Section 8: Repework Section 8: Ropework Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 233Section 8: Ropework Section Contents Page Section 8: Ropework 233 Learning Outcome 8 237 Assessment Criteria 237 Conditions 238 ‘Section Introduction 238 Section learning sequence 238 8.1 Types of Ropes & Wires 239 8.2 Safety Precautions when Working with Ropes 248 83 Care and Maintenance 249 8.4 Inspecting Rope 251 85 Strength of Rope 253 8.6 Knots, Bends & Hitches 256 Section Summary 263 Check your progress 263 Learner's Guide — ABF 521; Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 235Section 8: Ropework Section learning outcome Learning outcome 8 ‘On completion of this learning outcome the learner will be able to maintain ropes in common use, calculate safe working loads and use fibre rope 10 make an eye splice and common knots, bends and hitches used onboard small vessels in the maritime industry. Assessment Criteri © Identify the types of natural and synthetic fibre ropes and wire ropes in common use onboard small vessels. © Explain the safety precautions to be taken in working with each type of rope © Describe the procedures for the proper care and maintenance of each type of rope ‘© Recognise deterioration in the condition of fibre and wire rope © Use simple formulae to calculate the safe working load of rope in common use Use knots, bends and hitches in applications common to the maritime work environment © Splice a soft eye in a synthetic rope Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 237Section 8: Ropework Conditions: Assessment will include written and/or oral tests and practical assessment tasks in the workplace ‘on board a vessel in survey ina training centre You could be asked to demonstrate your knowledge and practical skills: 1. in identifying the types of cordage commonly used on smalll ves: 2. im the care and maintenance of ropes and wires 3. to explain the safety precautions when working with ropes and wires 4. tocalculate the Safe Working Load of ropes in common use 5. 6. to splice a soft eye in a synthetic rope to use bends and hitches commonly used on small vessels, Small Ships Manual or Australian Boating Manual. Read relevant Seamanship chapters for general reference. Section introduction In this section we will examine the care and maintenance required of synthetic ropes commonly found in use on small vessels. It is essential to know the capabilities and limitations of the cordage used as rope snapping while stressed, snaps back like a whip with dire consequences. Calculating the Safe Working Load of a rope is one method by which you can ascertain that, if used within those limits, should be capable of withstanding the strain ‘on it. This is subject to the rope being in a good condition. Hence the requirement to requirement to recognise deterioration of the cordage. Section learning sequence * Types of Ropes and Wires * Safety Precautions when Working with Ropes * Care and Maintenance * Inspecting Rope Strength of Rope * Knots, Bends and Hitches 238 Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework 8.1 Types of rope and wire ‘The basic materials are: = Natural Fibres ~ Synthetic Fibres = Steel Wires Some of the above may be found to be used in combination. The term ‘rope’ is used for both Fibre and Wire ropes. The term ‘cordage’ is used to denote Fibre ropes only. Cordage These can be made of natural (vegetable) fibres such as Hemp, Sisal, Manila, Coir, and Cotton, OR manufactured (synthetic) fibres such as Nylon, Terylene or Dacron, Polypropylene, Polythene, and Kevlar. Making of Cordage The process of ropemaking consists of taking Fibres which are short lengths, in the case of vegetable or Polypropylene, and spinning into Nettles. These are then twisted into long lengths to form a Yarn. The yarns are twisted to form a Strand and then laid up to form cordage. In the composition of synthetic cordage the nettles are formed from long continuous filaments. To prevent the rope unlaying, the strands are laid up in the opposite direction to the yarns. Learner's Guide — ABF 521; Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 239Section &: Ropework Example If the strands are laid up right handed during manufacture, then the yarns in, the strands will be laid left handed, the nettles would be right handed. Fibres Fight hand spinon yarns, Figure 8.1 We will next look at the LAY of the rope which may be hard, soft, left hand and right hand. Types Of Construction (Lay) Hawser Laid Figure 8.2 This is the most common type, 3 strands laid up right handed, available in sizes 3 mm diameter upwards. 240 Learner's Guide — ABP 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework Shroud Laid Figure 8.3 This is less common nowadays, 4 strands laid up right handed over a central heart. It is 11% weaker than equivalent sizes in 3 strand. Cable Laid (or Water Laid) Figure 8.4 This consists of 3 x 3 stranded right hand ropes laid up left handed. Very elastic and may be used as a spring for towing. Braided Cords Figure 3.5 Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 241Section 8: Ropework Solid braided cords are constructed from either 12 or 18 strands, braided together, normally over a central core. Available in sizes 3 mm - 12 mm diameter. ‘Square Rope Figure 8.6 ‘This is the plaiting of 4 left hand and 4 right hand strands, resulting in a tough, kink resistant rope providing increased flexibility wet or dry. 16 mm and upwards for towing and mooring lines. ‘Some natural fibres used for cordage are:- Hemp:- _was used almost exclusively in rope manufacture, but is now generally found in the smailer classes of line, most of which are of the tarred variety. It does not swell when wet. sometimes referred to as ‘grass rope’. It comes from the coconut palm and soon rots if stowed away wet. Manila: remains pliable when wet and is usually employed where a rope with a good ‘SPRING’ is required. Of little value for lifting as it can stretch 40% to 50%. Useful attached to a towing wire or as a warp as it will float. Cotton:- _was once popular on yachts because it is soft however it is expensive and has been superseded by the great range of special purpose synthetics for yachting, ‘Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework Steel Wire Rope (S.W.R.) ‘The chief component parts of a stranded wire rope are shown in the illustration (Fig 8.7). Figure 87 Flexibility is introduced into a wire rope, either by building the strands around a fibre heart, and the wire in each round a fibre core, or by building the strands around a fibre heart and increasing the number of wires in each strand while reducing their individual thickness. Properties of Steel Wire Rope © Size ‘+ Construction © Type of Core + Lay * Flexibility Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 243Section 8: Ropework Construction This identifies the ‘MAKE-UP’ of a rope and shows the number of strands in the wire, then the number of wires in the strand. Figure 3.8 In Fig 8.8 is shown a 6/7 (the 7 representing 6 over 1), ie 6 strands of 7 wires each. Size Ropes are referred to by diameter. The correct way to measure is shown in Fig 8.9, CORRECT METHOD = INCORRECT METHOD Figure 8.9 244 Leamer's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework Core Generally the centre core of the rope is named the HEART and the centre of the strands the CORE. The purpose of the heart is to:- 1. Act asa lubrication sponge. 2, Provide support for strands enabling the rope to keep it's shape. There are at sea basically 2 types of Core. A. Fibre (natural or synthetic) B. Wire Strand. A. Fibre Cores Generally hemp, jute, polypropylene. They provide a resilient foundation for the strands and are used for ropes not subject to heavy loading. Used where flexibility in handling is required. They are inadequate where wire rope is subjected to heavy loading, prolonged outdoor exposure, and crushing on smalll drums and sheaves. Natural fibre - acts as a good sponge, but if re-lubrication is not adequate, rot and rust may form. Synthetic - rot proof, chemically resistant and more flexible than wire cores. Fibre Core in 6 x 7 Rope Figure 8.10 ‘Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 245B. Wire Strand Cores Used chiefly for standing ropes (Guys or Rigging). ‘They offer high tensile strength, and have a greater resistance to corrosion failure due to larger wires in the core. Wire Strand Core in 6x7 Rope Figure 8.11 Lay This refers to the way the wires are formed into the completed rope. the strands, and the strands in the rope Steel wire ropes are conventionally produced with Right Hand lay unless special circumstances require Left Hand. Ordinary Or Regular Lay Right Hand Ordinary Lay (R.H.O.L.) wires laid left handed, strands laid right handed. RHOL, LHOL, Figure 8.12 Langs Lay The strands are laid up in the same direction as that in which their constituent wires are twisted, ie., both wires and strands Right Handed or both Left Handed. 246 Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework. 8.2 Safety Precautions When Working With Ropes 1. Don't Overload ‘The load applied should never exceed the minimum Breaking Force or in the case of lifting equipment the SAFE WORKING LOAD (S.W.L) see later section on $.W.L's of cordage, wire, ete) 2. Avoid Shock Loads Sudden strain can part ropes that would normally be capable of supporting the same loads under steady pulling conditions. 3. Avoid Kinks Never load a kinked rope or pull it through a block. As the rope is weaker at the kink and likely to part at that point at a much lower breaking strain. 4. Avoid Knotting For the purpose of forming an eye this will reduce it’s strength by 50%. Splice the rope in the normal manner, reduction in the strength of the rope due to splicing is about 10%. 5. Avoid Sharp Angles and Bends Chafe and wear account for most rope failure. Never use a smaller sheave than is recommended for the size of rope you are using. 6. DoNot Drag Ropes Do not drag over sharp, rough or dirty surfaces, as abrasives can penetrate the rope and damage the fibres. 7. Reverse the Ends Equalise wear over the entire length by reversing the rope where possible or cutting off ends to move wear points, 248 Leamer's Guide — ABP 5217 Nautical Knowledge Coxswain,Section 8: Ropework 8. Listen to the Rope Natural fibre ropes tend to give a warning when they are reaching breaking point by the creaking sound they emit. Synthetic fibre ropes reduce dramatically in diameter and most do not make a sound before breaking. Due to their elasticity they have a whip effect and it is essential that all personnel are working clear of the rope. Broken wire strands Broken strands of wire can slice through the skin of a person handling the wire. It is therefore essential to wear gloves while doing so and also stray strands should be inspected and then cut off to ensure they do not protrude. 10. Bight of the Rope Never stand in the bight of a rope 8.3. Care And Maintenance ‘Uncoiling New Cordage Below 48 mm the rope can be taken direct from the inside of the coil. This will maintain its protective wrapping. With right handed rope the coil should be stood on the end which will allow the rope to be taken off left handed from the inside. (See Fig 8.15). Figure 8.15, Leamer's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 249Section 8: Ropework Uncoiling the rope in the wrong direction will insert twist and increase the danger of kinking, Coiling Always coil ropes in the direction of Lay, ie., Left hand (L.H.) lay anti-clockwise Right hand (R.H.) lay clockwise ‘Two methods of finishing coils are shown in Fig 8.16. Figure 8.16 To avoid problems in paying out a rope, it should be flaked down see Fig 8.17, this avoids it becoming tangled or kinked. Figure 8.17 A fancy way to finish a rope is with a Flemish Coil. It SHOULD ONLY be used for tidiness and never when required to render quickly through a block, see Fig. 8.18. 250 Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework Before cutting the desired length of rope, whippings should be applied close to each side of the intended cut. Failure to observe this precaution can cause excessive unlaying of the rope. Chemicals:- Natural fibre rope is severely damaged by chemicals. Synthetic ropes much more resistant. Heat: Excessive heat will melt synthetic ropes and make natural ropes dry and brittle. Storage:- Store ropes in a well ventilated dry atmosphere away from heat, strong sunlight and corrosive substances. Natural fibre rope will quickly rot if stowed away wet. Always dry out before storing. Keep loose coils OFF the deck. Cleaning Of Ropes If a rope has been used in mud, sand or grit, it should be cleaned thoroughly before being stored. To wash rope, hang it up in loose coils or flake it out on the deck and hose with fresh water. 8.4 Inspecting Rope External Damage:- Abrasion, cuts, discolouration, bleaching, burns, (soft spots indicate badly worn rope). Internal Damage:- Dry rot or mildew change in colour of fibre strands, broken fibres, powdered fibres, broken central core, Inspection Of Wire A visual and physical examination should take place at regular intervals, Under normal conditions of use, wire rope can be inspected every 3 months. If a broken wire is discovered, then it should be inspected more often. A thorough inspection is given below. Leamer's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 251Section 8: Ropework Externally Inspect termination of rope at the drum and other points Inspect for broken wires. Inspect for corrosion. Inspect for deformation. Inspect for surface wear. Inspect for defective coiling. Inspect for deterioration due to snatch loading. Inspect lengths that run through blocks, particularly those which lie ‘on the sheaves when the appliance is in the loaded condition, eros Internally Open the lay, Check internal lubrication. Degree of corrosion, Indentation caused by pressure of wear. Presence of broken wires. Aeye ‘An accurate log should be kept of inspection dates, rope condition, end for ending, replacement, etc. Broken wires are usually a result of fatigue and wear. Discard if: Marine Order (part 32) "The total number of broken wires visible in a length of S.W.R. equal to 10 times it's diameter should not exceed 5% of the total number of wires constituting the rope" Strand Distortion Strand distortion is generally a result of damage caused by kinking, crushing, bad nips or other violent treatment. Commonly found in berthing hawsers, and ropes which have to be worked in adverse conditions. Abrasion Occurs both internally and externally. Caused by:- a. Friction over sheaves, leads, sharp or rough objects b. _Diirt, dust, grit lodging within strand wires. 252 Leamer’s Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework Indicated by:- a, Deposits of fine brown powder between strands lual wire. b. _Flattening of internal surfaces of indi Corrosion Generally caused by lack of lubrication. When wire rope is under tension, the fibre heart and cores are also compressed, releasing oil to overcome friction, 8.5 Strength Of Rope Synth re Rope against Natural Advantages Greater strength, size for size. Greater elasticity or stretch. Better shock absorption. Better abrasive resistance. Greater flexibility, ease of handling. Awaene Less water absorption, Note: (2) not of great value in lifting gear. Disadvantages 1. Outer surface presents a smooth slippery surface. May cause slip and failure of any bends and hitches. It is essential that the 'TAILS' of these are seized to the standing part. 2. When splices are made, an additional tuck with all strands is recommended. Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 253Section 8: Ropework Rope Strength Rough comparison size for size. Manila - breaking force 4 tonnes Polyethylene - breaking force 6 tonnes ‘Monofilament - breaking force 6 tonnes Polypropylene - breaking force 7 tonnes Polyester- breaking force 8 tonnes Nylon - breaking force 9 tonnes Stress denotes the load put on material, and strain is the molecular disturbance made evident by a change of shape or a fracture of the material due to the stress which has been applied. The term Breaking or Ultimate Strength is the load or weight applied to material when testing to destruction. Every item used in rigging has a B.S. (Breaking Strength), from which a S.W.L. (Safe Working Load) may be found by dividing the B.S. by a factor of safety for the function of the gear (usually six). 254 Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework Rope (Fibre) ‘Their relative order of strength is Coir, Sisal, Manila, Hemp, Polythene, Polypropylene, Terylene and Nylon. Splicing a rope reduces its strength by at least 10%. Knots reduce a rope's strength by at least 50%. ‘The ultimate strength of fibre ropes depends much. upon the quality of fibre and the process of manufacture. The diameter of fibre and steel wire rope is in mm. The safety factor of fibre and steel wire rope is 1/6. Thus S.W-L. can be taken to be 1/6 of the breaking strength for fibre and wire rope. (Sce the table on the next page). Approximate S.W.L. Rope = D’ x F kgs. Dis diameter of rope in mm. Fis a factor of safety. Material Factor | Approximate S.W.L. ‘Natural Fibre 7 D’ Polyamide (nylon) <50mm [3 3D) Polyamide (nylon) > 50 mm. 25 2.5D* Polyester (Terylene) 2 2.5D7 Polypropylene 1s) 18D" ‘Polyethylene (Mono) 18 18D" Polyethylene (Staple) 12 12D Wire 80 8D ‘The safety factor is taken as 116 The S.W.L. is taken to be (1/6 x B.S.) tonnes Example, 30mm Nylon S.W.L, = 3 x 30° = 2700 kgs 15 mm Wire (6 x 24) S.W.L. = 8 x 15° = 1800 kgs ‘Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 255‘Section 8: Ropework It is common practice to allow a ‘Factor of Safety’ of 6 in general marine work for both fibre and wire rope. 8.6 Knots, Bends and Hitches in common use. Definitions KNOT - is the intertwining of the end of the rope with a portion of the rope. BEND - is the intertwining of the ends of two ropes to make one rope. HITCH - is the attachment of a rope to a post, pole, ring, hook or other objector standing part of another rope. SPLICE - is the joining of the ends of two ropes, or the end of the rope with the body of a rope, by weaving the strands over and under the strands of the other part. Parts of the Rope ‘Standing part - The part of rope taking the strain. “Tail - The part of rope used to make fast, or the unused part. Bight - The loop between the standing part and the tail. 256 [Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework Knots Reef knot or Square knot - Used for Joining two same size pieces of cordage. Figure of Eight knot Used as a stopper to prevent the line from running through a block. Does not jam so readily as an overhand knot. Can also be used to keep an unwhipped line from unlaying, Bowline May be used to put a temporary eye in a rope, secure a safety line, join two hawsers, Learner's Guide — ABF521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 257Section 8: Ropework Bends Sheet or (Becket) Bend Used to join ropes of similar size. Bemisic Sheet Bend Use to join ropes of different sizes. Bowline Bend Joining 2 hawsers. Probably strongest of all, knotted hawser bends. 258 Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxsvSection 8: Ropework Hitches Clove Hitch Secures end of a line under tension. Can be preformed and dropped over a post etc. Can be used where a small rope is to be secured to a larger rope or a spar and the end kept free. It should never be used where high load is involved — it will never come undone. Rolling Hitch ‘Similar to a clove hitch but with an extra turn, May be used to take a strain along a spar. Used to secure a rope tail to a larger rope or spar when the direction of pull is along the rope/spar in one direction only. It can be used with chain or wire rope to hold the strain while a riding turn is cleared from a winch. Round Turn and 2 half hitches Common method of securing a line to a bollard, spar or ring. Learner's Gu ie — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 259Section 8: Ropework Written Activity 1 1 List two types of natural and two types of synthetic fibre ropes and give their characteristics and properties. 2 Explain the following ‘Lay’ of fibre rope. a) Hawser b) Braided ©) Cable 3 Describe how you would remove a length of cordage from a new coil. Learner's Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 261Section 8: Ropework 4 Describe how you would inspect rope for internal and external damage? 5 ‘When using fibre rope, list four things to avoid. Practical Activities 1 Visually inspect the ropes on your vessel or at your training institution and determine their condition, based on the knowledge gained in this module. 2 Inspect your mooring ropes forward and aft and determine their SWL and Breaking Strain. 3 Inspect the eye splices on your mooring rope and determine if they have been made up correctly. 4 Practice making the various knots, bends and hitches also splicing in cordage. 5 Practice an soft eye splice in a piece of cordage. Feedback For the written activities the answers to the questions can be found in the notes. For the practical activities after completion of them show the knots or splices to your master/facilitator. The feedback for the Check your progress section is found at the back of the book. 262 [Leamer’s Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge CoxswainSection 8: Ropework Section Summary In this section we have looked at the characteristics of fibre ropes, their care and maintenance, how to calculate their strength and also knots and splices. 1 Check your progress Explain ‘Langs’ lay and where this type would be used. 2 Give some examples of wire rope deterioration. 3 How are rope sizes measured? 4 Explain the uses of the following:- a) Figure of eight knot b) — Bowline ‘Learner's Guide — ABP 521; Nautical Knowledge Coxswain 263‘Section 8: Ropework °) a) b) ‘Sheepshank Whaat is the S.W.L. of - 20mm Manila 15 mm Polypropylene List the internal and external evidence of deterioration in wire ropes. Internal: Define: (a) Breaking Stress (b) Safe Working Load 264 ‘Leamer’s Guide — ABF 521: Nautical Knowledge Coxswain