Chizara Idika

A2 Biology

Chapter 4.3: Succession

Key Questions

How do populations and species diversity change during ecological succession? Do ecosystems
return to “normal” following a disturbance?

In 1883, the volcanic island of Krakatau in the Indian Ocean was destroyed by an eruption. The
tiny island that remained was completely barren. Within two years, however, grasses were
growing. Fourteen years later, there were 49 plant species, along with lizards, birds, bats, and
insects. By 1929, a forest containing 300 plant species had grown. Today, the island is blanketed
by mature rain forest. What events and processes changed the islands populations and species
diversity so dramatically?

Primary and Secondary Succession

How do populations and species diversity change during ecological succession? The story of
Krakatau after the eruption is just one example of ecological succession—a series of more-or-
less predictable events that occur in a community over time. Ecosystems change over time,
especially after disturbances, as new species move in, populations change, and some species die
out. As the history of Krakatau shows, species diversity typically increases over the course of
succession.

Events During Primary Succession - Volcanic explosions such as the ones that destroyed
Krakatau and blew the top off Mount Saint Helens in Washington State a century later, can
create new land or sterilize existing areas. Retreating glaciers can have the same effect, leaving
only exposed bare rock behind them. Succession that begins in these areas that have no remnants
of an older community is called primary succession. The first species to colonize barren areas are
called pioneer species— named after rugged human pioneers who first settle wilderness areas. Human
pioneers create the first settlements, after which settlers with varied skills and living requirements can
move into an area. Pioneer species also do the literal, ground-breaking work that makes an area habitable
for subsequent settlers. One ecological pioneer that grows on bare rock is lichen—a mutualistic symbiosis
between a fungus and a blue-green bacterium. Over time, lichens ！x atmospheric nitrogen to synthesize
organic material. Lichens also break down rock and begin to form soil. Certain grasses, like those that
first colonized Krakatau, are also pioneer species.

Events During Secondary Succession - When a disturbance affects an existing community but
does not destroy it, secondary succession occurs. Secondary succession proceeds faster than
primary succession, in part because bits of the old community survive, and can regrow rapidly.
On land, secondary succession often follows a wildfire, hurricane, or other natural disturbance.
We think of these events as disasters, but many species are adapted to them. Although forest fires
kill some trees, for example, other trees are spared, and fire can stimulate their seeds to
germinate. Secondary succession can also follow human activities like logging and farming.
Processes During Succession - Every organism changes its environment. One model of
succession suggests that as pioneer species alter their environment, external environmental
factors change in ways that make it easier for other species to survive. As lichens add organic
matter and form soil, for example, mosses and other plants can colonize and grow. As trees

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Chizara Idika
A2 Biology

grow, their branches and leaves shade and protect the ground, and provide shelter and food for
animals. These processes increase the complexity of the environment, enabling more plant and
animal species to find homes and food. As succession continues, therefore, species diversity
usually increases.
Vocabulary - The origin of the word succession is the Latin word succedere, meaning “to come
after.” Ecological succession involves changes that occur one after the other as species move into
and out of a community.

Climax Communities

Do ecosystems return to “normal” following a disturbance? Years ago, ecologists thought that
succession in each area would always proceed through the same stages to produce a specific,
uniform, and stable climax community like the spruce/hemlock forest that is developing in
Glacier Bay. Recent studies have shown that succession does not always follow the same path,
and that climax communities are often not uniform and stable.

Succession After Natural Disturbances - Many communities regularly experience natural events
that disturb patches of varying sizes. Healthy coral reefs and tropical rain forests recover from
storm damage. Healthy temperate forests and grasslands recover from wildfires. Events and
processes during secondary succession in healthy ecosystems following natural disturbances
often reproduce the original climax community. But many climax communities look more like
patchwork quilts than uniform blankets. Why? Because natural disturbances often disturb
patches of those communities at different times. So, different patches may be in a different stage
of secondary succession. Some climax communities are disturbed so often that they cannot
really be called stable.

Succession After Human-Caused Disturbances - In North America, land cleared for farming and
then abandoned often passes through succession that restores the original climax community. But
this is not always the case. Ecosystems may or may not recover from extensive human-caused
disturbances. Clearing and farming of tropical rain forests, for example, can change the structure
and community of microorganisms in soil in ways that prevent regrowth of the original
community.
Studying Events and Processes During Succession – Ecologists study succession by comparing
different cases and looking for similarities and differences. Researchers who studied Mount Saint
Helens as soon as it was safe, for example, could compare it with Krakatau. In both places,
primary succession proceeded through stages. In both cases, pioneer species had arrived via
seeds, spores, or adult stages that traveled over long distances. These hardy pioneers helped
stabilize loose volcanic debris, enabling later species to take hold. Historical studies in Krakatau
and ongoing studies on Mount Saint Helens confirm that early stages of primary succession are
slow, and that chance can play a large role in determining which species colonize at different
times.