Organ (anatomy)

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"Organs" and "Viscera" redirect here. For other uses, see Organs (disambiguation) and Viscera
(disambiguation).

Organ

Many of the internal organs of the human body

Details

System Organ systems

Identifiers

Latin organi

Greek Οργανο

FMA 67498

Anatomical terminology

[edit on Wikidata]
 An organ is a group of tissues with similar functions. Plant life and animal life rely on
many organs that co-exist in organ systems.[1]
A given organ's tissues can be broadly categorized as parenchyma, the tissue peculiar
to (or at least archetypal of) the organ and that does the organ's specialized job,
and stroma, the tissues with supportive, structural, connective, or ancillary functions.
For example, in a gland, the tissue that makes the hormones is the parenchyma,
whereas the stroma includes the nerves that innervate the parenchyma, the blood
vessels that oxygenate and nourish it and carry away its metabolic wastes, and
the connective tissues that provide a suitable place for it to be situated and anchored.
The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins,
such as arising from the same germ layer. Functionally related organs often cooperate
to form whole organ systems. Organs exist in most multicellular organisms. In single-
celled organisms such as bacteria, the functional analogue of an organ is known as
an organelle. In plants, there are three main organs. [2] A hollow organ is an internal
organ that forms a hollow tube, or pouch such as the stomach, intestine, or bladder.
In the study of anatomy, the term viscus refers to an internal organ. Viscera is the plural
form.[3][4]
The number of organs in any organism depends on which precise definition of the term
one uses. By one widely used definition, 79 organs have been identified in the human
body.[5]

Contents

 1Structure
o 1.1Tissue
o 1.2Organ systems
 2Function
o 2.1Animals
o 2.2Plants
 3Society and culture
 4History
o 4.1Antiquity
o 4.2Modern times
o 4.3Organ Procedures
 5Origin and evolution
 6See also
 7References
 8External links

Structure[edit]
Tissue[edit]
In biology, tissue is a cellular organizational level between cells and complete organs. A
tissue is an ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin
that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional
grouping together of multiple tissues.
The study of human and animal tissues is known as histology or, in connection with
disease, histopathology. For plants, the discipline is called plant morphology. Classical
tools for studying tissues include the paraffin block (agarose gel is often used with
plants[6][7]) in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and
the optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in electron
microscopy, immunofluorescence, and the use of frozen tissue sections have enhanced
the detail that can be observed in tissues. With these tools, the classical appearances of
tissues can be examined in health and disease, enabling considerable refinement
of medical diagnosis and prognosis.
Organ systems[edit]
Main article: Biological system
See also: List of organs of the human body

Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form
an organ system, also called a biological system or body system. The functions of organ
systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine
system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two
systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system. The same is true for
the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between
the muscular and skeletal systems.
Common organ system designations in plants include the differentiation of shoot and
root. All parts of the plant above ground (in non-epiphytes), including the functionally
distinct leaf and flower organs, may be classified together as the shoot organ system. [8]

Function[edit]
Animals[edit]

The liver and gallbladder of a sheep

Non-placozoan animals such as humans have a variety of organ systems. These

specific systems are also widely studied in human anatomy.

 Cardiovascular system: pumping and channeling blood to and from

the body and lungs with heart, blood and blood vessels.
 Digestive system: digestion and processing food with salivary
glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, colon, rectum and anu
s.
 Endocrine system: communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine
glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal
gland, thyroid, parathyroids and adrenals, i.e., adrenal glands.
 Excretory system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid
balance, electrolyte balance and excretion of urine.
 Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and
the blood stream, the lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it including
the Immune system: defending against disease-causing agents
with leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus and spleen.
 Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails of mammals. Also scales of fish, reptiles,
and birds, and feathers of birds.
 Muscular system: movement with muscles.
 Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal
cord and nerves.
 Reproductive system: the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian
tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis.
 Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing,
the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm.
 Skeletal system: structural support and protection
with bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons.
Plants[edit]
See also: Plant anatomy

The flower is the angiosperm's reproductive organ. This Hibiscus flower is hermaphroditic, and it

contains stamen and pistils.
Strobilus of Equisetum telmateia

The study of plant organs is referred to as plant morphology, rather than anatomy – as
in animal systems. Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive.
Vegetative plant organs include roots, stems, and leaves. The reproductive organs are
variable. In flowering plants, they are represented by the flower, seed and fruit.
[9]
 In conifers, the organ that bears the reproductive structures is called a cone. In other
divisions (phyla) of plants, the reproductive organs are called strobili, in Lycopodiophyta,
or simply gametophores in mosses.
The vegetative organs are essential for maintaining the life of a plant. While there can
be 11 organ systems in animals, there are far fewer in plants, where some perform the
vital functions, such as photosynthesis, while the reproductive organs are essential
in reproduction. However, if there is asexual vegetative reproduction, the vegetative
organs are those that create the new generation of plants (see clonal colony).

Society and culture[edit]

Many societies have a system for organ donation, in which a living or deceased donor's
organ is transplanted into a person with a failing organ. The transplantation of larger
solid organs often requires immunosuppression to prevent organ rejection or graft-
versus-host disease.
There is considerable interest throughout the world in creating laboratory-
grown or artificial organs.[citation needed]
History[edit]

Human viscera

This section needs expansion. You

can help by adding to it. (February
2018)

The English word "organ" dates back to the twelfth century and refers to any musical
instrument. By the late 14th century, the musical term's meaning had narrowed to refer
specifically to the keyboard-based instrument. At the same time, a second meaning
arose, in reference to a "body part adapted to a certain function". [10]
Plant organs are made from tissue composed of different types of tissue. The three
tissue types are ground, vascular, and dermal.[11] When three or more organs are
present, it is called an organ system.[12]
The adjective visceral, also splanchnic, is used for anything pertaining to the internal
organs. Historically, viscera of animals were examined by Roman pagan priests like
the haruspices or the augurs in order to divine the future by their shape, dimensions or
other factors.[13] This practice remains an important ritual in some remote, tribal societies.
The term "visceral" is contrasted with the term "parietal", meaning "of or relating to the
wall of a body part, organ or cavity"[14] The two terms are often used in describing a
membrane or piece of connective tissue, referring to the opposing sides. [15]
Antiquity[edit]
Aristotle used the word frequently in his philosophy, both to describe the organs of
plants or animals (e.g. the roots of a tree, the heart or liver of an animal), and to
describe more abstract "parts" of an interconnected whole (e.g. his logical works, taken
as a whole, are referred to as the "organon").[16]
Some alchemists (e.g. Paracelsus) adopted the Hermetic Qabalah assignment between
the seven vital organs and the seven classical planets as follows:[17]

Planet Organ

Sun Heart

Moon Brain

Mercur
Lungs
y

Venus Kidneys

Mars Gall bladder

Jupiter Liver

Saturn Spleen

Modern times[edit]
The variations in natural language definitions of what constitutes an organ, their degree
of precision, and the variations in how they map
to ontologies and taxonomies in information science (for example, to count how many
organs exist in a typical human body) are topics explored by writer Carl Engelking
of Discover magazine in 2017 as he analyzed the science journalism coverage of the
evolving scientific understanding of the mesentery.[18] He explored a challenge now faced
by anatomists: as human understanding of ontology generally (that is, how things are
defined, and how the relationship of one thing to another is defined) meets applied
ontology and ontology engineering, unification of varying views is in higher demand.
[18]
 However, such unification always faces epistemologic frontiers, as humans can only
declare computer ontologies with certainty and finality to the extent that their own
cognitive taxonomy (that is, science's understanding of the universe) is certain and final.
For example, the fact that the tissues of the mesentery are continuous was something
that was simply not known for sure until it was demonstrated with microscopy.
  Because humans cannot predict all future scientific discoveries, they cannot build a
[19]

unified ontology that is totally certain and will never again change. However, one of the
points made by an anatomist interviewed by Engelking is that, finality aside, much more
could be done even now to represent existing human knowledge more clearly for
computing purposes.
Organ Procedures[edit]
Beginning in the 20th century[20] transplants began to occur as scientists knew more
about the anatomy of organs. These came later in time as procedures were often
dangerous and difficult.[21] Both the source and method of obtaining the organ to
transplant are major ethical issues to consider, and because organs as resources for
transplant are always more limited than demand for them, various notions of justice,
including distributive justice, are developed in the ethical analysis. This situation
continues as long as transplantation relies upon organ donors rather than technological
innovation, testing, and industrial manufacturing.

Origin and evolution[edit]

Relationship of major animal lineages with indication of how long ago these animals shared a common
ancestor. On the left, important organs are shown, which allows us to determine how long ago these may have
evolved.

The organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the

more derived phyla. The less-advanced taxa (like Placozoa, Sponges and Radiata) do
not show consolidation of their tissues into organs.
More complex animals are composed of different organs, which have evolved over time.
For example, the liver evolved in the stem vertebrates more than 500 million years ago,
while the gut and brain are even more ancient, arising in the ancestor of vertebrates,
insects, and worms more than 600 million years ago.
Given the ancient origin of most vertebrate organs, researchers have looked for model
systems, where organs have evolved more recently, and ideally have evolved multiple
times independently. An outstanding model for this kind of research is the placenta,
which has evolved more than 100 times independently in vertebrates, has evolved
relatively recently in some lineages, and exists in intermediate forms in extant taxa.
  Studies on the evolution of the placenta have identified a variety of genetic and
[22]

physiological processes that contribute to the origin and evolution of organs, these
include the re-purposing of existing animal tissues, the acquisition of new functional
properties by these tissues, and novel interactions of distinct tissue types. [22]

See also