Chapter 8

Soil Organic Matter:

Significance, Sources and
Functions

Muhammad Aamer Maqsood, Tariq Aziz, Muhammad Sabir,

Abdul Wakeel, Muhammad Sanaullah and Muhammad Zia-Ur-
Rehman†

Abstract
Soil organic matter (SOM) is a dynamic component in soil and acts as a source of
food for microbes and inorganic nutrients for plants. It improves soil structure
resulting in better aeration, water movement and increases resistance to soil erosion.
Being highly porous and having high surface area, it improves nutrient and water
holding capacity. Organic matter content in soil is a reflector of soil health. Sources
of organic matter include animal manures, municipal sewage sludge, logging and
wood manufacturing refuse, industrial organic residues, and food processing
residues. Several soil factors are responsible for soil organic matter buildup including
soil microbial activity, temperature, soil pH, soil moisture etc. Microorganisms,
including bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi decompose organic matter in the soil.
Carbon/nitrogen ratios (C:N ratio) of residues controls the rate of organic matter
decomposition. In order to overcome current stagnation in agriculture and to increase
profitability on a sustainable basis, understanding the dynamics of organic matter is

†
Muhammad Aamer Maqsood*, Tariq Aziz, Muhammad Sabir, Abdul Wakeel, Muhammad Sanaullah
and Muhammad Zia-Ur-Rehman
Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
*
Corresponding author’s e-mail: mohamgill@[Link]

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Muhammad Sabir, Javaid Akhtar and Khalid Rehman Hakeem
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
176 M.A. Maqsood, T. Aziz, M. Sabir, A. Wakeel, M. Sanaullah and M. Zia-Ur-Rehman

the need of the day. This chapter is a discussion on the available sources of organic
matter, factors affecting its buildup and its effects on soil and environment.
Keywords: Organic matter, Sources, Significance, C:N ratio, Decomposition

8.1. Introduction
Soil is the most important natural resource which serves as a natural medium for
plant growth and a natural sink for variety of environmental pollutants. Soil is a
complex medium which is composed of solid, liquid and gaseous components. In
mineral soils, half volume is occupied by solids and rest half is occupied by pore
space, shared jointly by water and gases. Solid portion of mineral soils is occupied
by 48 % mineral particles and 2% by organic matter. Most agricultural soils contain
organic matter in the top 25 cm of soil (Duxbury et al. 1989). The organic component
of soil, mostly comprising dead organisms, plant matter and other organic materials
at different stages of decomposition, plays a significant role in nutrient management
in the soil as it acts as a reservoir or storehouse of plant nutrient. Although in mineral
soils, OM is very low but still it can considerably modify a soils’ physical properties
and strongly affect its chemical and biological properties. Soil organic matter is a
very dynamic and vital portion of the soil (Magdoff and Weil, 2004). It is a reservoir
of nitrogen; it supplies large portions of the soil phosphorus and sulfur; protects
against soil erosion; improves aggregate formation; and it loosens up the soil to
provide better aeration and water movement. Organic matter must be readily
decomposable and continuously replenished with fresh residues.
Organic material is decomposed by microorganisms; predominantly by bacteria,
actinomycetes, and fungi (Holland and Coleman 1987). These decomposers produce
enzymes that are the proteinous substances directly responsible for the
decomposition, by reducing the activation energy, necessary to break the bond of the
organic materials. Many different enzymes are required for decomposition of the
complex variety of organic substances. Nitrogen, either from organic residue or
nitrogen already in the soil, greatly affects the rate of decomposition. Residues with
carbon/nitrogen ratios (C:N ratio) wider than about 30:1 will have a low
decomposition rate due to deficiency of available N. Nutrient balance is one among
others factors that promote optimum organic matter decomposition (Dalal and Mayer
1986; Rice 2002). Organic matter residues are collectively called humus, after the
active decomposition has taken place.
Organic matter (humus) is a dynamic portion of soil and must be replenished
continuously to maintain soil productivity. This can be supplemented by applying
organic amendments, such as animal manures, municipal sewage sludge, logging and
wood manufacturing refuse, industrial organic residues, and food processing
residues. Crop residues comprise of about 70%, animal manures about 23%, logging
and wood manufacturing wastes about 5%, and each of the other groups less than 1
percent of total residues. In many countries including Pakistan, some of the residues
available are used for other purposes such as fodder for animals, building structures
and fuel.
Soil Organic Matter: Significance, Sources and Functions 177

Overall organic matter plays a pivotal role in sustainable and profitable agriculture.
Understanding the dynamics of organic matter may help in alleviating the current
stagnation in various agricultural systems. This chapter aims to discuss the current
sources of organic matter, factors affecting its buildup and its effects on soil and
environment.

8.2. Sources of Soil Organic Matter

8.2.1. Animal manure
Animal manures supply most of the macronutrients as well as micronutrients
necessary for plant growth. Its fertilizing effect on crops can be compared to that of
mineral fertilizers. Application of manure in a certain year influences not only the
first crop grown but its residual effect also benefits the succeeding crops in later crop
seasons/years because of extended time span required for decomposition of the
manure. Application of farmyard manure is synergistic to mineral fertilizers for
various nutrients as it improves soil growth conditions as well as replenishes plant
nutrients. Decomposition of farmyard manure by soil microorganisms results in the
release of CO2, water and plant nutrients, such as N, P, K and micronutrients. In
general, after about one year, almost all the applied farmyard manure becomes part
of soil organic matter and a small portion is transformed to humus, which is resistant
to further microbial breakdown. Enhancement in soil organic matter adds to cation
exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil, thus increasing its retention capacity for plant
nutrients through adsorption. It improves soil structure which is less susceptible to
compaction or erosion. Soil organic matter also raises water holding capacity of the
soil. Improvement in soil organic matter decreases soil bulk density by improving
total porosity. Besides improving physical, chemical and biological properties of soil,
organic matter application also improves availability of micronutrients which are
gaining increase importance because their deficiency is known to impair yield as well
as quality of crop produce (Dhaliwal et al. 2013). Animal manure is used for
maintaining and restoring fertility and productivity of soil since ancient time and is
now considered an important and cheap method of recycling nutrients (Schjonning
et al. 2002; Radke et al. 1988).
Although, composition of manures largely depends on the type of diet and animals
(Eck and Stewart 1995; Probert et al. 1995) but collection, storage and application
methods of manures are also important (Giller et al. 1997). Storage method has high
influence on the composition of manure, even keeping all other factors constant. For
instance, Sanford (1989) observed increase in N, P and K concentration by 108, 20
and 62%, respectively in buried manure compared to loosely heaped manure in open
air. Application of manure to the soil can enhance the level of nutrients in soil. For
example, an application of 3 tonnes of dry matter ha-1 would add macronutrients like
N (35-82), P (7-21), K (32-163), Ca (30-74), and Mg (10-37) kg ha-1, while
micronutrients such as Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn in the range of 11-67, 0.8-5.7, 0.02-0.26
and 0.15-0.65 kg ha-1 respectively. It is not possible that all the nutrients from the
manure will be released in the applied season (Lupwayi et al. 2000). Only 28, 19 and
90% of N, P and K, release was observed respectively in the first season (Lupwayi
178 M.A. Maqsood, T. Aziz, M. Sabir, A. Wakeel, M. Sanaullah and M. Zia-Ur-Rehman

and Haque 1999). Kaihura et al. (1999) and Warman and Cooper (2000) have
reported an increase in soil ammonical and nitrate nitrogen i.e. total nitrogen in
accordance with increasing rates of annual manure addition.
Animal manure in Pakistan consists mainly of animal dung and urine, FYM, poultry
manure, crop residues, and slaughterhouse waste. None of these are being produced
or marketed in an organized manner in the country. The farmers collect and use what
is available on-farm. This is primarily FYM consisting mainly of animal droppings,
straw and litter used in animal bedding and fodder residues. FYM has a variable
nutrient value depending on the type of livestock and storage conditions. It has been
estimated by the National Fertilizer Development Centre (NFDC) that over 1.5
million tonnes of nutrient are available from FYM in the country. Of this, nitrogen
accounts for 726000, P2O5 for 191000 and K2O about 617000 tonnes. About 50% of
animal dung in Pakistan remains uncollected. Out of the collected animal dung, 50%
is used as fuel in the form of dried cake. The remaining is usually heaped on top of
ground surface with fodder residues and other house sweepings for manuring. The
nitrogen of the manure undergoes transformations and mostly lost by volatilization
and leaching. Therefore, the remaining manure material that is finally spread on the
fields may have very low nitrogen content. Poultry farmers sell bird droppings
directly to farmers. None of the poultry farmers maintains records about either sales
or use. Most crop residues are used as animal fodder or as fuel, leaving very little for
recycling. Although composting plants have been installed at Lahore and Islamabad,
difficulties have been experienced in marketing the finished product because of high
production and transportation costs.

8.2.2. Green manure

Green manuring is another strategy to add organic matter to soil. Green manure is
referred to as “A cover crop, mostly legume, which is ploughed into the soil when it
is still in lush green stage”. Green manuring is an important practice on some
progressive agricultural farms because this practice adds organic matter and
nutrients, particularly biologically fixed N, to the soil. Incorporation of green plants
into soil as manure can add a reasonable amount of N and moisture and also serve as
a carbon source for soil organisms including microbes and earthworms. After
decomposition by the microorganisms in the soil, the constituents of green manure
like organic acids and many nutrients become available to crop plants (Rasmussen
and Collins 1991). Another benefit of green manure is that its addition suppresses
weeds and most of the soil-borne plant diseases.
Crops grown for green manuring are referred to as soil fertility building crops. Green
manures are a gift from nature and a suitable alternative to improve organic matter
level in the soil that in turn improves soil physical and biological properties. These
properties assist soil and crop plants with pest, disease and weed management.
Addition of several green manure crops grown over a period of perhaps five to ten
years can have prominent and significant effects on soil physical properties.
Green manures are either grown and used in situ, or used as green leaf manure. In
the in-situ method, green manure crops are grown in a field prior to crop cultivation
and then cut and buried when approximately 50% of all plants are flowering. The use
Soil Organic Matter: Significance, Sources and Functions 179

of janter and sunn hemp is popular and well-practiced by most of the farmers.
Because of their ability to grow fast and efficient nitrogen fixing capacity, these
plants are grown to optimum vegetative stage and ploughed in to improve the living
condition of the main crop.

8.2.3. Compost
Composting is a microbiologically mediated process, whereby manure and other
organic wastes are partially converted into readily degradable organic matter and
finally into stabilized contents. During this process, carbon of the organic matter is
released partly as CO2, incorporated into microbial cells or humified contents. The
organic N, primarily present as proteins, is mineralized into inorganic N (NH4-N and
NO3-N) during the composting process, which is then re-synthesized into humic
substances and microbial biomass. The rate of organic C breakdown during
compositing by bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes depends on the stage of
degradation, characteristics of materials and temperature (Epstein 1996; USDA
2010). Composting could convert organic wastes into humus like substances which
are easy to handle, store and to apply, also safe for the environment. It could stabilize
nutrients in manures while reducing the total biomass (Lasaridi and Stetiford 1999;
Nahm 2005).
The organic materials like city waste, poultry manure, and wastes from cotton, sugar
and rice industries could be made accessible in large amounts and if not managed
properly and accumulated for long time, could adversely affect land, water and air
environments. Additionally, because of their anecdotal composition, water
percentage and bulk nature, the use and haulage of these organic wastes is a real
concern in today’s fuel conscious society. Pakistan lacks appropriate waste
compilation and discarding system, so farmers use a variety of wastes without
evaluating the effectiveness and economic feasibility (Arshad et al. 2004; Zahir et al.
2007).
Uninterrupted release and accumulation of different organic wastes constitute a real
confront to environmentalists. Various remedies could be used but composting is the
most economical, not only protecting the environment but also yielding an
inexpensive and a quality soil amendment. Composting is the best solution for
reducing the gigantic piles of organic wastes and yielding a value added product.
Direct use of fresh (un-composted) organic waste has many drawbacks due to wider
C:N ratio compared to the composted material. Mature compost is normally superior
to uncomposted organic materials, because well decomposed compost has a narrow
C:N ratio, more concentrated nutrients, and is free from weed seeds, pathogens, and
likely contaminants (Tahir et al. 2006).

8.2.4. Biochar
Biochar is a charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass at high temperature in the
absence of oxygen. It is considered a good soil amendment that has the potential to
improve soil for sustainable crop production. Biochar has been used commonly in
traditional as well as modern agricultural practices because of its very specific and
180 M.A. Maqsood, T. Aziz, M. Sabir, A. Wakeel, M. Sanaullah and M. Zia-Ur-Rehman

unique properties among organic soil amendments. Beneficial effects of biochar on

both functions of soil microbial and availability of soil water are highly and well
documented (Pramod et al. 2010; Chan et al. 2007; Yeboah et al. 2009).
Biochar improves sustainability of soils by converting agro-wastes into a powerful
soil booster that holds carbon and thus makes soils more fertile. It can preserve
cropland diversity to enhance food security by discouraging deforestation. Some of
the salient benefits include reduction in leaching of nitrate into the ground water;
reduction in emissions of nitrous oxide to the atmosphere; improvement in soil
fertility by increasing CEC and water holding capacity and proliferation of variety of
beneficial soil microbes
Biochar is more persistent in soils compared with all other forms of organic matter
commonly applied to soil. Biochar is considered long lasting and alternative
management tool to farmyard manure because of its benefits associated with nutrient
retention and soil fertility. This long lasting effect of biochar in soil makes it a prime
candidate for the mitigation of climate change. Biochar has the potential to create a
carbon sink, as about 50% of the original carbon is retained in the biochar during the
process of conversion (Lehmann 2007).
Biochar offers a unique opportunity to improve soil fertility, either used alone, or in
combination with compost and manure. Moreover, biochar application rates are
reduced significantly when used with biochar as a soil amendment. A single
application of biochar can provide benefits over many years because it persists in the
soil for a long period. Without a doubt, all types of organic materials added to soil
improve different soil properties and functions such as to retain several essential
nutrients to plant growth, but one of the special features associated with biochar is
its effectiveness in retaining most of nutrients in available form to plants compared
to leaf litter, compost or manures (Lehmann 2007).
Biochar reduces soil acidity more than soil alkalinity. Biochar application to an acidic
soils brings more benefits on crop growth than in alkaline soils. Nevertheless, it is
possible to produce biochar suitable for alkaline soils with little or no liming capacity.
Upon addition of biochar to an acidic soil, there is increase in pH in ranges that
minimize detrimental effect of nutrient deficiencies on crop yields. Biochar made
from manures and bones is exceptionally good as it has potential to reduce fertilizer
requirements by holding soil nutrients in easily available form. This results in
reduction of fertilization costs and retention of fertilizer (organic or chemical) in the
soil for longer time. Biochar develops plentiful negative charge on its surfaces to
hold nutrients and buffer acidity in the soil as does organic matter in general.
The stability of biochar provides basis to determine the environmental benefits of
biochar due to two reasons: 1) How long carbon in biochar will remain sequestered
in soil and contribute for mitigating climate change? 2) How long biochar can benefit
soil and water quality? Characteristics of biochar vary depending upon the source
material and method used to prepare biochar. Most biochars have both a small
amount of easily decomposable fraction as well as much larger amount of stable
fraction.
Soil Organic Matter: Significance, Sources and Functions 181

8.3. Decomposition of Organic Matter

Decomposition is a biologically mediated process that includes the physical
breakdown and biochemical conversion of complex organic molecules of dead
material into simpler organic and inorganic molecules (Juma 1998). When organic
substances are manufactured by plants, energy from the sun through the process of
photosynthesis is stored in these substances. When these substances are decomposed,
the stored energy is again released. Carbon dioxide (CO2), water, plant nutrients and
energy are liberated in the decomposition process, different. The process of
decomposition has an energy barrier, called activation energy, which must be
overcome. When wood is burned, the activation energy is elevated. In nature, few
reactions such as lightening are available to provide this heat energy. For most
biological processes to occur under natural conditions, enzymes are a prerequisite to
reduce this activation energy (Alvarez and Alvarez 2000).

8.3.1. Composition of organic matter

Organic matter (OM) comprises of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus,
sulfur, and many other elements (Paustian 2002). Major fraction of OM consists of
carbon atoms, linked together into carbon chains of numerous lengths and linkages
and thus constitute the basic “frame” of organic compounds. The remaining elements
fill out the frame to make different groups of organic matter substances called
proteins, lignins, carbohydrates, oils, fats, waxes, and many other materials (Wander
2004). Humic substances are the dark brown, colloidal, amorphous, polymeric
components of soil organic matter.
Soil humus is left after extensive chemical and biological breakdown of fresh plant
and animal residues and makes up 60-70 percent of the total organic carbon in soils.
Humus is often divided by solubility separations into fulvic acid and humic acid.
Both fulvic acid and humic acid are soluble in dilute sodium hydroxide solutions, but
humic acid will precipitate when the solution is made acidic. Humin is the portion of
humus which is insoluble in dilute sodium hydroxide.
The nature of soil humus is extremely complex. In addition to humin, humic acid,
and fulvic acid, some of other specific substances comprising soil humus are sugar
amines, nucleic acids, phospholipids, vitamins, sulfolipids, and polysaccharides. All
of these substances are of complex nature and uncertain origin. They may be residual
from plant tissues, synthesized by microbes, or residues of microbial degradation.

8.3.2. Products of decomposition

In soils with sufficient aeration, the final products of decomposition are CO2, NH4+,
NO3-, H2PO4-, SO42-, H2O, resistant residues, and numerous other essential plant
nutrient elements in smaller quantities (Alvarez and Alvarez 2000). If soil is not well
aerated, less desirable products are formed. For example, in anaerobic conditions
significant amounts of methane (CH4), also called “swamp gas”, is produced, as well
as some organic acids (R-COOH), ammonium (NH4+), various amine residues (R-
182 M.A. Maqsood, T. Aziz, M. Sabir, A. Wakeel, M. Sanaullah and M. Zia-Ur-Rehman

NH2), the toxic gases like hydrogen sulfide (H2S), dimethyle sulfide, ethylene
(H2C=CH2), and the resistant humus residues are formed.

8.3.3. Factors affecting organic matter decomposition

The most important conditions that alter the accumulation of soil organic matter are:
[Link]. Temperature
Low temperature retards plant growth and organic matter decomposition. If
temperature is high enough to produce considerable vegetation during the growing
season, but are cold for long periods at other times of the year, organic matter
accumulation in and on the soil, will be high. Continuous low temperature lowers
soil humus because even though, humus persists, plant growth is lowered.
Continuous moderate to warm temperature aid high plant production but also
promote faster decomposition.
[Link]. Soil moisture
Both plant growth and organic matter decomposition require moisture. Extremes of
both arid (dry) and water logged (anaerobic) conditions reduce plant growth and
microbial decompositions. Poorly drained soils with growing vegetation usually have
relatively high humus contents; such conditions have been the cause of formation of
some organic soils.
[Link]. Nutrients
Lack of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, usually reduces plant growth more than it
slows decomposition because microorganisms use the nutrients in the dead organic
material before plant roots can absorb it (Duxbury et al. 1989).
[Link]. Soil pH
For most common microorganisms, pH 6-8 is best suited for growth and are
significantly reduced below pH 4.5 and above pH 8.5. Strongly acid soils are even
more inhibiting to microbial growth than are strongly alkaline ones. Plants tolerate
pH extremes more readily than microbes.
[Link]. Soil texture
Soils higher in clays tend to retain larger amounts of humus. Most organic substances
adhere to mineral surfaces by many kinds of bonds, particularly to clays. The many
active bonding sites of minerals and humus include the =O, ̶ OH, ̶ Al ̶ OH, ̶ Fe ̶
OH, and cation exchange sites of minerals, and the –NH3 , -SH , -OH , and –COOH
portions of organic materials.
[Link]. Other factors
Other decomposition inhibitors include toxic levels of elements (aluminum,
manganese, boron, selenium, chloride), excessive soluble salts, shade, and organic
phytotoxins (toxic to plants). The type of plant is also important, as legumes are more
readily decomposed than grasses. Soil organic matter buildup is a resultant of all
these effects plus the degree of mixing into the soil. Mixing the plant residues into
Soil Organic Matter: Significance, Sources and Functions 183

soil (tillage) speeds up decomposition and lessens accumulation. Cultivation reduces

vegetative growth (by destroying weeds) and speeds up decomposition by mixing.

8.3.4. Rate of decomposition and carbon: nitrogen ratio

Most nutrients needed by plants are also required by microorganisms that decompose
organic matter. However, nitrogen concentration (which is in smaller proportion than
carbon) most often controls the rate of organic matter decomposition because it is
needed to build proteins in new bacterial and fungal populations. The nitrogen
content in the microorganisms and in organic materials is given in proportion to the
carbon content and is called the carbon: nitrogen ratio (C: N ratio) (Ge et al. 2013).
A wide organic carbon: total nitrogen ratio indicates a material relatively in low
nitrogen content. Table 8.1 lists some common organic materials and the percentages
of the total weight that are organic carbon and total nitrogen. Bacteria requiring one
kilogram of nitrogen for each four or five kilogram of carbon (C: N ratio of 4:1 or
5:1), are heavy users of nitrogen. If straw with its lower proportion of nitrogen (C: N
ratio of 80:1) is incorporated into a soil low in nitrogen, bacteria will increase slowly
because the straw is a low nutrient “food” for the decomposing microorganisms. The
process of decay can be enhanced by adding more nitrogen (usually from fertilizer)
to meet microbial and plant needs. Bacteria (or fungi) will use any available nitrogen
in the soil. Plants growing in a nitrogen deficient soil are deficient in nitrogen because
the soil microorganisms, which are more abundant and in more intimate contact, are
able to use most available nitrogen before it can become accessible to plant root
surfaces. The same is true for phosphorus and sulfur in organic residue and soil and
to a lesser extent is true for other nutrients as well.

Table 8.1 C:N Ratio of Common Organic materials Applied to Agriculture Soils
Organic Material Organic Carbon (%) Total Nitrogen (%) C: N Ratio
Crop Residues
Alfaalfa (very young) 40 3.0 13: 1
Clovers (mature) 40 2.0 20: 1
Bluegrass 40 1.3 30: 1
Cornstalks 40 1.0 40: 1
Straw, small grain 40 0.5 80: 1
Sawdust 50 0.1 500: 1
Soil Microbes
Bacteria 50 10.0 5: 1
Actinomycetes 50 8.5 6: 1
Fungi 50 5.0 10: 1
Soil Humus 50 4.5 11: 1
As progressive decay of organic matter continues, much of the carbon escapes into
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2). Eventually the easily decomposable
residues decompose rapidly while resistant fraction of OM decompose slowly and
persist in the soil for longer time. The food and energy source is now in short supply
and some of the bacteria and fungi die. Their bodies, having high nitrogen content,
are decomposed by other living organisms, evolving carbon as carbon dioxide and
184 M.A. Maqsood, T. Aziz, M. Sabir, A. Wakeel, M. Sanaullah and M. Zia-Ur-Rehman

releasing some nitrogen to the soil solution. This “released” nitrogen is available to
growing plants.
In soil, the oxidation or breakdown of chemical complexes in organic matter into
plant available forms is known as minerlaiztion. This is the opposite of
immobilization. If C: N ratio is 20:1 or narrower in plant residues, then there would
be net mineralization of OM because sufficient nitrogen will be available meet the
requirements of decomposing microorganisms. If plant residues have C: N ratios of
20:1 to 30:1, sufficient nitrogen will be available for decomposing microorganisms
but not enough to result in much release of nitrogen for plant use. The first few weeks
after incorporation, residues with C: N ratios wider than 30:1decompose slowly
because they lack sufficient nitrogen for the microorganisms to use for increasing
their numbers, resulting in the use of nitrogen already present in the soil. If
environmental conditions are favorable, the rate of decomposition of plant residues
is more rapid during the first two weeks after incorporation in to the soil. Sometimes
residues with a wide C: N ratio may not have nitrogen immobilization, when
incorporated into soils. If rates of decomposition are slow (large particle size, cool
weather, quite dry), the need for the nitrogen by population of the decomposing
micro-organisms is low (Rasmussen et al. 1991).

8.4. The Role of Soil Organic Matter

The importance of organic matter in soil is related to its control over fertility. Organic
matter has a major influence on both physical and chemical fertility. Chemical
fertility is concerned with the supply of nutrients to the growing crop, whereas
physical fertility is concerned with the provision of soil conditions that allow plants
to make optimum use of those nutrients. It involves the structure of the soil, or the
physical arrangement of soil particles, whereby air and water supply to plants is
optimal for the seasonal conditions and root penetration is not impeded. The third
component of soil fertility is biological fertility which relates to the amount of
organic matter in a soil and the activity of the microflora and microfauna that it
supports. Cation exchange capacity of soil is improved due to the presence of organic
matter. This soil chemical property is important in holding nutrients against leaching,
and is particularly important for light textured soils. (Bell et al. 1998; Hudson 1994).
Typically, soil population may consist of fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, algae and
protozoa, as well as the larger animals such as worms, molluscs, nematodes and small
insects. Their importance in this context is their effect on soil properties, both direct
and indirect, and this is related with the role of organic matter on the fertility of the
soil.

8.4.1. Greenhouse gas control

Soil organic matter is also important as a possible sink/source for greenhouse gases,
which trap radiated solar energy and thus keep the earth’s surface at a temperature
level necessary to support life. These atmospheric gases, mostly carbon dioxide
(CO2) but also methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) being increased by
anthropogenic activity such as burning fossil fuels and land clearing, and many
Soil Organic Matter: Significance, Sources and Functions 185

scientists believe that significant global warming is attendant with sea level and
regional changes. The consequences of such changes could be social, economic and
environmental disastrous (Ryals and Silver 2013).
Carbon dioxide is the main gas contributing to this enhanced greenhouse effect, and
its small but highly significant concentration in the atmosphere has increased by
about 30% in the last two centuries. This has occurred largely because of the burning
of coal, oil and natural gas and the clearing and burning of natural vegetation (Krull
et al. 2004).
The condition of the soil, while being vital for agricultural production, is also
important in terms of providing a long-term ‘sink’ for atmospheric carbon. In the
form of carbon dioxide, this carbon is tied up (sequestered) through the process of
photosynthesis by plants to give organic compounds that ultimately come to reside
in the soil for varying lengths of time.
The soil ecosystem has the potential to sequester carbon for very long time periods.
Depending on soil conditions, these compounds are eventually broken down and the
carbon is returned to the atmosphere through decomposition, and respiration of the
micro-organisms involved. Methane and nitrous oxide may also be released as a
result of the decomposition (Corsi et al. 2012).
This ‘sequestering potential’ of soils becomes important in the overall strategy to
reduce green-house gas emissions and ties up carbon dioxide in the form of soil
organic matter. Increasing organic carbon in soils also has benefits in terms of
productivity and sustainability. Soils that have less organic matter (through over
cropping, for example), and may be in a degraded condition, have substantial sink
capacity for sequestering more carbon dioxide. In a stable ecosystem the emission of
the gas from soils (due to decomposition and respiration) is more or less balanced by
H input to soils (due to photosynthesis). However, recent quantification of these
processes shows that emissions are exceeding inputs as a result of clearing and
cultivation of natural vegetation. As the soil carbon pool is approximately twice the
size of the atmospheric pool, there is considerable scope for this to continue if land
management practices are not improved.

8.4.2. Effect of organic matter on soil health

The amount of organic matter in soils is affected by soil type, previous cropping
history, climate, tillage practices, the amount and kind of plant or animal material
returned or removed, and crop residue burning. The most significant of these in the
long term is the amount of organic material returned to, or removed from the soil. In
this context, plant roots have an important role since, when they decompose, not only
the humic substances are added to the soil, but also the nutrients are released
throughout the root zone, thus benefiting both the structure and the uptake of
nutrients by the subsequent crop.
In unfertilized soils (virgin soils), organic matter is the source of 90-95% of the
nitrogen and is a major source of available phosphorus and sulfur, where humus is
present in appreciable amounts (>2%). Organic matter supplies polysaccharides
directly, or indirectly through microbial action, that greatly improves soil
186 M.A. Maqsood, T. Aziz, M. Sabir, A. Wakeel, M. Sanaullah and M. Zia-Ur-Rehman

aggregation. Organic matter typically enhances water retention at field capacity,

available water content in sandy soils, and rate of water infiltration in heavy textured
soil. This latter effect is probably due mainly to soil aggregation, which produces
larger soil pores. Organic matter acts as a chelating agent. Soluble chelates improve
the retention and mobilization micronutrients and increase their availability to plants.
Soil OM is source of carbon for many microbes that perform other beneficial
functions in soil (e.g. free dinitrogen fixers, dinitrifires). As mulch on top of soil,
organic matter reduces erosion, shades the soil (which prevents rapid moisture loss),
and keeps the soil cooler in very hot weather and warmer in winter. Humus buffers
the soil against a rapid change in acidity, alkalinity, and salinity; and damage by
pesticides and toxic heavy metals. Surface organic matter acts as an insulator,
retarding heat movement between the atmosphere and the soil. In hot summers, this
benefits some plant roots, but in cool areas it slows soil warming in the spring.
Many benefits of organic matter in the soil are offset in certain conditions by
detrimental influences. Organic matter is an energy and carbon source for many
pathogens, ensuring their longer survival in the soils. Excessive amounts of organic
matter are physically difficult to incorporate into the soils and hinder easy planting.
Residues (or virgin vegetation on land being cleared) are often burned to reduce bulk.
Although it is common practice (e.g. sugarcane and rice harvests), burning off crop
residues is not desirable. Burning is harmful because it removes organic material that
protects the soil against erosion, some ash that contains plants nutrients can be lost
easily by wind or water erosion and most nutrients in the ash are soluble and some
are easily leached through the soil. Numerous plants contain or produce phytotoxins
(plant poisons: for example juglone from black walnuts), which make them
undesirable as organic matter; so any and all plant materials should not be used
indiscriminately in the soil. Unfortunately, the problem cannot always be avoided
because the decomposition of many crop residues produces such toxins.

8.5. Conclusion
Sustainable productivity in any agricultural system, demands the maintenance of soil
organic matter levels and the optimization of nutrient cycling. Humus, is the active
fraction of organic matter, and it plays a very important function in aggregate stability
and water infiltration. Maintaining soil organic matter content requires a balance
between addition and decomposition. Intensive crop production globally is causing
a reduction in soil organic matter content and consequently, a decline of soil fertility.
Some part of the organic matter lost can be returned with improved land management
practices. By adopting zero or minimum tillage practices, soil organic matter levels
can be increased and agricultural soils can act as carbon sinks. Residue accumulation,
including cover crops, farm yard manure, green manuring and crop residues improve
the soil organic carbon and nutrient levels. Agricultural profitability can be
substantially increased with careful management, preservation, and accumulation of
soil organic matter.
Soil Organic Matter: Significance, Sources and Functions 187

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