbean region have also targeted this market
segment.

VIII. Travel Constraints

The main constraints to travel are:

1. lack of money;
2. lack of time;
3. lack of safety and security;
4. physical disability;
5. family commitments;
6. lack of interest in travel; and
7. fears of travel.

A. Lack of Money

Lack of money is the major travel constraint. Less money means less travel. The wealthy members of society are the
ones who travel most. People with more disposable income will be able to travel more than those who just earn enough
to live on.

B. Lack of Time

Lack of available time is another inhibiting factor to tourist travel. The desire to travel and the financial ability to travel
are insufficient if one does not have the time to travel. A senior company executive may have plenty of money to spend
but very little time available. A combination of time and money must be present for travel and tourism to take place.

C. Lack of Safety and Security

Lack of security in public places, hotels, and travel centers cause people to prefer to remain in the security of their
neighborhood and home. Areas may acquire the reputation of being dangerous and thus become less desirable travel
destinations as what has happened in the Philippines, the Caribbean, and parts of Mexico, Spain, and Italy, where there
has been a sharp increase in the number of thefts, robberies, shootings, and assaults among the local people. Tourists
will not go to destinations that they consider unsafe.

D. Physical Disability

Physical disability in the form of bad health or physical handicap may keep people at home. Elderly who are more
susceptible to illnesses such as heart trouble, hypertension, arthritis, and bronchitis travel less. After the age of 70, very
few travels because for most of them, long trips are tiring, changes in food are upsetting, and a strange bed may cause
sleeplessness.

E. Family Commitments

Family commitments inhibit travel. Parents with young children find it inconvenient and expensive to go on holiday.
During the child-rearing period, family obligations increase significantly for women and to a similar but lesser degree, for
men. Travel is curtailed and more time is spent at home. Indeed, family commitments of any kind, whether it be young
children, taking care of the sick, or looking after older people really affects travel.

F. Lack of Interest in Travel

This is mainly due to a preference to simply stay at home. This condition may be due to a variety of factors, such as
dislike of travel, shyness in meeting people, dislike of changing routine, and many more.
G. Fears

Some people do not want to travel because of fears of travel. Fear of flying is quite common and accounts for many
people who insist on driving to a vacation area instead of boarding a plane. Fear of the unknown keeps many people
from leaving their own country or even their own city. Many travelers are afraid to go to countries where they cannot
understand the language. Some potential travelers are afraid of the unfamiliar decisions they will have to make in a
strange place such as how much to tip and how to get around a strange city. All these fears are deterrents to travel.
Module 2: THE SOCIOLOGY OF TOURISM

I. The Social Nature of Travel

Travel is brought about by the social nature of man. Human beings, as social animals, feel comfortable in a tour group.
They feel that their trip is more enjoyable and free from anxiety if they join a group tour. Camaraderie often develops
friendships that last for years.

In some subcultures, travel is the accepted way of spending one's vacation. Sabbatical leaves and foreign assignments
make it possible for university faculty members and employees to travel and develop a passion for it.

Tourism evolves a mutual trust and respect for one another and the dignity of life on earth. According to Pope John Paul
Il, "The world is becoming a global village in which people from different continents are made to feel like next-door
neighbors. In facilitating more authentic and social relationships between individuals, tourism can help overcome many
real prejudices and foster new bonds of fraternity."

II. The Social Effects of Tourism

Tourism is concerned with the movement and contact between people in different geographical locations. In sociological
terms, this involves:

1. social relations between people who would not normally meet;

2. the confrontation of different cultures, ethnic groups, lifestyles, languages, levels of prosperity, and the
like;

3. the behavior of people released from many of the social and economic constraints of everyday life; and

4. the behavior of the host population which has to reconcile economic gain and benefits with the costs of
living with strangers.

The degree to which conflict will occur between host and guest depends upon the similarity in their standards of living,
the number of tourists at any time, and the extent to which the tourists adapt to local norms.

III. Socioeconomic Variables and Their Effect on Travel

A. Age

There are several differences between patterns of travel based on age. Younger people tend to select more active
recreational activities than older people. The elderly (those in the late sixties and upward) prefer more passive forms of
recreation, such as visiting friends and relatives, fishing, sightseeing, and playing golf. Older tourists tend to travel to
farther destinations, prefer ship travel, travel more in spring than younger tourists do, and spend less than middle-aged
tourists but more than younger tourists.

B. Income and Social Status

Income and social status have a great influence on travel. Rich persons, as well as persons with higher social status,
travel more than those with lower income and social class status. Higher income tourists stay longer and spend more per
day than those with lower incomes.

C. Education

There is a strong correlation between education and travel. Generally speaking, the better educated members of the
population have a greater desire to travel. Researchers have found that the more educated the travelers are, they tend
to be more sophisticated in their tastes. They prefer activities that require the development of interpretative and
expressive skills, such as attending plays, concerts, art museums, reading books, playing golf, and skiing.

D. Life Stages of the Family

The presence of children in the family limits travel. More leisure time is spent at home. As the children grow up and
leave home, the married couples renew interest in travel. Couples in this life stage usually have more discretionary
income and are more financially capable to travel.

IV. The Rise of New Travel Patterns

A. Travel Clubs

The most significant development in group travel consists of travel clubs. A very good example of these is the Club
Mediterranee which started in Western Europe and then spread to North America and other areas of the world. In this
group travel plan, a club member enjoys travel opportunities and vacation destination facilities at a much cheaper price
than that paid by a nonmember. The accommodations offered by the club range from deluxe to very modest. There is
also a wide choice of locations, climate, and other vacation features.

B. Airline Group and Arrangements

Another development in group travel is the introduction of different types of tour fares promoted by airlines. These are
the following:

1. groups of 15 or more are given reduced fares;

2. charter service is given by some airlines to affinity group tours which are intended for those affiliated to a
legitimate group for a period of six months or longer;
3. public charter in which an entire airplane is made available to a group of persons who travel to the same
destination; and
4. incentive tours which are given by firms to employees as a reward for a special achievement or as a motivation
for achievement.

C. Special Interest Tours

Special interest group travel is becoming more popular at present. These are tours arranged for those who are
interested in a particular activity such as bird watching, festivals, fishing, hunting, scuba diving, photography, flower
arrangement, golf, skiing, mountain climbing, and the like.

V. Preferences of the International Tourist

The preferences of the international tourist are divided into four categories, namely:

1. complete relaxation to constant activity;

2. traveling near one's home environment to a totally strange environment;
3. complete dependence on group travel to traveling alone; and
4. order to disorder.

A. Relaxation Versus Activity

Before, the workweek for most people including the middle class was long and exhausting. Thus, they demanded
holidays that offered relaxation and rest. At present, the workweek has been shortened and the annual holiday leave
has been lengthened. Work has become less tiresome, and people have become used to greater leisure. Relaxation has
become possible throughout the year, Accordingly, people have started to use their no-holiday time leisure to exercise
new activity skills, such as sailing, climbing, horse riding, and sports. The demand for activity-oriented travel has greatly
increased.

B. Familiarity Versus Novelty

In general, most tourists on their first trip abroad tend to seek familiarity rather than novelty. They search for something
that will remind them of home, whether it be food, newspapers, living quarters, or another person from their own
country. As soon as they find a place where they feel at home, these tourists will go back to the same place for a number
of times. Not until they have gained more experience in traveling will they want to go to a new environment—to see
customs and cultures different from their own, and to mix with people who speak differently, eat differently, and dress
differently.

At present, there is an increasing positive attitude for novelty and for change. People accept innovations in industry,
education, family life, the arts, and social relationships, among others. Tourists move away from traditional resorts to
new tourist destinations.

C. Dependence Versus Autonomy

In the past, tourists joined package tours in which transportation, lodging, food, sightseeing, and entertainment were
fixed in advance by the tour agency. At present, there is the emergence of a group of tourists who would like to acquire
a sense of personal autonomy regarding their leisure time. They would like to travel on their own and not part of a
group. They would like to feel independent—in complete control of what they do and how they do it.

D. Order Versus Disorder

In the past, tourists sought holidays which enforce the traditional concept of conformity—set meals at fixed times,
guidebooks which told them the right places to visit, and resorts where their fellow tourists were tidy, well-behaved, and
properly dressed. They avoided situations where their adult-imposed sense of orderliness might be offended.

Now, the new generation of tourists is not very much concerned about what to wear and how to behave when on
holiday. Informality in behavior, a greater tolerance toward the differences of others, and freedom from
institutionalized regulations are now the characteristics of the modern traveler.

Because of social and economic changes in modern society, the demand for travel will be based less on familiarity,
relaxation, dependence, and order, but more on novelty, activity, autonomy, and informality.

VI. Types of Tourist Roles

The continuous combination of novelty and familiarity forms the basic variable for the sociological analysis of the
phenomenon of modern tourism. This combination leads to the four types of tourist roles. Each type represents a
characteristic form of tourist behavior. The first two types, the organized mass tourist and the individual mass tourist,
are called institutionalized tourist roles because they are dealt within a routine way by the tourist establishment, such as
travel agencies and hotel chains which cater to the tourist trade. The last two types, the explorer and the drifter, are
called non-institutionalized tourist roles because they are loosely attached to the tourist establishment.

A. The Organized Mass Tourist

This type of tourist is the least adventurous. He buys a package tour in which the itinerary of his trip is fixed in advance
and his stops are well-prepared and guided. He seldom makes decisions for himself. He prefers a familiar environment
rather than a new environment.

B. The Individual Mass Tourist

The individual mass tourist is similar to the organized mass tourist, except that the individual mass tourist has a certain
degree of control over his time and itinerary and is not bound to a group. However, all the major arrangements of his
tour are still made through a travel agency. Like the organized mass tourist, he also travels within his own country and
goes out of it occasionally. Familiarity is still dominant, but less than the organized mass tourist. The desire for novelty is
greater for the individual mass tourist.

C. The Explorer

This type of tourist arranges his trip by himself and looks for comfortable accommodations and reliable means of
transportation. He tries to associate with the people he visits and to speak their language. The explorer dares to leave
his country much more than the previous two types but goes back to it when the experience becomes too rough.
Although novelty dominates, the explorer does not adopt completely the lifestyle of the host country. He still retains
some of the basic practices and comforts of his native way of life.

D. The Drifter

The drifter goes the farthest away from the accustomed ways of life of his own country. He is almost totally immersed in
his host culture. He tries to live the way the people he visits live and to share their shelter, food, and habits. He retains
only the most basic of his native customs. He arranges his own trip and does not seek the help of a tour agency. He does
not have a fixed itinerary. Novelty is at its highest; familiarity disappears almost completely.

VII. Social Tourism

In a general sense, social tourism is a subsidized system of travel through the intervention of the government, employer,
or labor union to achieve social goals and purposes. In the late 1930s, when many European countries passed laws on
paid holidays, it was recognized that the right to legal holiday could not only be meaningful if the ordinary worker will be
able to afford travel for recreation and rest. Thus, a number of voluntary associations in the field of social tourism
worked to obtain reduced fares and to create a network of holiday centers for tourists of limited means.

In 1963, the International Bureau of Social Tourism (BITS) was founded in Brussels to encourage the development of
social tourism on an international scale. At present, it has a membership of more than 100 associations all over the
world. The BITS is promoting tourism to achieve social objectives by studying such issues as youth and senior citizen
travel, the staggering of holidays, camping and caravanning, building and financing moderate cost tourist facilities, and
preservation of local culture and environment.
Module 3: TOURISM AND CULTURE

I. The Effects of Culture on Travel

Culture can be defined as a "set of beliefs, values, attitudes, habits, and form of behavior that are shared by a society
and are transmitted from generation to generation." A knowledge of the culture of a country is important in order to
understand how individuals within that country will behave. Lack of understanding and inability to communicate with
the host culture might result in a culture shock for the tourist. A Filipino traveler who visits the United States for the first
time may experience culture shock in the open display of love and emotions, the frankness in conversation, the
permissive way children interact with their parents, and the practice of allowing aged parents to stay in the home for the
aged. Likewise, an American tourist in the Philippines might be repelled by balut (cooked duck egg with embryo) and the
bagoong (preserved salted fish) or may feel exasperated by the Filipinos' lack of punctuality or time concept, and the
use of euphemism and circumlocution in contrast to American frankness. Culture patterns are changed by internal
forces. Within a group, there are people who are more willing than others to try new things. Since these innovators are
better educated, have high income, and more achievement-oriented than others, they tend to be opinion leaders and to
be highly sought-after by marketing people. "Mass follow class" suggests that a destination first attracts a small number
of high-status individuals whose actions are eventually copied by a large number of persons with lower social status.

Culture patterns are also changed by external forces. Contact with other environments may change previous attitudes
and behavior. A visit to a foreign country may result in a change in attitude toward the people of that country. Travel
may also stimulate the sale of products in the destination visited.

It can readily be seen that in order to understand a traveler, it is necessary to understand why visitors act the way they
do and be in a better position to anticipate and satisfy their needs and wants.

II. The Importance of Cultural Tourism

Cultural tourism includes all aspects of travel in which people learn about each other's way of life. Thus, tourism is an
important means of promoting cultural relations and international cooperation. Louis D' Amore, the past president of
the Canadian Travel Research Association, once said, "These millions of daily person-to-person encounters are
potentially a powerful force for improved relations among the people and nations of the world, relations which
emphasize a sharing and appreciation of cultures rather than the lack of trust bred by isolation."

III. Cultural Factors with Tourist Appeal

In tourism, there are cultural factors that appeal greatly to tourists. These are art, music and dance, handicraft, industry
and business, agriculture, education, literature and language, science, government, religion, food and drink, and history.

A. Art

Generally, the arts include performing arts and fine arts. The former refers to live theater, music, and dance, and the
latter includes painting, sculpture, graphic arts, and architecture. Examples of performing arts are the Pangkat Kawayan
(bamboo orchestra) and the rondalla group. Amorsolo's and Francisco's paintings and the sculptural works of
Michelangelo are examples of fine arts.

B. Music and Dance

In several countries, music is a major source of enjoyment and satisfaction to tourists. The Philippines, Hawaii, Spain, the
United States, and the Balkan States are examples. Resort hotels, in particular, can give visitors many opportunities to
enjoy the best local music. Evening entertainment programs, concerts, recordings, and sound reproduction systems are
greatly appreciated by tourists. Records and tape recordings which the guest can buy to use in his home provide
another effective means of keeping in touch with the culture of a particular country and a reminder of the country's
music. An example of music in promoting tourism is that of Hawaii with its musical presentation, "Hawaii Calls."
Dancing, in its native or ethnic forms, is one of the most appealing aspects of a country's culture and can be presented
as a tourist attraction. The color, costumes, music, setting, and skill of form and execution add to the attraction. Almost
all countries have native dancing or ethnic dancing. Ethnic music and dancing are a part of the culture and should be
used to entertain tourists. The best place for such entertainment are resort hotels. Local shows, nightclubs, and
community programs present added opportunities. Examples of dance as a cultural expression are the Bayanihan Dance
Troupe of the Philippines, the Ballet Folklorico of Mexico, the Russian Bolshoi Ballet, the folk dances of European
countries, the African dances, Thai dancing, and the Kabuki dancers of Japan.

C. Handicraft

To satisfy tourists, gifts and souvenirs for sale should be manufactured in the country where the purchase is made.
Usually, a tourist is dissatisfied when he buys a particular souvenir and then discovers later that the article he bought
was made in another country. There is no substitute for genuineness. The locally produced article is useful and
attractive; it should be made available in conveniently located shops. A visit to shops where handicrafts are actually
being made by the craftsman is an effective form of tourist entertainment. Examples are the shell-craft, handcrafted
jewelry of Bulacan, the Baguio and Ilocos hand loom wearers, and the traditional crafts of Thailand, Africa, Cyprus, and
Tunisia.

D. Industry and Business

Most travelers, particularly international travelers, are usually curious about the country's industry, commerce,
manufactured products, and its economic situation.

Industry tours are a very effective way of developing an interest in the culture of a country, as well as providing a
potential market for the product being made. Tourist organizations should encourage tours to factories or processing
plants. Lists of these industrial establishments can be prepared by tourist promotional organizations, chambers of
commerce, resort hotels, and restaurants. Group tours can be organized for manufacturers of a specific product who
visit another country to see how the manufacture of a similar product is accomplished. Such tours are mutually
profitable because the representatives of the different countries learn from each other.

Business or industrial groups often conduct tours to become familiar with the markets and processors in other countries
in order to develop more interest in their products and to increase sales in several market areas. Business
establishments, specifically retail stores, are important to visitors. The best examples are shopping centers near
destination areas where tourists can easily find the product or service they want. [Link] one of the most important
elements in tourism. The success of a shopping area depends on its cleanliness, attractiveness, variety of products, as
well as the courtesy and efficiency of the personnel. Hong Kong and Singapore are the best examples of tourist business.

E. Agriculture

The agriculture of a country may be interesting to a large segment of tourists. Dairy undertakings, fresh fruits and
vegetables, crops, and poultry and livestock are types of farming which are important elements of culture.

An important aspect of tourist services in rural areas is the farmers' market in which local agricultural products are sold
to the travelers. Examples of this are the roadside stands selling fresh fruits, vegetables, and products from nearby farms
which are enjoyed by travelers.

Local tours should include agricultural developments and services so that tourists can see the agricultural products in
the country and perhaps try some of them. An example of this is a tour to Oahu, Hawaii, or the Del Monte farm in
Bukidnon, Philippines where visitors have a chance to taste fresh pineapples grown in the pineapple plantations in the
area.

F. Education

The inhabitants of one country are usually anxious to know the educational system of another country. The campuses of
the colleges and universities of a country are particularly appealing to tourists. Many of them have beautiful landscapes
and are ideally situated for an enjoyable and enlightening visit. Famous universities such as Oxford or Cambridge in
England, Harvard in the US, and the University of Sto. Tomas in the Philippines are tourist attractions.

Several universities conduct adult education programs within the university's continuing education service. These
educational opportunities attract students from many countries around the world. Thus, students are motivated to
travel. International conferences of business and industrial associations, as well as scientific and educational
organizations, are often held on the campuses of colleges, universities, and other educational institutions. The best
examples are the adult education centers similar to the East-West Center at the University of Hawaii. These centers
attract thousands of adults every year from continuing education courses, conferences, and meetings that are
educational in nature.

G. Literature and Language

The literary achievements of a country form an important part of travel motivation. Books, magazines, newspapers,
booklets, pamphlets, and other printed literary works are significant expressions of the culture of a country. Libraries are
favorite cultural institutions for the tourists. Many have very good reading lounges and comfortable, attractive
surroundings where visitors can enjoy reading about the history, culture, arts, and folkways of their host country.
Frequently, entertainment programs include the reading of poetry or the discussion of various books or other literary
works as a cultural enrichment for guests.

A highly educated person is 'likely to speak or at least have studied more than one language. Interest in the language of
another country is an incentive for travel. This is true for students who travel to a particular country to practice the
language or to become more familiar with its colloquial use.

Most travelers like to learn the language of the country they visit. They usually start learning the common expressions
used in ordering food in a restaurant or in talking with hotel or other tourism employees. Language classes should
therefore be included in the activities program of a tourist area.

H. Science

Tourists are interested to know the scientific activities of a country, especially those in technical industries, education, or
scientific research. Tourist promotion organizations would be rendering a great service to the scientific community by
providing facilities for the exchange of scientific information, organization of scientific installations, and other activities
which provide scientific information to visitors.

The most popular scientific attractions are museums of science and industry, planetariums, and visits to unusual
scientific installations such as atomic powerplants and space exploration centers. Zoos and aquariums are likewise
popular.

Notable examples are the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, and the John F. Kennedy Space Center in
Florida. These scientific installations provide scientific knowledge to large numbers of visitors each year.

l. Government

Countries differ in their systems of government. Visits to centers of government, such as capitals, are very motivating to
individuals interested in political science and government. When a person visits another country, he or she becomes
aware of the type of government in operation and compares it with the government in his or her own country.

Lawmakers often visit another country to observe the lawmaking process. A visit to Washington D.C. can show visitors
the process of making laws in the House of Representatives and in the Senate. Hearings on different proposed
regulations or statutes are usually open to visitors.

J. Religion

The religious pilgrimage is another motivation for travel. The most popular among the Muslims is the pilgrimage to
Mecca. Many people go to the different headquarters of their church organizations and to places that are well-known in
their religious literature. These people usually travel in groups. Examples are the religious pilgrimages to the Vatican in
Rome, Lourdes in France, Fatima in Portugal, Jerusalem in Israel, and Medjugorje in Yugoslavia. Visits to famous
churches are also an incentive for travel. The best examples are St. Peter's in Rome, St. Paul's Cathedral in London, San
Agustin Church in Manila, the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, and the Basilica Minore del Sto. Niño in Cebu.

K. Food and Drink

Food and drink are an important part of the culture of a country. Tourists usually enjoy native food especially those
which are local or ethnic in nature.

Restaurants and hotels can make a good impression to the tourists if they serve local dishes and explain the menu—
what the dish consists of and how it is prepared. The type of restaurants where the atmosphere is conducive to the
types of food being served is particularly appealing to visitors. Very good examples are the seafood restaurants at the
Fisherman's Wharf in San Francisco and Los Angeles, California, and Cabalen Restaurant and Barrio Fiesta Restaurant in
the Philippines.

L. History

The history resources of a country reveal its cultural heritage. The preservation of history and the quality and
management of museums are very important for the success of tourism. To be familiar with the history and archeology
of an area is a very important travel motivation. One of the weaknesses observed in historical museums is that the
explanations of the exhibits are given in only one language. Hence, most tourists do not enjoy the historical exhibits
because they do not understand the language used in explanations.

Tourists should be provided with literature that describes the points of interest, admission fees, hours of operation,
special events, and other information they need to visit historical attractions. Examples of museums are the British
Museum in London, the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City, the Smithsonian Museum in Washington
D.C., and the Ayala Museum and San Agustin Museum in the Philippines.
Module 4: TRANSPORTATION SECTOR

I. Transportation and Travel Evolution

Transportation and travel have undergone many changes. A review of the history of transportation and travel shows
that their evolution took seven eras. These are the pre-industrial travel system era, the early-industrial travel system
era, the mature-railway system era, the express-travel system era, the automobile-based travel system era, the
modern-tourism travel system era, and the post-mobility adjustment era.

A. Pre-Industrial Travel System Era

This was the period before the widespread industrialization in Europe and North America. It was before the
development of railways in the two continents. There were few common carriers. There were almost no regularly
scheduled transportation services. There was little travel. Travelers made their own arrangements with several
suppliers. It was the era of the stagecoach and the wayside inn. Only few people had the money and the reason to
travel.

B. Early-Industrial Travel System Era

During the era, road improvements such as railways, canals, and steamship services were brought about due to rapid
industrialization and advances in transportation technology. Common carriers came into existence and began to offer
regularly scheduled transportation services. Travel increased because more people who had money traveled.

C. Mature-Railway System Era

This era was characterized by railways which expanded their operations by running hotels and providing other travel-
related services. The railways began to market their services more aggressively. Travel agencies and tour companies
were formed. Thomas Cook, an innovator in this field during this era, began his company's activities in the United
Kingdom in 1840. More people traveled in this era than in the previous one.

D. Express-Travel System Era

During this era, express service increased. Trains and other forms of transportation did not stop at every station or
terminal but only at the major ones. This increased the speed of travel and encouraged more travel than before.

E. Automobile-Based Travel System Era

This influence of the privately owned automobile was enhanced in North America and Europe from the 1920s onward.
Car ownership boomed in North America. Motorways, interstate highways, and other trunk highways were developed in
the latter half of this era which was from 1920 to 1974. The automobile was predominant over other travel modes from
1920 to 1945.

F. Modern-Tourism Travel System Era

The period from 1945 to 1974 is known as the modern-tourism travel system era. Car ownership continued to grow at a
fast rate, mainly at the expense of long-distance rail travel. Mass air travel was another post-World War I l occurrence.
The introduction of wide-bodied jets in 1970 greatly increased air travel. The "mass tourism" philosophy and marketing
approaches were prevalent during the 1950s and 1960s.
 G. Post-Mobility Adjustment Era

This era began in 1973 to 1974 as a result of the oil embargo generated by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) and the resulting increase in fuel prices. The events of the energy crisis basically changed the travel
patterns throughout the world. The present era is one in which travelers continue to look to alternative, group-oriented
modes of transportation.

II. Historical Development of the Transport System

The desire to travel is stimulated with the improvement in transportation. Before World War l, it took seven days for
travelers to go from coast to coast by steam locomotive. By 1950, travelers could complete the journey in two and a half
days by train. In 1938, an airplane with the speed of 400 miles an hour made possible nonstop coast-to-coast flights of
less than eight hours. In 1950, travel time from coast to coast was lessened to four hours. At present, the Concorde can
make a flight in two and a half hours. Table 2 shows the historical development of the transport system.

Speed
Year Mode of Transport
(miles per hour)
6000 BC Caramel caravan 8
1600 BC Chariot 20
AD 1784 First English mail coach 10
1825 First steam locomotive 13
1890 Improved steam locomotive 100
1931 Land speed record
(Bluebird: Sir Malcolm
Campbell)
1938 Land speed record 350
(Napier-Railton car: John Cobb)
1938 Piston aircraft 400
1952 United States Liner from New 41
York to Le Harve
1958 Jet fighter aircraft 1,300
1958 Boeing 707 and DC-8 aircraft 600
1961 Spaceship (Vostok 1 orbiting) 17,560
1967 Rocket plane 4,534
1970 Fighter bomber (Mirage IV) 1,450
1970 Commercial aircraft: Concorde 1,320
1970 Boeing 747 626
The development in transportation has made the world a smaller place. It is now possible to take one to two weeks of
vacation in distant places like Europe, the United States, the Caribbean, Mexico, and South America. Now, travelers can
go to any place in the world due to fast and efficient means of transportation.

III. Selection of Transportation Mode

There are many reasons why people select one transportation mode over another for their business and pleasure trips.
The most common reasons are cost, traveling time, safety, convenience, comfort, availability, frequency of trips, ground
services, terminal facilities and locations, status and prestige, and departure and arrival times. People belonging to
different travel segments have different value perceptions. For example, the time spent in traveling as well as departure
and arrival times are very Important to the business traveler while the cost of the trip is the traveler's primary
consideration.

Jagdish Sheth developed a theory identifying transportation variables and the value of travelers. He found out that
travelers choose a travel mode based on how they psychologically weigh the five factors, namely: functional,
aesthetic/emotional, social/organizational, situational, and curiosity. The functional utility of a mode is its expected
performance for a specific purpose. Examples are departure and arrival times, safety record, the directness of the trip,
and the number of stops or transfers. Aesthetic/emotional is related to such aspects as fear, social concerns, style,
luxury, comfort, and other personal feelings that the form of transportation might evoke. Social/organizational shows
that the frequent users of certain kinds of transportation are stereotyped according to sex, racial origin, income,
price/cost, and education. For example, those who take bus trips are usually perceived to be female, either young or old,
while those who take bus tours and cruises are generally retired people. Situational refers to how conveniently located
the particular mode of transportation and its terminal facilities are for the traveler. Curiosity utility refers to the
traveler's perceived need to do something new and different. Flying transatlantic on Concorde may have a high curiosity
value for many business travelers.

A. Travel by Train

Trains stimulated travel within the United States, Canada, and Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Britain had
its first organized train tour in 1841 when Thomas Cook organized an excursion between Leicester and Loughborough. In
1851, three million Englishmen boarded the train to see the Great Exhibition in London. The train was instrumental in
stimulating the development of many seaside resorts in Britain.

The first transcontinental route in the United States was completed in 1869. With the advent of the steam locomotive in
1825 until after World War Il, travel by train became the primary means of movement within the United States. During
the latter part of the 1800s and the first part of the 1900s, the train connected major population centers and popular
spas and resorts such as the Niagara Falls, Long Beach, Saratoga, New Jersey, and Las Vegas. This dependence on the
train is shown in the development of Las Vegas where large hotels were located downtown, a short distance from the
railroad station. This gave tourists who arrived by train quick and easy access to hotels and casinos.

In 1863, long-distance rail travel boosted when George M. Pullman built the Pullman coach, a luxury first-class sleeping
and dining facility. In 1868, the diner car was introduced on the Chicago and Alton line. Ten years later, an elaborate
meal could be obtained in all trains.

The popularity of the train lasted only for a brief period after World War Il when the automobile began to gain more
popularity as a passenger transportation mode. US railroads carried 77% of the nation's passenger traffic. By 1950, with
the rapid growth of private automobile ownership and usage, passenger traffic declined to 46%. In an effort to save the
railroad industry, the Rail Passenger Service Act became a law in October 1970. The act created the National Railroad
Passenger Corporation, now commonly known as Amtrak, which began its operations in May 1971 and was intended to
be a profit-making corporation. Canada's equivalent of Amtrak is VIA Rail Canada, which was created in 1977.

Both Amtrak and VIA Rail have the national responsibility of providing intercity passenger rail transportation. Since their
establishment, both organizations have been successful in increasing passenger volumes. They have done so by
improving the equipment and services they offer and by promoting the benefits of traveling by train more effectively.

Several attempts have been made to determine why travelers select the train as a transportation mode. Four evident
factors are: cost/price, comfort, safety, and the ability to see the area where the train is passing. VIA Rail's onboard
surveys of business travelers have identified user cost, convenience, travel time, and comfort as of primary importance.

A survey of Amtrak passengers showed that travelers favored the train for the following reasons:

1. Safety;
2. Ability to look out of the train and see the interesting things en route;
3. Ability to get up and walk around;
4. Arriving at the destination rested and relaxed; and
5. Personal comfort.
The negative factors of rail travelers are slowness in reaching the destination, inflexible departure times, and lack of
quality in food services. Promotions by Amtrak and VIA Rail have emphasized the rest and relaxation benefits of taking
the train. They have also pointed out that the downtown-to-downtown routing of trains saves the time of the
passengers.

Train travel has continued in Europe and Asia more than in the United States, particularly for long-distance travel. The
Euro City network, formerly the Trans Europe Express (TEE) network, as well as other national lines provided excellent
rail services between major cities in 10 countries. The system is being improved. In 1987, the TEE had been replaced by a
new system which includes high-speed trains, with both first and second-class accommodations. Travel within Europe
would be further improved with the development and construction of the Eurotunnel between England and the
continent. The tunnel would create the single biggest unified rail network in the world and reduce travel time between
England and other European countries by two hours. Europeans believed that the train was a more efficient form of
transportation from city center to city center on trips up to 300 miles. Like Amtrak, most of the better railroads of the
world were subsidized by the government.

Although the importance of rail travel was reduced due to the popularity of the automobile and airplane in many
countries, railroads had been working hard to improve their facilities to accommodate super trains with speeds between
150 to 250 miles per hour. The first sensational rail accomplishment after World War I l was Japan's shinkansen or bullet
trains which travel at speeds greater than 140 miles per hour. The bullet trains run north and south and link major
metropolitan areas. These began operations in 1964 in time for the Olympics in Japan. They make the run of 550 miles in
three hours and 10 minutes from the former time of 18 hours. They provide a ride so smooth that a passenger can leave
a cup of tea or coffee on a windowsill and not a drop will spill. A computerized control center feeds information to a
lighted board that shows the location of every train and the conditions of the track, switches, and wires. Station stops
are as short as two minutes at intermediate stations, so travelers must be ready to move fast. The computer
automatically stops the train in case of trouble, especially during an earthquake. At present, Japan has the best railroad
system in the world, with 26,000 fast and efficient trains scheduled a day. Japan has plans for trains which travel at
speeds of 300 miles per hour. The Japanese rail system is heavily subsidized by the government.

France has its own supertrain, the Tres Grande Vitesse which travels at a speed of 175 miles per hour between Paris and
Lyons and Marseilles.

In Russia, the Trans-Siberian Railroad, the longest in the world (5,787 miles) links outlying Siberian industrial regions and
mining centers with European Russia. Railroads are important to the Russian economy. The Germans have a test track
designed to carry passengers at a speed of 130 to 240 miles.

Tres Grande Vitesse

The popularity of the train system in Europe has increased, not only because of its quality and efficiency, but because of
the use of the Eurailpass. In 1939, a number of European countries introduced the Eurailpass which allowed a traveler to
use it for two months of unlimited second-class travel on any of the rail systems of the European countries. Later, it
included unlimited first-class service over different periods varying from 15 days, 21 days, one month, and three months
with access to many ferries and steamer routes. They also introduce the student Eurailpass for a second-class travel. It is
less expensive than the Eurailpass ang is good only in 16 countries.

B. Travel by Ship

Travel by ship preceded travel by train but it was not until the middle of the 19th century that travel by ocean liners
began to become prominent. Ocean liners were used to provide an important link to passengers among continents. At
present, water transport has two major roles in travel and tourism-ferrying and cruising.

The steamship era began in 1840 when Sir Samuel Cunard pioneered the first transatlantic-scheduled liner tips.
However, the introduction of the jet aircraft led to the rapid decline in the ships as scheduled passenger transportation
mode. In the late 1990s, the era of travel by ships expired. Cruise chips took the place of regularly scheduled passenger
ships. Many passenger ships were converted into cruise ships. Those that were too old or too large were junked or
scrapped. Others that had historical value were converted into tourist attractions. For example, the Queen Mary which is
permanently docked in Long Beach, California became a tourist attraction and a hotel.

Cruises are more of a vacation experience than a transportation mode. The romance of cruising had been strongly
promoted and was aided very much by the popular television program, Love Boat. Cruises are divided into three types
depending on the duration of the trips. Short cruises are one week or less, intermediate long cruises last one to four
weeks, and long cruises go around the world and take one to three months.

Cruise Ship

Short-duration cruises are more popular because they require less vacation time and are less expensive. Other reasons
are travelers can satisfy their desire to experience new environments and see new cultures and still bring with them the
comfort, safety, and convenience of home. In addition, there is no changing of hotels, airports, and food and beds which
may cause sleeplessness and other problems, Examples of short cruises are the three-night cruises from Los Angeles to
Mexico and cruises on the St. Lawrence River on vessels such as the Canadian Empress.

Cruise ships may be divided into large vessels which can accommodate 180 or more passengers and small vessels which
carry less than 100 passengers. They are called "mini-cruises" or "ultra-yachts." At present, the trend is toward large
vessels. Recently, the typical ship was built to carry 850 to 1,250 passengers but now, the average capacity of a new
ship is 2,000 passengers. The large cruise ships offer a wide array of services and amenities to guests, most of which are
packed into the cruise. Accommodations on board vary from rooms for three to four persons to lavish staterooms. The
rooms are air-conditioned and have private baths.

A cruise ship is both a floating hotel and resort because the guests are housed, fed, and entertained. Food is offered
throughout the day from seven-course meals to themed-event dinners. Cruise ships also provide almost continuous
entertainment which include charm classes, language lessons, dance classes, bridge, table tennis, aerobics, jogging, and
shuffleboard. Many ships now have fully equipped gyms, health spas, and an athletic counselor. Cruise directors plan
activities and entertainment for the passengers which may be full-scale musical productions, live entertainment with
well-known performers, discos, bingo, gambling, courses in self-improvement, and the like. For many passengers, the
numerous opportunities to socialize on a cruise vacation is one of its major attractions. Passengers who prefer a less
active type of vacation can relax by the pool or on deck and enjoy the warm climate and beautiful sunsets. Cruise
enthusiasts prefer this type of vacation because it combines fresh air, plenty of good food, a variety of activities, and
visits to exotic places.

Cruises are promoted and sold on the basis of health, recreation, and pleasure. Theme cruises are popular such as
culinary cruises, historic voyages to less-known places, stock market seminars, movie festivals, music festivals, as well as
cruises devoted to art, golf, astrology, tennis, photography, and beauty counseling.

The United States dominates the international cruise market by supplying more than 70% of total passengers followed
by Europe with 17%. Estimates of the total dollar income of the cruise industry are difficult to obtain because income is
earned from various sources including the scale of births, gambling, bars, shops, and miscellaneous services. Cruise lines
have also lucrative market in the United Kingdom, West Germany, and Australia. In Europe, Russian ships sail from ports
in Italy, the United Kingdom, and Holland. They offer tower rates and good services.

The cruise industry is largely owned by European companies which are located in Denmark, Norway, Holland, Italy,
Germany, Great Britain, and Greece, Although, the cruise ship industry is not a US industry in terms of ownership,
several United States and American territory cities serve as major ports of cruise ships. The top ports are Miami, New
York, San Juan, Port Everglades, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and New Orléans.

The Caribbean is the world's largest cruise destination Cruise passengers for destinations within the Caribbean comprise
50% of total visitor arrivals. Other major cruise destinations include the Mediterranean, Scandinavia, Alaska, and the
Pacific, Cruises are announced several months before the departure and are also sold mostly by travel agents as
packages. The fly cruise package has grown in popularity because it combines the speed and efficiency of jet travel with
the relaxing, romantic attribute of cruise ships. One significant marketing strategy used by the cruise industry is to offer
heavily discounted or free air flights to the port of embarkation. As an added convenience for cruise passengers, some
cruise line agents greet passengers at the airport and then transport them to the ship's pier. in order to attract more
families, other cruise lines have begun to provide children's activities and offer lower rates for a third or fourth
passenger in a cabin. Several cruise lines have also designed cruise packages which cater to the single segment and
those interested in health and fitness.

Younger people prefer the three- to seven-day cruises. Older people take cruises of seven days or less. The elderly
usually joins the round-the-world cruise, Cruise passengers tend to be repeat customers. Once they experience a cruise,
they begin planning for the next. Like destination resorts, cruise lines have successfully developed their own loyal repeat
clienteles with an average of 30 to 40% of the total passenger volumes.

Another role of the ship travel and tourism is ferrying or the use of ferry boats. These are used in the English Channel,
the Irish Sea, the Hebridean Islands of Scotland, the North Sea, the Maritime provinces and British Columbian coast in
Canada, and on the Great Lakes. Short duration sightseeing cruise ship attractions are abundant in North America. These
cruises last for one day or even a shorter length of time. Example of these are steamer and riverboat cruises in the
Mississippi River and Thousand Islands (New York, Ontario). The appeals of steamer sightseeing cruise are seeing the
scenic beauty of the area, learning about the history of the surrounding area, and using its dining/bar service.

The demand for cruising is expected to increase. Only a small part of the North American population has taken a cruise.
Market research shows that there are 24 million potential passengers with sufficient time and money. In addition,
satisfaction level is high for cruise passengers which would result in a high percentage of repeat cruise goers. Foreign
markets should also be seen as big potential markets. Europe, Japan, and Latin America, particularly Venezuela and
Brazil, are good potential markets. Overcapacity is the major problem for the industry at present. However, the growing
incentive-travel cruise market, which now accounts for approximately 15% of all births, is expected to help overcome
the effects of overcapacity.

C. Travel by Automobile

The real inventor of the automobile was Carl Benz of Mannheim, Germany. In 1885 to 1886, he combined the bicycle
and the international combustion engine and designed the complete vehicle engine consisting of the engine, chassis,
and transmission. Then came Henry Ford who, in 1908, produced his Model T car built with an assembly technique for
mass production. The price of the Model T car decreased from $825 in 1908 to $260 in 1925. The automobile industry
grew rapidly. However, it was only after World War Il that the popularity of the automobile increased significantly.

The introduction of the automobile brought about the decline of the train's popularity in most developed countries. The
advent of the automobile spread the benefits of tourism more widely and enabled people to travel individually or in
private smaller groups. The automobile brought about a more random pattern of travel movements, opened up new
destinations, and hastened the development of elaborate networks of automobile-oriented facilities and services along
highways and roads. Example of new facility types that developed in the United States and Canada after World War Il
were the tourist court and the motor hotel or motel.

Traveling by automobile is now the chief travel mode in North America. Many travel surveys have shown that
automobile trips comprise 90% or more of the pleasure/ personal and business trips of Canadians and Americans.
Surveys show that the automobile is the most popular mode of vacation travel because it provides travelers greater
freedom in the choice of route, destination, and timing of the journey. Family auto travel is also the most inexpensive
and convenient form of travel in the United States.

The growth of car ownership necessitated road improvements. The United States federal government participated in the
construction and maintenance of roads when it passed an act in 1916, matching state appropriations for new roads,
dollar to dollar. It was climaxed by the interstate act in 1949 which allowed travelers to move coast to coast and border
to border without a traffic light or stop sign. The first turnpike was built in Pennsylvania in 1940. In 1954, the federal
government, in order to encourage road construction, increased its share of the highway construction to 90%, During
the 1930s, the Germans constructed their network of autobahn. These four-lane divided highways were the world's first
high-speed roads.

The automobile stimulated tourism by creating attractions along tourist routes made accessible by the automobile.
Examples are homes of historical figures, scenic areas, and historic shrines and monuments.

Two important aspects of automobile travel are recreational vehicles and car rentals. These two areas have developed
so extensively in North America and elsewhere that they are now significant elements of tourism. The recreation vehicle
or RV was an extension of the preference of North America for the automobile. Ownership of recreation vehicles has
increased since 1979. A survey conducted by the Research Center of the University of Michigan indicated that
approximately 906,000 Canadians and 6 million US households owned one or more recreation vehicles in 1980.

Since World War Il, camping has become popular in North America and elsewhere. The United States has more than
14,000 public and private parks and commercial campgrounds containing approximately one million campsites. The
increasing popularity of the recreational vehicle led to the establishment of new campgrounds during the 1970s,
including the franchised condominium and timesharing condominium campgrounds. Many European visitors to Canada
and the United States rented these vehicles for cross-continent trips. Many companies have been formed to provide this
service to overseas pleasure travelers.

Related to the growth of the automobile has been the growth of the car rental market in the 1960s and 1970s. The car
rental industry began in 1918 when a Chicago Ford dealer started to rent secondhand model Ts. In 1924, the company
was bought by John D. Hertz, the founder of the Yellow Cab Company. Avis, the biggest competitor of Hertz, was
founded in 1946 by a retired US Air Force officer, Warren E. Avis. Initially, Avis specialized in airport rental locations. In
1948, Avis started downtown rental locations. It was during the same period that National Car Rental was organized, By
the late 1950s, car rental companies were found in all major airports.

The car rental business is a worldwide industry. Four companies dominate the US market with 85% market share. These
are Hertz, Avis, Budget, and National. These four companies also represent the "Big 4" within the international markets.
The Big 4 rental firms continue to be challenged in the US and abroad by companies like Alamo, Dollar, Thrifty, and
General. Another group of car rental companies consists of firms that rent used cars at lower prices. Examples are Rent-
a-Wreck, Ugly Duckling, and Rent-a-Dent. The car rental industry over the past 20 years is highly competitive. Individual
companies claim to be the first in various innovations such as rent-it-here, leave-it-here service. Each company, through
its advertising, claims to be the first or the best in providing new service.

The growth of the industry in the late 1960s and early 1970s can be attributed to the introduction of the fly/drive
concept. It encouraged travelers not to drive their personal car to their destination but to travel by plane and rent a car
on arrival. The fly/ drive concept became very popular in the Florida market, the birthplace of many new car rental
companies. The highest utilization of rental cars takes place on Mondays to Fridays usually by business travelers which
comprise about 75% of the total business. The demand on weekends comes mainly from pleasure travelers. A high
percentage of car rentals takes place at airport terminals. Thus, it is understandable that the success of this business is
closely related to the airline industry.

Some car rental firms have added cellular car telephones for business travelers. Another amenity is giving computerized
driving instructions to customers. In order to overcome low profits or losses, auto rental companies have employed a
number of different strategies such as higher prices, flat-free commissions for travel agents, and mileage limitations.

D. Travel by Bus/Motor Coach

Bus travel is the most flexible and economical form of transportation. In the United States, buses were first used to carry
passengers intercity in the early 1900s. There was little intercity travel before the 1920s. In 1928, the Greyhound
Company, the largest privately-owned bus company in the world, was established. By this time, buses traveled from
New York to Los Angeles in about five days. With road improvements before World War Il, cross-country trip time was
reduced to 90 hours.

The terms "bus," "coach," and "motor coach" are used interchangeably. In North America and elsewhere, the bus
performs two major roles. The first is to provide a regular schedule of intercity passenger transportation services. The
second is to provide charter and tour services. Intercity service is indirectly competitive with private auto, rail, and air
service. Discount airfares have proven to be a major competition for intercity bus Service. Thus, intercity bus service has
declined, while charter and tour services have grown. Bus ridership patterns also changed to short-haul distances of 250
miles or less. Continental Trailways and Greyhound Lines Inc. are the two major intercity companies, with Greyhound
accounting for 60% of the market.

The main reasons for selecting bus travel over other modes of travel are convenience and economy. Few people choose
the bus for business travel. Bus riders tend to be older and have less income. Bus service is available in practically every
town of 1,000 people or more, and a passenger station or ticket agent for bus service is at hand in each of these
communities. Most people do not choose bus travel for long trips. Surveys have shown that women bus riders
outnumber men. Recent advertising indicates that bus companies are targeting their marketing programs toward the
family summer vacation market, young couples, older people on summer vacation, and the retired people.

Charter and tour service is the fastest growing segment of the bus or motor coach industry. Several tour packages are
developed by tour brokers who charter buses and arrange all the other components of the tour, including the itinerary,
lodging, sightseeing, admission, tour guides, meals, and the like. These packages are usually sold through travel agents.

Motor coach tours usually last five to six days and are limited to a particular geographical area. The two principal
markets for charter and tour services are school-age children and senior citizens. Other markets include international
visitors. Gambling tours by motor coach to the casino centers of Las Vegas, Reno, and Atlantic City are very popular.

The increasing demand for motor coach tours, coupled with the improvement of buses, could result in the future
expansion of the bus charter and tour segment of tourism. The present coaches are wider, have more leg room, more
baggage space, lavatories, climate and noise controls, better lighting, more sophisticated public address system, and
panoramic view windows.

A. Travel by Air

The airplane had a revolutionary impact on tourism from World War Il onward. The history of air transportation can be
divided into three parts—Pre-World War Il, World War Il, and Post-World War Il. On December 17, 1903, the Wright
Brothers took a flight on a beach in North Carolina which lasted 12 seconds with a distance of 120 feet. In 1927, the air
industry developed regularly scheduled passenger trips between Boston and New York. Other governments helped this
growth in the 1920s by subsidizing air companies.

In the United States, almost all early airlines started by carrying mail for the post office. One of the first was Varney
which began in April 1926 and later became United Airlines, Western Airlines began its passenger service on April 17,
1926 when it carried a woman passenger along with the mail. Pan American Airways had the first international flight in
1927 when it carried mail from Key West, Florida to Havana, Cuba.

World War Il influenced the development of the airline industry. It helped further improve airplanes by accelerating
technological research to improve their size and speed and by using the knowledge gained by thousands of servicemen
who became familiar with planes and air travel.

The tremendous time-saving aspects of air travel and its cost effectiveness, when compared to other modes of
transportation such as the train, ship, and automobile, aided the growth of the airline industry during the post-World
War I l years. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, commercial jet aircrafts were introduced, increasing the speed of travel
and creating smoother flights and greater seating capacity for passengers. The commercial airline industry improved
further in the 1970s with the introduction of wide-bodied aircrafts such as the Doughlas DC-10, Boeing 747, the
Lockheed Tristar 1011, and the European Aerobus. These planes further increased passenger comfort as well as seating
and freight capacity.

As the airline industry grew, the travel industry depended on it more, Cruise lines, rental car companies, airport hotels,
and ground transportation operators depended on the airline industry to generate the bulk of the business. Executive
business travel and international tourism are dependent on it. The impetus of air travel to people traveling on business
is its time-saving advantage; for the pleasure traveler, it is the affordable price that has the greatest impact.

The 1980s had witnessed still further improvements in aircraft technology with the introduction of the DC-9-80 and
Boeing 757 and 767 designed for fuel-efficient operation offering approximately 30% lower fuel consumption for
passenger than the older models. The introduction of the longer-range Boeing 747-400 that has a range of 8,000 miles
and seating capacity of 418 will change travel patterns. Almost all jetliners were built by Boeing, with headquarters in
Seattle, Washington; McDonnell Douglas in Long Beach, California; Lockheed in Burbank, California; and the A-300, the
Airbus, built by a consortium of European countries and assembled in Toulouse, France. The three American Companies
produced about 75% of the world's commercial jet planes. Boeing was the dominant company in jetliner business with
sales between $6 to $7 billion a year.

The Boeing 747 jumbo jet is a long-haul plane. The tail stands 63 feet and 5 inches tall, about as high as a five-story
'building. It weighs 775,000 pounds and cruises at 625 miles per hour, with some models having a range of 6,210 miles
without refueling. It is distinguished by the hump on the nose that houses the flight crew and an upper lounge for the
first-class passengers. Each 747 costs approximately $90 million, depending on spare parts and extras ordered. It is safer
and gives a smoother ride because its huge size lessens its reaction to air turbulence. It carries cargo in its belly.

Food service on the large planes is speeded by the use of modules, similar to cargo modules. These are snapped into
place on a lower level in the aircraft. The galley modules contain prepared foods that are heated in flight by convection
and microwave ovens located near the module storage area. Elevators raise the food to the passenger deck when it is
ready.

The factors associated with the recent boom in air travel include the world economy, rising standard of living, and the
quality of air service. Growth in the airlines has been at an annual rate of 5% since 1959. The industrial nations, which
account for the majority of air travel, had a growth rate of 7% from 1960 to 1970. The standard of living in the world
increased by 5% and the per capita income rose to 3%. The per capita constant dollar gross domestic product (GDP) of
industrial countries increased faster than the GDP of developing countries. While the economy of the United States grew
at an average rate of 3.3% from 1960 to 1970, the GDP of other major industrial nations grew at a faster rate. The GDP
of Japan rose to 10% per year for the past two decades. In addition, airfares throughout the world decreased to 9%
between 1960 to 1970. The average airfare in constant dollars decreased at an average of 26% a year from 1960 to 1970
and continues to decrease. Because of these factors, air travel is no longer considered a luxury but a necessity.

The introduction of charter services further pushed down the prices of airfares. Charter services are an alternative to
regularly scheduled services. They offer lower rates for two reasons. First, they do not have the large personnel
investment required an airline with regularly scheduled flights. Second, by flying with a full load of passengers, the
charter companies are able to fly their planes for less cost per passenger. The growth of charter flights was impressive.
Freddie Laker, a British entrepreneur, introduced a London-New York route, selling it for one-half the normal airfare.
Other countries and airlines followed with economy fares to and from European cities.

Since 1950, incomes have increased rapidly while airfares have declined. This made air travel more attractive than ever.
While the price of an airline ticket decreased, the quality of service with regard to speed, size, and comfort improved.

IV. Airline Regulation

International tourism requires a system of international air transportation. This system requires negotiations among
nations and carriers in the form of bilateral agreements. Overflight privileges must be obtained from all nations over
which an airline will cross during international flights. Airlines are or may be assessed overnight charges for the privilege
of flying over other nations including countries which do not have formal diplomatic relations with each other like Cuba
and the United States. Lending rights, fuel purchase agreements, maintenance provisions, and other considerations
require bilateral negotiation.

Governments throughout the world have agreed that a complete free market for international air travel is not possible.
The original idea for a worldwide system of airline regulation took place in the Chicago Convention of 1944 and the
Bermuda Agreement of 1946.

The Chicago Convention marked the beginning of continuous dialogue about various freedoms of the air but was not
successful in establishing a multilateral system of commercial aviation rights. The Bermuda Agreement established the
first worldwide model for future bilateral agreements regarding the exercise of the eight freedoms of the air:

1. First Freedom: The right of an airline to overfly one country to get to another;
2. Second Freedom: The right of an airline to land in another country for a technical stopover (fuel,
maintenance, etc.) but does not pick up or drop off traffic;
3. Third Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to drop off traffic from country X to
country Y;
4. Fourth Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to carry traffic back to country X from
country Y;
5. Fifth Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to collect traffic in country Y and fly on to
country Z, so long as the flight either originates or terminates in country X;
6. Sixth Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to carry traffic to a gateway—a point in
country X—and then abroad. The traffic has neither its origin nor ultimate destination in country X;
7. Seventh Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to operate entirely outside of country
X in carrying traffic between two other countries; and
8. Eight Freedom: The right of an airline, registered in country X, to carry traffic between any two points in
the same foreign country; also known as cabotage.

Only the first two technical freedoms have been widely accepted. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth freedoms are still
subject to bilateral bargaining. The seventh and eighth freedoms are usually allowed only in special circumstances.

The bilateral air agreement concepts which resulted from these meetings meant that airline service could not be offered
between a nation of origin and one of destination unless there was a specific agreement between the two nations
regarding the details of the service. Bilateral agreements were established to provide for the orderly development of the
international air transportation industry. The need for bilateral agreements was intensified because small nations felt
that they should have their own national airline or flag carrier. A large number of flag carriers are government-owned
enterprises. Some are subsidized by the government because of national pride, fear of dependency on foreign carriers,
as a means of supporting economic development, and to ensure air freight for export products. Airlines of the United
States and other countries are owned and operated by private enterprises and must operate for a profit.

The use of the bilateral air agreements was not enough to meet the need for cooperation between international airlines
with different profit orientation. After the Chicago Conference, several scheduled carriers met in Havana and the
International Air Transport Association (IATA) was formed to ensure cooperation among international carriers. IATA is a
democratic organization whose membership is open to any member of the United Nations. It is supported by dues from
140 active and associate member airlines. It links together with many non-IATA carriers throughout the world in
Multinational Interline Traffic Agreement. This agreement allows passengers to use a single ticket and travel by several
carriers around the world, it also makes the movement of air freight worldwide easier.

The primary purpose of IATA is to establish a system of international rates and fares. Through IATA, the airlines enter
into agreements concerning rates, conditions of services, and routes to be given to each airline. The agreements are
subject to the approval of their respective governments.
Module 5: ACCOMMODATIONS

I. History of the Accommodations or Lodging Industry

The lodging industry developed because of the need to provide accommodations for travelers. Early roadside inns were
mentioned in several instances in both the Old and New Testaments. The early reference to the inn is found in the Bible,
when Joseph, Christ's foster father, was told, "There is no mom at the inn." Excavations in Pompeii reveal that the
Romans had developed the concept of inns into a trade.

The history of the hotel in its present form goes back to the Middle Ages. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
German and English literature made frequent reference to the inn. The development of the inn in the late medieval
period was due to the improvements in security in many European societies. It had become safe to travel.

During the height of the Industrial Revolution in the 1700s and early 1500s, there was a greater demand for
accommodation as people migrated to the cities to work. The emerging middle class could afford accommodations when
traveling away from home. The Industrial Revolution and the development of spas helped the growth of the hotel
industry. By 1750, Brighton, Blackpool, Southern, and other English seaside resorts were attracting bathers. America's
first hotels were seaport inns. An example of an early American inn is Manhattan's Fraunces Tavern, Also, pre-
revolutionary boarding houses are preserved in Guildfored, Connecticut, Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia, and elsewhere.

By the middle of the seventeenth century, the public stagecoach had appeared. In the next 200 years, the lodging
industry was influenced by the development of road transport. Coach service was established by innkeepers to attract
business. The inn was used not only as a boarding house but also as a booking office, waiting place, eating
establishment, and as center of the town's social activities.

With the rapid development of the railways in the 1820s and 1830s, a different kind of hotel developed. In Europe, large
hotels were built next to or across the downtown railroad station. In the United States, hotels were constructed along
the railroad network.

The introduction and development of the automobile industry led to the establishment of the roadside hotel. With the
construction of highways and expressways, the lodging industry responded to the needs of the motorist. Thus, the
motor hotel or motel emerged.

After World War Il, advances in air transportation led to the increased number of travelers who demanded more and
more hotel space. The widespread use of the car led hoteliers to build more roadside motels. Business travelers
demanded to build more roadside motels. Business travelers demanded specialized accommodations, including meeting
and convention facilities. Recent major hotel growth was in the airports, downtown, and resort areas.
Although the hotel industry was booming, several small, family-owned hotels could not compete with the fast-growing
chains. Ellsworth Statler was the first hotel chain pioneer in the United States. Hotels bearing his name had been built in
Buffalo, Cleveland, St. Louis, Detroit, Boston, and New York.

In the history of deluxe hotels, the most famous name is that of Hilton Corporation. Conrad Hilton built an empire that
includes the Waldorf Astoria in New York and the largest hotel in the United States, the Conrad Hilton Hotel in Chicago
with 3,000 rooms. Among the first-class hotels, the fastest growing group was the Sheraton chain founded by Ernest
Henderson. The chain is now owned by International Telephone and Telegraph Company (ITTI). In 1952, Kemmons
Wilson founded the Holiday Inn chain and its concept of clean, comfortable, and reasonably priced accommodations for
the ordinary traveler.

The popularity of the sun vacation in the 1960s brought about the development of the resort hotel. It catered to the
vacation traveler who stayed for a number of days. It differed from the traditional hotel because it provided a wide
range of special services and it targeted a special interest group such as sun enthusiasts, golfers, tennis players, scuba
divers, and honeymooners.

The change in the function of a hotel brought about a change in its architecture. Owners renovated older downtown
properties and adapted them to the needs of the modern-day traveler. Hotels changed in appearance as extra features
were added such as glass-covered elevators, atrium lobbies, a variety of restaurants and bars, functional meeting rooms,
and a full array of recreational opportunities. The atrium concept in hotels, introduced by architect John Portman,
boosted the popularity of Hyatt.

Another recent development is the overseas expansion of the American chains. Hotels which met international
standards became an export item of the United States. Hilton International opened its first hotel in San Juan, Puerto
Rico in 1949. In addition, it opened a hotel in Berlin in 1958, followed by several properties in other countries in Europe.
Intercontinental Hotels opened many hotels in Latin America before 1960. At present, it has 109 properties in 49
nations. Sheraton opened its first hotel in Canada in 1949. Holiday Inn opened its first property in Montreal in 1960. At
present, it has 221 international hotels in 52 countries outside the United States.

II. Types of Accommodation

Accommodation can be classified into various types; the most popular of which are the following:

1. Hotels

Hotels can be a 10-room boarding house or a building that has a thousand or more rooms, convention and meeting
facilities, recreation facilities such as swimming pools and tennis courts, 24-hour room service, with several restaurants
and bars and various types of entertainment. Hotels have been designed and built to meet almost any kind of budget or
comfort level that the traveling public might want.

2. Motels or Motor Hotels

Normally, motels only offer rooms only and free parking to guests. These are often found along busy highways and cater
primarily to transient and cost-conscious travelers.

3. Resort Hotels

Resort hotels are intended for vacation travelers. These hotels range from budget to luxury and can accommodate these
travelers and even convention delegates. These are usually located near beaches and offer more amenities, shops, and
recreation opportunities.

4. Pensions

Pensions are found principally in Europe. These are usually family-owned accommodation facilities. In German speaking
parts of Europe, a pension is also called Gasthaus. Pensions and Gasthaus usually offer continental breakfast but do not
have facilities for other meals. Pensions are known for their informal family atmosphere.
 5. Paradors

Paradors are unique to Spain. These are generally old castles, convents, or monasteries that have been converted into
hotels by the government and are operated by the government.

6. Condominium Hotels

Condominium hotels are a recent innovation. These are often hotels with apartments (condominiums) instead of basic
rooms. The condominium units are sold by the hotel developers to individuals who are given a title to the physical real
estate. The individual owners then contract the developer or a management company to operate the hotel and rent the
space to visiting tourists. The individual owners have the right to stay in their own units during specific periods of the
year with a reduced room rate. The developers or management company receives a fee for managing and renting out
the units. The resulting profit is shared among the individual unit owners. Condominium hotels generally appeal to
families because of the apartments.

7. Campgrounds

Camping is a popular form of overnight accommodation in both Europe and North America. in North America, there are
at present more than 20,000 campgrounds, some of which are owned by hotels. Campgrounds usually appeal to families
who travel in recreational vehicles RVs. Campgrounds and RVs stopping spots are often found in government parks and
forests.

8. Bed and Breakfast

Bed and breakfast are a form of lodging which originated in Europe. This form of accommodation provides a bed for the
night and breakfast the next day. It was only in the 1970s that the idea was brought to the United States. Retired and
semiretired people with large houses have contributed much to the growth of these establishments.

9. Tourist Inns

Tourist inns are lodging establishments that cater to transients. These do not normally meet the minimum requirements
of an economy hotel.

10. Apartment-Hotels (Apartels)

Apartment-hotels are buildings which contain several independent and furnished or semi-furnished apartments. These
are leased to tourists and travelers on a long-term basis and offer basic services to its tenant, similar to hotels.

11. Health Spas

Health spas are hotels and resorts which cater to people who go to spas or mineral springs for medical treatment or
weight reduction. The idea of visiting health spas originated in Europ9. The Romans and the Greeks visited the spas as
early as the first century. The spas became the center of the social life of the English, the French, and the Germans
during the seventeenth and later centuries. At present, several health spas in Europe offer modern techniques such as
medically supervised rejuvenation programs which include supervised diets and rigorous exercises to shed fat and
reduce weight.

The spas in many European nations are controlled by the state. In Czechoslovakia, there are more than 900 curative
mineral springs and 50 spa towns and resorts that are visited by thousands of people from 50 countries. They are
attracted by the curative effects of the mineral waters on the spas. Private European hotel chains have entered the
health spa business in the continent.

12. Private Homes

The private home is the earliest form of overnight lodging for travelers. It provides lodging to tourists who cannot be
accommodated in hotels and motels during peak vacation periods.

13. Time-sharing

Time-sharing is a more recent unique type of accommodation. It started in Europe in the 1960s when people found it
difficult to make reservations every year in popular hotels during summer. Time-sharing is the selling of vacation lodging,
usually condominiums, for a specific week or weeks over a given number of years. Originally, condominiums in resorts
were bought and marketed as either a second home or primary home depending on the needs of the buyer. The resort
would rent the units during the time when the owner was not in residence, thus providing an income to help with the
payments. Later, a new marketing approach that would sell more lodging facilities at a higher profit to the developer
was adopted. By selling weeks instead of permanent residence, the total asking price could be higher. For example, a
unit which sells for $100,000 as residential structure would sell for $15,000 per week, thus bringing a total sales price or
profit of over $500,000. Time-sharing also increases the number of potential buyers since the average person who is
restricted by both time and money would then be able to afford a week at a resort and still receive the benefits of
having made an investment in property.

Time-sharing began in the United States in the early 1970s when oil prices increased. Florida developers, unable to sell
their whole unit condominiums, decided to adapt them to time-sharing. However, they knew they would have difficulty
selling the concept of right-to-use time-sharing to North Americans. Therefore, the early North American time-share
developers split each whole condominium unit into 52 individual weekly portions and sold the portions or shares. In this
way, the buyers no longer had to pay $150,000 for the entire unit but only $3,000 for one week or $6,000 for two
weeks. There are two basic types of time-sharing programs that have been developed. First, the fee-simple program
provides the buyer with both an occupancy and ownership right to a specific resort unit for a fixed period annually. This
unit can be sold or leased and used for tax purposes like any other real estate purchase. Second, the right-to-use
program guarantees an annual occupancy right for a specific period but does not convey ownership interest in the
proper. Both types of time-share ownership interest in the property and both payment of a pro-rate share of the annual
maintenance costs of the entire property.

A later development which has increased the attractiveness of timeshares is a system of exchange. This allows a person
who buys a time-share in a particular resort to trade for another time-share in another resort. Several companies
provide computerized trading services for owners.

14. Hostels

Hostels provide basic amenities such as a bunk bed and a commonly shared toilet and bathroom. The traveler provides
his or her own bedding. Hostels appeal primary to young travelers.

The idea of a hostel was conceived in 1909 by an elementary school teacher in Germany who wanted to provide low-
cost overnight lodging to travelers throughout Europe. In 1930, there were more than 2,000 youth hostels that were
established in Germany. In 1934, the first hostel was established in the United States.

At present, hostels are run by individuals or nonprofit organizations. A few are run by the national organization.

Classification of Hotels

There are different ways of classifying hotels, such as location, type of guest, and price. According to location, hotels
may be center-city, suburban, airport, or highway. Based on guest type, hotels are classified as commercial,
conventions, or resort. According to price, hotels are categorized as economy, standard, first class, or deluxe.

Rating Systems

A number of independent rating guides have been published by individuals, automobile associations, and travel
organizations using various combinations of star, dots, and alphabetical indicators. Most rating systems are based on the
quality of the physical structure, furnishings, maintenance, housekeeping, and overall service. Experienced individuals
inspect the hotels and restaurants every year. Many are regional field representatives who submit detailed reports to
the appropriate office. The raters are not known by the establishment being rated.

The following are used to rate hotels, motels, inns, resorts, and guests’ ranches:

1. I-star = Good, better than average;

2. 2-star = Very good;

3. 3-star = Excellent;

4. 4-star = Outstanding; and

5. 5-star = One of the best in the country.

III. Organization of the Lodging Industry

A hotel organization can be large and complex. A typical hotel has seven major divisions, namely: personnel, engineering
and maintenance, accounting, security, food and beverage, marketing and sales, and room division. Each division is run
by its own division head.

1. The personnel division recruits’ new employees and administers policies and employee benefits for the
company.
2. The engineering and maintenance division makes the necessary repairs and implements the hotel's energy
management program.
3. The accounting division handles the financial activities of the operation which include payment of bills, sending
out statements, payroll, and compiling monthly income statements.
4. The security division provides protection for both employees and guests.
5. The food and beverage division is responsible for the food and beverages that are served.
6. The marketing and sales division is responsible for selling the rooms and food service. It is involved in
advertising, development of promotional materials, and making direct contacts with prospective clients.
7. The room division is responsible for the front desk, telephone, reservations, and housekeeping department.

IV. Management Methods

Traditionally, hotels are operated by the people who own the property. In some cases, the operator may lease the hotel
from the owner and then manage it. In other cases, special arrangements are made such as franchising and
management contracts.

Franchising

Hotels that are franchised are usually owned and operated by the same person or company. The hotel operator or
franchisee signs a contract with the franchisor to maintain certain operating standard and to use the franchise name on
the hotel or motel.

The franchisee receives benefits such as extra business as a result of the franchisor's national or international
advertisements, the use of the franchisor's operating and accounting system, and a line into the franchise chain's
reservation system. In return for these benefits, the franchisee will pay a royalty and an advertising fee plus a
percentage of annual room sales or a specified number of dollars for each room sold.

Management Contracts

Hotel management contracts are a recent phenomenon. Although the first management contract was signed in 1946 by
the International Hotels, it was only in the 1970s that management contracts became widespread.
Under a management contract, the hotel management company does not have a financial interest in the hotel's land
and building. The landlord owns the property but does not have any interest in managing it. In return for operating the
property for the landlord, the management company receives a basic annual management fee, plus an incentive, which
is based on the hotel's gross profit and/or net profit but may also be based partly on total sales.

Under a management contract, the investment rent is transferred from the operator to the property owner. The
management contract also allows hotel-operating companies to widen their investment base by increasing the number
of rooms managed, thereby increasing their profits. Developers who do not have experience .in hotel management
usually build large hotels and then turn them over to hotel management companies to run them. It was the
management contract that enabled hotel companies such as Hilton International to expand rapidly around the world.
The expansion was due to its ability to get capable management teams.

V. Chain Accommodation Operations

Most hotels and motels are part of a chain operation. The individual units in the chain may all be owned by one large
company, be partly owned and partly franchised, or may all be franchised. In any case, the owning company or
franchisor establishes the standards and operating policies to which each individual unit must conform. Because of their
size, chain operations often have the potential to implement employee selection and training programs, to buy major
equipment and furniture in bulk, and to conduct market research on such matters as guest room layouts and
productivity improvements. All these benefits are passed on to the owners or managers of the chain units who also
benefit from chain marketing and a chain reservation system.

Referral Groups

Referral groups have become popular because the individual owner or operator can remain independent while achieving
many of the benefits of a chain group. This is through voluntary membership in the referral organization. Examples of
these benefits are advertising and reservation referrals. One of the largest referral groups in North America is Best
Western which has approximately 3,000 properties with more than 200,000 rooms.

VI. Hotel Terminology

Room rates for hotels are quoted in terms of what meals are included in the price. European Plan (EP) means that there
are no meals included. This is the most commonly used room rate quoted by North American hotels, American Plan (AP)
means that breakfast, lunch, and dinner are included in the quoted price. In Europe, AP is known as full pension. Meals
are usually a fixed menu with little or no choice. Modified American Plan (MAP) includes breakfast and dinner but not
lunch or breakfast and lunch but not dinner. In Europe, this is known as demi pension.

A continental breakfast is offered by most European hotels and is included in the room rate. In Europe, this type of plan
is known as hotel garni or pension garni which consists of rolls, coffee, and sometimes juice.

The Bermuda Plan (BP) is offered by hotels in Bermuda and some other places. It includes both a room and a full English
or American type of breakfast. Bed and breakfast hotels operate on a Bermuda Plan in Britain and the United States and
on continental breakfast plan in continental Europe.

Room Rates

The maximum rates that hotels charge for a room normally depend on the number of people occupying it. These rates
are called rack rates. These are posted on the inside of the entrance door of each guest room. The rack rate is not always
the rate that is paid for a room. Hotels, like airlines, have a system of discounted prices.
The revenue that is not obtained for a guest room is gone and cannot be recovered. Thus, hotels offer discounted rates
to special classes of people to encourage them to stay in the hotel. For example, there are special rates for business
travelers, government employees, airline employees, and other similar groups.

For conventions and conferences, hotels compete with one another by offering the lowest room rate. Profits on banquet
meals and sales of liquor make up for the discounted room rates.

VII. Hotel Profitability

Room Occupancy

A simple measure of a hotel's profitability is its room occupancy. It is obtained by dividing the number of rooms
occupied by guests on any night by the number of rooms in the hotel and by multiplying the result by 100 to determine
the occupancy on a percentage basis.

Occupancy can also be determined for a week, a month, a year, or any other period of time. In this case, the numerator
is the number of rooms occupied for that period and the denominator is the number of rooms available during that
period, that is, the number of rooms in the hotel times the number of days in the period.

Double Occupancy Rooms

Occupancy percentage is not usually the best measure of marketing success for a hotel because it does not show
whether the revenue is being maximized. Whether a room is occupied by one person or by two persons, the occupancy
percentage will not change, but the revenue obtained will be changed. It is for this reason that hotels determine the
occupancy and the double occupancy rate which is the number of rooms occupied by more than one person.

Double occupancy is determined by dividing the number of guests accommodated during a certain period by the total
number of guest rooms during that same period.

The 1.54 double occupancy ratio means that 54% of the rooms were double occupied.

Average Rate Per Room Occupied

Another way of measuring maximization of revenue is the average rate per room occupied. The average rate will
increase if more expensive rooms are sold or if more rooms are double or triple occupied. The average room rate is
obtained by dividing the revenue for a period by the number of rooms occupied during that period.

Average Daily Rate Per Guest

Another useful statistics is the average daily rate per guest. This is obtained by dividing total room revenue for a period
by the total number of guests accommodated during that period.

Average Length of Stay

To maximize revenue and increase room occupancy, hotels try to increase the length of stay of customers through
advertising and other marketing methods. If customers can be motivated to stay an extra day or two, this will mean
more revenue for the hotel.

VIII. Breakeven Point

Hotels are often interested to know their breakeven point. It is that point at which a business will make neither a profit
nor a loss. The equation for determining it is:

_____Fixed costs____

Contribution margin
Fixed costs are those that stay the same regardless of the volume of business. Examples are management salaries,
interest, depreciation, insurance, property taxes, mortgage payments, amortization, and physical plant maintenance.
Contribution margin is defined as the average room less the variable costs of having a room occupied. Variable costs are
those that change according to the number of guests in a hotel. The variable costs for a hotel room are primarily the
costs of housekeeping such as maid wages, linen, laundry, and supplies.

A breakeven analysis is an important managerial tool because it shows the percentage of occupancy that a hotel must
have to cover expenses.

IX. Accommodation Reservation

Many large hotels have computerized reservation systems. However, despite these systems, overbooking still occurs.
Overbooking is selling more rooms than the actual available rooms. Hotels do it for a reason. If hotels book only to
capacity, they would often end up with empty rooms because of "no-shows" or people who do not advise that they
want their reservations cancelled. Hotels know from experience that there is a no-show percentage that can be
compensated by overbooking. However, the numbers do not always work out correctly. The result is disappointed
customers and negative publicity.

Hotels use different methods to avoid overbooking and reduce the no-show factor. One method is for a hotel to advise
the customer that it will honor a reservation only if the customer arrives at a certain stipulated time. Another method is
for the hotel to ask for a deposit when a room is booked. Upon receipt of the deposit, the hotel will give the customer a
written document confirming that the reservation has been made. The hotel guarantees that the room will be available
and the customer guarantees that the room will be paid even if he or she does not show up.

Registration Cards

Accommodation establishments use the guest registration card as a marketing tool. A guest registration card provides
information about the guests such as his or her name, address, geographical origin, and other facts. This information can
be used to produce a direct mail list which is used for sending future promotional material. The list can also be expanded
to include the names and addresses of clients who have made reservations, canceled them, and even customers who
made reservations but never arrived.

The geographical origin of the customers can be used to show where advertising efforts should continue to be directed
rather than wasted by promoting the accommodation in places where a few customers originate.

The guest registration card information can also be used to produce a typical customer profile. The customer profile can
be presented to different print or broadcast advertising media which can then determine if the market they serve fits
this profile. If it does, the establishment may then be able to use that medium for its advertising.

X. Hotels and Airlines

At present, there is a natural link between airline companies and hotels. This is due to the changed nature of
transportation. One of the first links was Pan Am which tied in with the International Hotels in the 1940s.

According to Lane (1994), there are three major reasons why airline companies link with hotels. These are:

1. Their desire to protect insisting business and develop future business, thus increasing their profits;
2. The expectation that hotel ownership will boost tourism development in their home countries; and
3. The desire to expand national culture.

Today, there are many airline-hotel links such as KLM Hilton International, Air France and Meridian Hotels, Air Lingus
(Ireland) and Dunfey Hotels, and Japan Airlines and Nikko Hotels. The links between hotels and airlines are not always
formed by ownership or merger. They can also be partial ownership or a working agreement.
Frequent Flyer Links

Many of the frequent flyer programs of airlines are also linked to hotel usage. This means that airlines grant airline
passengers extra mileage points for staying in participating hotels.

Accommodation Promotion

Most accommodation establishments promote their properties to members of the travel trade as well as to tour
wholesalers and travel agencies. They provide the travel trade with printed promotional literature and invite them as
guests on familiarization trips. They offer discounted room rates to representatives of the travel trade when they stay in
hotels but are not on a familiarization trip. Large hotel chains install promotional booths at travel trade expositions and
advertise in travel trade publications. These travel trade advertisements emphasize the benefits that will be derived by
the tour wholesaler or travel agency in recommending the hotel. These benefits are the commission the wholesaler or
agency will receive from the hotel and the repeat business that will be generated for the wholesaler or agency. Many
travel agencies handle resort hotel bookings especially when these are tied in with air travel as a package.

Hotels use the direct mail approach to groups who would like tb hold meetings, conventions, or conferences in the
hotel. For these groups, hotels often offer the incentive of lower room rates for group bookings and make up the
reduced revenue by means of additional sales of meals and alcoholic beverages. Hotels also offer corporate rates to
large companies from which they would like to get guest room business.

Accommodation establishments also use newspapers for promotion. They spend more money on newspaper
advertisements than on any other advertising vehicle. They use the business sections of newspapers to reach the
business traveler and the travel sector to reach the vacation traveler. They also advertise on radios and televisions, on
highways and airport billboards, on city magazines or directories, and on telephone directories. Large hotels use direct
mail operations for advertising. Majority of hotels advertise in travel journals, travel and recreation magazines, and
airline in-flight magazines.

Resort hotels advertise on magazines, on television, and by direct mail. Some resorts give posters to travel agencies for
window displays. Resorts often get free publicity when they have stories to tell the media. The story may be about the
arrival of a celebrity or the filming of a television show at the resort. Another type of publicity is when a resort hotel is
featured in a documentary. Many large resorts have produced short video cassettes about their properties which are
given away or sold.

Several chain organizations emphasize their image and uniqueness in their advertising. This works if it is presented
creatively in advertising. Budget emphasizes price in their advertising.

Some accommodation entities feature the hotel's president or general manager in their advertisements. They may also
feature the chef in their restaurant advertising.
Module 6: FOOD AND BEVERAGES SECTOR

I. History of the Food and Beverage Service

In early history, there was much evidence that certain groups of people cooked together in big groups and that the early
inns provided a crude menu. In the Roman era, there were some establishments that offered sausage or roast meat,
bread, and a cup of wine. The forerunner of the modern restaurant that provides hot food and drink developed in Rome.
Many of the early restaurants were in the cities, near temples and government buildings. After the fall of the Roman
Empire, the manors and castles provided food to large numbers of people. The early inns provided bread and wine to
travelers.

In 1200, public cook shops were opened in London which offered precooked takeout food. The royal families of Europe
introduced cutlery, table linen, crystal glasses, new foods such as turkey and potato, and the roadside tavern. In the
sixteenth century, British inns and taverns began to serve one meal a day at a fixed time and price and at a common
table. The meal was known as ordinary, and the dining rooms were called ordinaries. The most famous ordinary in
London was the Castle and Lloyd's which was the meeting place for merchants and ship owners. in the seventeenth
century, the ordinaries became fashionable clubs and gambling places as well as centers for political activities. The word
"restaurant" was used in the late eighteenth century for a Paris dining room serving light dishes.

In the United States, taverns and inns were very similar to those in England. A famous tavern in New York was Fraunces
Tavern. In 1834, the famous Delmonico's was opened in New York. In the early 1900s, several events that were
significant to the food industry occurred. The hamburger was first served in 1904 at the St. Louis World's Fair. The first
root beer stand was founded by Roy Allen and Frank Wright.

The Second World War brought many changes to the American public, People became richer, the automobile made
them more mobile, and they shifted to the suburban areas of cities, In the 1960s, fast-food establishments emerged.

At present, modern popular cuisine including French, Chinese, Mexican, and Japanese have become common in most
cities. The role food plays in tourism may not be a direct but an indirect attraction.

II. Types of Restaurants

The following are the different types of restaurants:

 1. Family or Commercial Restaurants

Family-style restaurants offer a wide menu of "meat and potato" selections with a price range that appeals to an
average family income. They serve beer and wine if they have a liquor license. The decor is bright. A combination of
counters, tables, and booths is common. Parking is necessary since customers usually arrive by car. Family restaurants
are normally located near a residential area and a highway.

The operating hours are usually from early evening to midnight. The staff are friendly and efficient. The initial
investment is medium to high.

2. Coffee Shops

Coffee shops are characterized by a fast-food service. The decor is simple, and prices are relatively low. it is usually
located in an office building or shopping mall. The rent is high. The staff are often minimally trained. The peak periods of
a coffee shop are lunch and coffee breaks. Operating hours are from early morning to early evening, A takeout service
may be offered.

3. Cafeterias

Cafeterias are usually located in shopping centers and office buildings. Self-service is typical with limited menus of soups,
entrees, desserts, and beverages.

Cafeterias often require a large preparation area. Their staff are minimally trained. Beer and wine may be offered. Fast
service is necessary to handle the traffic volume. The operating hours will depend on the location as school, office
building, airport, or highway.

4. Gourmet Restaurants

Gourmet restaurants generally require a higher initial investment than other types of restaurants because they require
an expensive ambience and decor. They cater to those who want a higher standard and are willing to pay the price.

Cafeterias often require a large preparation area. Their staff are minimally trained. Beer and wine may be offered. Fast
service is necessary to handle the traffic volume. The operating hours will depend on the location as school, office
building, airport, or highway.

The prices are higher at gourmet restaurants because of the high investment required. The menu and wines are carefully
planned, and the staff are highly trained.

The evening period is the main emphasis. The location is important but may not be critical since discriminating diners
look for quality gourmet restaurants. Word-of-mouth advertising and repeat business are keys to success.

5. Ethnic Restaurants

Ethnic restaurants feature the food of a specific region or country. They can be Chinese or classical French cuisine. The
decor usually has an ethnic motif.

In order to be successful, ethnic restaurants must serve authentic cuisine of the region or country they are featuring and
those who prepare the food must be well-trained and knowledgeable. Prices range from budget to high. Beer, wine, and
liquor may or may not be served. The initial investment is high because of the decor and staff training. The location is
variable. Operating hours are in the evening.

6. Fast-food Restaurants

Fast-food restaurants have increased in the past 20 years as people have become more mobile. Franchising is common
in this type of restaurant. The menu is limited with low prices. Because of low prices, many customers patronize fast-
food restaurants.
Fast-food restaurants operate for long hours and generally for seven days a week. Alcoholic beverages are not offered. A
well-trained staff is required for franchise fast-food operation in which the franchisor sets standards of service and food
quality that must be maintained at all times.

Fast-food chains have been successful in the past two decades because they have offered a limited menu. This has given
them greater purchasing power, less waste, and lower labor costs by using disposable paper, plastic, and styrofoam
containers which save dishwashing costs. These restaurants are pioneers in establishing more efficient food-operating
systems.

7. Deli Shops

Deli shops provide delicatessen food service, combining traditional delicatessen cold meats and cheese with takeout
sandwiches, salads, and similar items. Some deli shops have limited seating capacity. They are usually located in
shopping areas or office buildings and are open from 9:00 AM to 5:00 PM or 9:00 PM. Capital investment is low. Deli
shops have low labor costs because only one or two owners and employees are involved.

8. Buffet Restaurants

Buffet restaurants are established on a completely self-serve basis. However, if liquor, beer, and wine are offered, table
and service for these beverages are provided.

The food buffet is usually an "all you can eat" hot and cold food for one price. Food preparation and service staff are
kept to a minimum, Buffet restaurants cater to the family and therefore offer reasonable prices. They are open from
5:00 PM to 11:00 PM.

9. Transportation Restaurants

There is a natural link between transportation and food service. Several restaurants are generally found along auto and
bus transportation routes. They are also found at bus, rail, and air transportation buildings, as well as on transportation
vehicles as trains and ships.

Some transportation restaurants cater to tour groups, particularly bus tour groups. These restaurants can be quite
profitable if the market can be maintained. They require special cafeteria or buffet-type facilities so that arriving groups
can be served quickly and continue their journey.

III. Franchising

Franchised restaurants are a major component of the food service industry, particularly in the fast-food sector. The
reasons for the popularity of franchising in the restaurant industry are very similar to those in the hotel industry.
Franchises are beneficial to the franchisees because they provide operational, training, layout and design assistance,
location assistance, managerial expertise, group purchasing power, and most importantly, the identification of a well-
known brand supported by regional, national, and international advertising and promotion. Franchised restaurants can
easily get financing from lending institutions than independents.

In the early days of franchising, the common practice was to sell individual franchise rights for a single restaurant. At
present, a regional franchise has become popular with franchisees and franchisors. A regional franchise allows a
franchisee to develop multiple outlets within a specific geographical area. The area could be a city, a state, a province, a
major part of the country, or the whole country. For example, Wendy's in the United States gave private Canadian
Country the territorial rights to all of Canada for Wendy's restaurant operations.

Franchised restaurants include fast-food chains such as McDonald's, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Pizza Hut, A&W Root Beer,
and Burger King. They also include dine-in types of restaurants such as Wendy's and Pizza Inn and carry-out
establishments like Orange Julius. The fast-food franchise is the most common. Table-service restaurants such as
Denny's Steak and Ale and Victoria Station, and buffet-style restaurants such as Bonanza are also franchised. These
table-service and fast-food restaurants have spread from the United States to other countries throughout the world.

IV. Restaurant Profitability

Food Cost Percentage

Food cost percentage is often used to measure a restaurant's marketing success. It is determined by dividing the food
cost for a period (a day, a week, a month) by the sales for that same period and then multiplying it by 100.

Gross Profit

Gross profit is the selling price of an item less its food cost. Table 3 shows the importance of gross profit in comparing
two menu items.

Labor Costs

Labor costs are controlled by expressing them as a percentage of sales on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis and
comparing the actual cost with the standard desired.

Instead of treating labor costs as separate from food costs, many successful restaurants look at these two as a combined
cost. For instance, they set a standard of 75% above in which food costs plus labor costs must not increase. As long as
the operation maintains the combined cost below this level, the restaurant will be profitable.

Average Guest Check

Another profitability measure used in restaurants is the average guest spending or average check. Average guest
spending is calculated by dividing the total revenue received for a particular period (a day, a week, a month or a year) by
the total number of guests served during that period.

Breakeven Point

Breakeven is that point at which business will make neither a profit nor a loss. The operation for determining the
breakeven point is:

__Fixed costs__

Contribution margin

Fixed costs are those costs that remain the same regardless of the volume of business. Examples are salaries, interest,
depreciation, insurance rent, and the like. The contribution margin is average check less variable costs.

V. Menus

The menu is the basic planning document for a successful restaurant. Several aspects of the restaurant's operation
depend on the menu. The menu contains what the restaurant offers, the range of offerings, as well as the selling prices.
The menu must portray the style and theme of the restaurant. Thus, the menu's design, printing, size, and colors are
important.

The menu also determines the equipment needed and the investment required. In general, the more extensive the
menu is, the more varied the needed equipment will be. If a restaurant sells only hamburgers, hotdogs, fries, and
softdrinks, its required equipment will be less compared to those of a restaurant with 20 or 30 menu items which
require different cooking methods and more specialized equipment.
In addition, the menu identifies the labor costs of a restaurant. It can determine the number of staff required and the
cost of staff training for food preparation and service. The more items are contained in the menu, the more complex the
service will be.

Lastly, the menu estimates the cost for uniforms, purchases, storage and space, and actual food costs. The menu also
helps emphasize, by means of bolder prints, which menu items the restaurant would prefer customers to order.

Airline Catering

Airline companies spend billions of dollars every year for food purchases. The average cost per airline passenger is
between $1 and $7 depending on the length of the journey. The amount is less for shorter trips, since passengers may
be offered only a non-alcoholic beverage and a light snack. For longer trips in which two or three meals may be offered
including free alcoholic beverages, the amount is higher. Around 3 to 4% of an airline's total costs is spent on food.

Food Quality

The main problem of airline companies is to cook the meal on the ground and serve it several hours later in an
extraordinary dry cabin atmosphere, seven miles high, to different groups of people with their own food preferences,
and whose main motivation is to travel rather than to eat.

In 1992, airline passengers were served a sandwich and coffee from a vacuum flask on a flight from London to Paris. At
present, particularly on long flights, passengers expect hot meals.

Logistics

To produce hot meals, the airline companies have to prepare specifications for recipes, ingredients, cooking methods
and temperatures, and labor for each flight These require a forecast using the actual passenger reservations for each
flight including an allowance for standbys and last-minute reservations in order to have the correct raw materials,
equipment, and food production staff for each shift. Preliminary meal counts are usually prepared from 24 to 72 hours
ahead so that food supplies can be bought.

Menus must be carefully selected for each flight to avoid serving the same meal to a passenger on two succeeding
segments of a trip or on a round trip. In addition, trays and serving utensils and supplies must be .in the kitchen when
the meal is prepared.

Airplane Galleys

The first airplane galley was designed in 1936 by Douglas for its DC-3. Meals prepared on the ground were kept hot or
cold in insulated containers on the aircraft After World War Il, the introduction of larger airplanes enabled them to have
ovens and refrigerators onboard in their galleys. The removable ovens are filled with hot food in the ground flight
kitchen, moved to the aircraft, and then plugged into electrical outlets.

Flight Kitchens

The first airline flight kitchen was opened in the late 1930s near Washington D.C. Hoover Field airport by a gentleman
named Marriott. He had a restaurant near the airport. He noticed that passengers would go to his restaurant to eat
before boarding their flights because no meals were served in the airplane. He approached Eastern Air Transport, now
known as Eastern Airlines, and offered to prepare lunch boxes in his restaurant for Eastern's passengers. Eastern agreed,
so the first flight kitchen was established. At present, Marriott In-Flite Services has approximately 100 flight kitchens
around the world which cater to 150 different airlines and serve 100 million meals a year.

There is an ongoing trend at present in which Flight Kitchen operators lease their dining equipment from other firms.
Some airline companies have their own flight kitchens while others contract with other airline companies that are
equipped with their own kitchens. Most of the airline companies turn over their catering services to outside caterers
because airline kitchens are not large and efficient.

VI. Difference Between Airline Catering and Restaurant Catering

Airline catering is different from restaurant catering because in the latter, the cooks can make last-minute adjustments.
For example, a steak might be prepared in the flight kitchen to be accompanied by a sauce and vegetables to be served
two hours later. During this time, it must be kept hot. if there is flight delay of one hour, the steak will be stringy, the
sauce will be congealed, and the vegetables will be mushy. In an ordinary restaurant, a meal like this will not be served
but on an airline, the serving crew usually has no other choice but to serve it.

In airline catering, the logistics are very complex, but airlines exert great efforts to serve good meals to the passengers.
They even respond to the needs of passengers on special diets if given enough notice.

VII. Restaurant Promotion

Many restaurants advertise their menu on newspapers. Local newspaper advertisements are used by most restaurants
as a major form of external promotion. Several restaurants advertise in the yellow pages of the local telephone
directory; some use local radio or television stations. Most popular restaurants and national restaurant chains advertise
in airline in-flight magazines, consumer travel magazines, and travel trade publications. Many restaurants try to foster
good relations with nearby hotel employees such as front office staff, bell desk personnel, and doormen because they
are often asked by hotel guests to recommend good nearby restaurants. Good public relations and word-of-mouth
advertising generate a lot of business.

Module 7: RECREATION AND LEISURE

I. Meaning of Recreation and Leisure

The dictionary defines "recreation" as the process of giving new life to something, of restoring something. "Leisure" is
defined as the productive, creative, or contemplative use of free time.

Recreational Activities

Recreational activities include all kinds of sports, both team and individual, such baseball, softball, football, basketball,
volleyball, tennis, badminton, swimming, skiing, hiking, jogging, aerobics, and rock climbing, which are active forms of
recreation. Passive recreational activities include reading, fishing, playing and listening to music, gardening, playing
computer games, and watching television shows or movies.

II. Varied Views of Recreation and Leisure

For some, recreation means the network of public agencies that provide parks, playgrounds, swimming pools, sports
fields, and community centers in several cities, towns, counties, or park districts. They may view these facilities as an
outlet for the young people or a means of achieving family togetherness or pursuing interesting hobbies, sports, or
social activities.

For others, recreation may be found in a senior center, a sheltered workshop for mentally challenged individuals, or a
treatment center for physical rehabilitation.

Environmentalists may be principally concerned about the impact of outdoor forms of recreation on our natural
surroundings such as forests, mountains, rivers, and lakes which are the national heritage of a nation.
Recreation and leisure are all these things. They represent a rewarding form of human experience and constitute an
important aspect of economic development and government responsibility.

At present, the value of recreation and leisure is universally accepted. As a consequence, the government in both
developed and developing countries has accepted the responsibility of providing and assisting leisure opportunities
through extensive recreation and park systems.

Recreational Participation

The most common notion of recreation is that it is primarily a participation in sports and games. Recreation actually
includes an extremely broad range of leisure activities including travel and tourism, cultural entertainment, participation
in the arts, hobbies, membership in social clubs, or interest groups, nature-related activities such as hunting and fishing,
and attendance at parties, special events, and fitness activities.

Recreation may be enjoyed with thousands of participants or spectators or may be a solitary experience. It may be very
strenuous or may be primarily a mental activity. It may act as a lifetime of interest and involvement or may consist of a
single, isolated experience.

III. Motivations for Recreational Participation

Many participants take part in recreation as a form of relaxation and release from the pressures of work and other
tensions. Another recreational motivation is the need to express creativity, expose hidden talents, or pursue excellence
in various forms of personal expression.

For some participants, active recreation offers a channel for releasing hostility and aggression. It is also a way of
struggling against the environment in adventurous and high-risk pursuits. Others enjoy recreation because it provides
them the opportunity to make new friends or cooperate with others in group activities.

Many individuals take part in recreational activities which involve community service, provide leadership in fraternal or
religious organizations, and promote health and physical fitness. A growing number of individuals enjoy participation in
computer-based entertainment and communication including CD-ROMs, interactive video games, and the Internet;
others are deeply involved in various forms of elite culture such as music, drama, dance, literature, and the fine arts.
Additional important motivations are exploring new environments through travel and tourism or seeking self-discovery
or personality enrichment through continuing education or religious activity.

IV. Factors Promoting the Growth of Recreation

The following are the factors that help bring about the growth of recreation:

1. Increase in discretionary time — A key factor underlying the growth of recreation has been the growth of free or
discretionary time in the 20th century. Due to advanced mechanical equipment and automated processes in factories,
agriculture, and the service fields, productive capacity increased remarkably during the second half of the 19th century
and the first half of the 20th century. In addition, more holidays and longer vacations are now enjoyed by most
employees. Because of improved social security benefits and pension plans, as well as medical advances which lead to a
longer life, many employees can now avail of 15 or more years of full-time leisure after retirement. Another reason is
that labor-saving devices such as automatic washing machines, lawnmowers, microwave ovens, and vacuum cleaners
have greatly simplified the demands of life.

2. Influence of technology — Sophisticated technology has provided new forms of recreation for people. Outdoor
recreation uses complex and expensive devices in activities such as skydiving, hang gliding, scuba diving, boating, roller
blading, skiing, and snowboarding. Computer dating provides a new form of social contact for single adults. Video games
offer interactive competition or exposure to new varieties of play settings and "virtual realities." The internet has
become an important part of travel and tourism by providing information and facilitating reservations and vacation
choices. Home-based recreation has become dependent on varied forms of electronic entertainment.

3. Public interest in health and fitness — A key trend in the 20th century is the growth of public interest in exercise and
physical fitness programs. Many people are now concerned about improving their health, vitality, and appearance
through diet and exercise. Those who exercise regularly look and feel better. Research showed that the most successful
fitness programs were those that provided recreational interest and satisfaction.

4. Commodification of leisure — Various forms of recreation are being developed by profit-seeking businesses. Giant
corporations have taken control of music, television, movie businesses, sports stadiums, cruise ships, theme parks, and
other leisure operations. Many elaborate new facilities which offer varied forms of recreation are being developed as
part of the trend toward commodification. In big cities, huge public fitness centers which include pools, aerobics, dance
rooms, and facilities for family play are being built and often charge membership fees that cost several hundred dollars a
year.

5. Therapeutic recreation service — An important aspect of the growth of recreation has been the increased awareness
of the recreation needs of persons with physical, mental, or social disabilities, 'n recent years, there has been an
increased recognition of the need to provide recreational programs for special populations such as the mentally
challenged, mentally ill, and physically challenged. These programs use therapeutic recreation as a form of treatment.
One of the sports programs for people with disabilities that has received much attention in recent years is the Special
Olympics, an international program of physical fitness, sports training, and athletic competition for children and adults
with mental retardation.

6. New leisure roles for women — At present, there is a strong drive by women to play a more equal role in recreational
opportunities. In the past, women were barred from a variety of athletic, outdoor recreation, cultural, and social
involvements. Women were treated as second-class citizens in leisure opportunities. With the emergence of a strong
feminist movement, this inequality was corrected- There is now a growing interest in women's tennis, golf, gymnastics,
track and field, and similar events in every level of competition. Outstanding women athletes have helped create a new
image of feminine strength, determination, and self-confidence.

IV. Types of Organized Recreation

1. Government recreation agencies —These are the federal, state, provincial agencies and local departments that
provide recreation and leisure services as a primary function. Also included are other agencies that offer recreation
programs as a secondary responsibility such as those concerned with social service, education, special populations, and
the armed forces.

2. Voluntary nonprofit organizations — These are nongovernmental, nonprofit agencies, both sectarian and
nonsectarian, which serve the public at large with multiservice programs that often include a substantial element of
recreational opportunity. The most popular voluntary organizations include the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, YMCA, YWCA,
and YM-YWHA.

3. Private membership organizations — They provide recreational and social activities for their own members and, in
some cases, assist community recreation needs. Examples are golf, tennis, yacht, athletic, and country clubs. Also
included under this category are the recreation sponsors connected to residence such as swimming pools, sports or
fitness complexes or clubs attached to leisure villages, and apartments or condominium units or retirement
communities.

4. Commercial recreation enterprises — These are privately owned businesses which operate to make a profit such as
ski centers, bowling alleys, nightclubs, movie houses, theaters, health spas or fitness centers, dancing schools, and
theme parks.

5. Employee recreation programs — They serve those who work for companies or employers by providing recreation as
a part of a total personnel benefits package, linked to other services concerned with employee health and fitness.
6. Armed forces recreation — Although it is obviously a form of government sponsored activity, it is unique in its setting
and purpose. Each of the major branches of the armed forces operates an extensive network of recreation facilities and
programs.

7. Campus recreation — It includes intramural athletics or sports clubs, social activities, travel programs, performing
arts groups, entertainment, lounges, film series, and other forms of recreation on college and university campuses.

8. Therapeutic recreation services — These include any type of program designed to meet the needs of persons with
physical or mental disabilities, individuals with poor health, dependent aging persons, social deviant persons in
correctional facilities, and similar special groups.

VI. Two Recreation Service Components

In addition to the eight types of organized recreation, sports and tourism represent major areas of recreational
programming and constitute powerful economic forces through their attraction for people of every age and background.
Uniquely, they have strong links to each other through the growing field of sports tourism and also overlap heavily with
outdoor recreation attractions.

A. Sports as Popular Recreation

Sports are major areas of recreational involvement. Of all the types of recreational involvement, sports command the
highest degree of personal interest and emotional involvement both for those who participate actively in them and
those who are part of a big number of fans of school, college, and professional teams.

Sports are generally defined as physical activities demanding exertion and skill, involving competition, carried on with
both formal rules and general standards of etiquette and fair play. Sports activities, in terms of both participation and
spectator involvement, represent key recreation interests for most youth and adults. Aside from amateur, school, and
college sports, there are professional sports which have become big businesses.

B. Tourism — A Major Recreation Service Component

Tourism is a second major area of diversified recreational involvement. Several major elements in the tourism enterprise
which are closely linked to the growth of tourism as a form of recreation are the theme parks, water parks, fun centers,
and sports tourism.

VII. Theme Parks, Water Parks, Fun Centers, And Sports Tourism

Theme Parks

Theme parks usually concentrate on one dominant theme which may be historical, cultural, or geographical. An example
of a theme park with a single theme is the marine zoological Sea World Park. Other parks focus on multiple themes like
the Great America in California, a hundred-acre family entertainment center divided into five themes: Hometown
Square, Yukon Territory, Yankee Harbor, County Fair, and Orleans Place. The most popular theme park is Disneyland in
Anaheim, California which was built by the late Walt Disney around the theme of Disney characters.

Theme parks create an atmosphere in which the visitor is likely to experience fantasy, glamour, escapism, prestige, and
excitement. Once inside the gate, the visitor is completely shut off from the outside world and immersed in an enjoyable
recreational experience.

Water Parks

A specialized type of theme park are the water parks. They feature wave pools, slides, chutes, shows, and other forms of
water-based play and entertainment. Water parks are usually part of larger theme park operations. For example,
Universal's Islands of Adventure, the Jurassic Park River Adventure, Bilge Rat Barges, and Poseidon's Fury offer either
whirling and steep white-water rides and sluice falls or swirling vortexes that spray riders thoroughly. Each year, dozens
of new water parks have been opened with the latest technology.

Fun Centers

In heavily populated metropolitan areas, entrepreneurs have developed a variety of indoor fun centers, ranging from
children's play, gymnastics, to family party centers, video game arcades, and big restaurants with game area.

New children's and family play centers have been established in many suburban neighborhoods and shopping malls.
They offer a combination of computer and video games billiards, miniature golf, entertainment by clowns and magicians,
music, and popular fast-food refreshments. They also offer packaged birthday parties and attractive family play
activities.

Sports Tourism

The purpose of sports tourism is to participate directly in a form of sport or attend sports events as a spectator. In the
past, only the team traveled; the spectators remained behind to read about their favorite game or to experience the
game through radio and television. Today, both the team and the spectators travel to the game especially where
championship games are involved. Major college and professional tournaments and championships attract huge
audiences along with major boxing matches, golf, and tennis events, and even sports like softball, soccer, rugby,
volleyball, and roller skating. The World Olympics is the biggest sports event. It attracts millions of spectators and
generates millions of dollars in revenue.

VIII. The Need for Professional Leadership

At present, there is a growing need for qualified professional leadership in the recreation field. Very often, people
assume that the tasks of organizing and conducting recreation programs are relatively simple and that anyone can do it
without specialized training. However, the professional's assignment in the organized recreation field tends to be more
complex and difficult than that of the volunteer leader or coach. It must involve carefully studied goals and objectives
and sophisticated planning techniques.

Recreation professionals should possess the skills needed for direct leadership and supervision, group dynamics, and
client assessment. They must have the ability to carry out basic research and write meaningful reports.

Emerging Professional Identity

As employment in recreation agencies grew over the past several decades, recreation gained public recognition as a
flourishing career field. Millions of men and women became employed in various specialized sectors of recreation and
leisure services. Many hold professional-level jobs as recreation leaders, supervisors, planners, managers, and resource
specialists. Through the efforts of national, state, and provincial societies, higher standards for practice were developed
and the first steps of certification and accreditation were undertaken.

IX. Challenges Facing the Recreation and Leisure Service Field in the Twenty-First Century

Recreational professionals must be able to deal creatively with the following challenges:

1. Serve diverse society (race, age, gender);

2. Emphasize key social purposes of recreation in working with at-risk youth, serving persons with
disabilities, and promoting community development;

3. Achieve fuller public understanding of the value of recreation and parks, and of the leisure-service
profession;

4. Upgrade recreation and park programs and facilities, particularly in inner cities and for minority
populations;
5. Adopt a benefits-based management approach; researching, proving and publicizing positive outcomes
of recreation;

6. Promote recreation's identity as health-related field;

7. Develop partnerships with environmental organizations to protect and restore wild lands, waterways;

8. Employ marketing approach to achieve fiscal sufficiency and gain public respect and support;

9. Expand and improve family-centered programs and facilities;

10. Promote higher values and ethical practices in youth sports competition;

11. Strive for fuller mainstreaming of persons with disabilities in community recreation programs;

12. Plan for long-term role of recreation and leisure in potentially job-scarce economy;

13. Develop higher levels of professionalism through accreditation, certification, continuing education, or
program standards; and

14. Unify separate branches of recreation and leisure service fields (public, nonprofit, commercial,
therapeutic) in common programs and projects.