j o u r n a l o f t r a f fi c a n d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e n g i n e e r i n g ( e n g l i s h e d i t i o n ) 2 0 2 0 ; 7 ( 3 ) : 3 4 0 e3 6 1

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Review Article

Storage technologies for electric vehicles

Snigdha Sharma a,b, Amrish K. Panwar b, M.M. Tripathi a,*

a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, New Delhi 110042, India
b
Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological University, New Delhi 110042, India

highlights

Basic concepts and challenges were explained for electric vehicles (EVs).

Introduce the techniques and classification of electrochemical energy storage system for EVs.

Introduce the hybrid source combination models and charging schemes for EVs.

Introduce the operation method, control strategies, testing methods and battery package designing of EVs.

article info abstract

Article history: This review article describes the basic concepts of electric vehicles (EVs) and explains the
Received 5 September 2019 developments made from ancient times to till date leading to performance improvement of
Received in revised form the electric vehicles. It also presents the thorough review of various components and en-
19 April 2020 ergy storage system (ESS) used in electric vehicles. The main focus of the paper is on
Accepted 24 April 2020 batteries as it is the key component in making electric vehicles more environment-friendly,
Available online 1 June 2020 cost-effective and drives the EVs into use in day to day life. Various ESS topologies
including hybrid combination technologies such as hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), plug-in
Keywords: HEV (PHEV) and many more have been discussed. These technologies are based on
Electric vehicle (EV) different combinations of energy storage systems such as batteries, ultracapacitors and
Battery electric vehicle (BEV) fuel cells. The hybrid combination may be the perspective technologies to support the
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) growth of EVs in modern transportation. The advanced charging systems may also play a
Battery major role in the roll-out of electric vehicles in the future. The general strategies of
advanced charging systems are explained to highlight the importance of fast charging time
with high amount of power and its cost-effectiveness for electric vehicles. Furthermore,
the battery pack designing calculation is briefly explained along with all mechanical,
electrical and environmental battery tests, which helps in the evaluation of batteries.
Moreover, this paper also has a brief summarizing with the help of a flow chart, which
clearly demonstrates all the parts of electric vehicles in a much simpler way.
© 2020 Periodical Offices of Chang'an University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on
behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-
ND license ([Link]

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 8375965159.

E-mail addresses: sharma.snigdha93@[Link] (S. Sharma), panwaramar@[Link] (A.K. Panwar), mmmtripathi@[Link]
(M.M. Tripathi).
Peer review under responsibility of Periodical Offices of Chang'an University.
[Link]
2095-7564/© 2020 Periodical Offices of Chang'an University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co.
Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 341

the road, out of which 38% were electric, 40% were steam-
1. Introduction driven and 22% gasoline-powered (Rajashekara, 2013). Since
1930, EVs started vanishing and became irregular in use. The
In modern times, the alarming state of reduction of fossil fuels primary issue of the downfall was insufficient driving
and increasing awareness about deteriorating climatic condi- power. By 1933, the numbers of EVs were reduced to nearly
tions has led to the adoption of alternative energy technologies. zero because they were slower in driving range as well as
Among various developed technology, one such alternative speed and more expensive than the internal combustion
technology is an electric vehicle (EV) which is rapidly becoming engine. EVs faced an energy crisis in the early 1970s.
a part of the modern transportation system. According to Chan Due to the advancement in the field of power electronics
(1999), an energy and environment issue have led to the and microelectronics, the USA started research for the
development of EVs where the integration of automobile and development of hybrid electric vehicles to overcome the above
electrical engineering is done to achieve high-performance issues (Koniak and Czerepicki, 2017; Pinsky et al., 2000). In
electric vehicle. In the future, EVs are going to play an October 1990 the California air resources board mandated the
important role in road transportation, and they may also use of zero-emission vehicles (Iclodean et al., 2017).
assist in reducing environmental pollution. Additionally, EVs Researchers presented a comparison between conventional
may provide power to the electric grid whenever needed. vehicles and electric vehicles and estimated the future
EV is the summation of diversified technologies, which development trend of EVs (Zhang et al., 2017). Wang (2007)
include multiple engineering fields such as mechanical engi- proposed the EVs miniaturization for the development of
neering, electrical engineering, electronics engineering, auto- low-performance EVs and presented the feasibility of micro
motive engineering, and chemical engineering (Chan, 1993). EVs, its power consumption, and technology cost estimation
By combining different technologies, the overall efficiency of (Frieske et al., 2013). Some studies analyzed all the
the EVs can be improved and fuel consumption is reduced. commercial energy vehicles such as hybrid EVs, pure EVs
EVs consists of three major systems, i.e., electric motor, and fuel cell vehicles with a focus on pure EVs (Frieske et al.,
power converter, and energy source. EVs are using electric 2013; Zhang et al., 2017). More than 350 EVs were
motors to drive and utilize electrical energy deposited in manufactured by different enterprises in the automotive
batteries (Chan, 2002). Unlike fuel-based conventional industry between the years 2002e2012. During the last ten
vehicles, EVs never exhaust pollution during operation years, the demand for EVs has increased due to dramatically
which alone makes EVs more eco-friendly vehicles (Chan lower oil use, less carbon emission, a decrease in air
and Chau, 1997). However, for charging the EV, electrical pollution and economic development. Also, there is an
energy is required that may be produced from renewable improvement in terms of range, performance, safety and
sources, e.g., from hydroelectric, wind, solar or biogas power emission of EVs. To increase the penetration of EVs in road
plants (Kiehne, 2003). EVs are not only a road vehicle but transport, two main areas, i.e., range, and cost need to be
also a new technology of electric equipment for our society, focused on betterment. Therefore, to reduce the cost of EVs,
thus providing clean and efficient road transportation. many efforts have been made by introducing new and
The system architecture of EV includes mechanical struc- simplified technologies for speed controllers, battery
ture, electrical and electronic transmission which supplies charging, motors, power electronics and different types of
energy and information system to control the vehicle. The cells. To cover the longer range, EVs require high energy
specific EV design considerations are listed below. density batteries. Presently, EVs required 62 kWh on an
average to accelerate the vehicle for 10 s with 95.6 km/h
i. Identifying the environment and market trend for EV. (Zhang et al., 2017). Nevertheless, it is realistic to have
ii. Determining all the technical specifications and esti- 31 kWh to achieve a 100-mile range even based on current
mation of load requirements for EV. technologies (Frieske et al., 2013). The development of
iii. Assessing the infrastructure required for designing and advanced batteries with different materials such as NiMH,
also including the recycling of batteries. Ni-Zn, Li-ion, Li-polymer, sodium/Nickel chloride is going on
iv. Defining the system requirements according to its to meet the power requirement of EVs.
configuration for various applications such as hybrid This paper presents the historical development of EVs in
EV, battery EV, and fuel cell EV. chronological order. The reasons for the failure and success of
v. Defining its energy supply for different cases such as EVs are outlined along with the most important factors for the
generation or storage, single or hybrid. high penetration of EVs on roads. The new technologies
vi. Identifying the primary essential component of EV required for decreasing the cost of EVs are also outlined. The
propulsion system consisting of a single or multiple paper presents a comprehensive review of the various aspects
motor, converter, transmission types and mounting of EV development resulting in new outcomes.
methods. Further, this paper is summarized as follows. Section 1
vii. Determining its driving range and calculating specific discusses the factors affecting the EVs performance. A
parameters named as speed, torque energy, and power description of components for EVs is presented. The existing
density, etc. system that's having different types of propulsion
phenomenon are analyzed and described. The aim is to
EVs were invented in the 19th century, the first vehicle was develop an efficient and well-structured vehicle with a
launched in 1834. EVs were very popular and were used at a reasonable range and good performance. Further in next
reasonable price, till 1918. In 1918, 4200 automobiles were on section 2, the types of EVs are discussed. The aim is to
342 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

Fig. 1 e Key component of an electric vehicle (Diamond, 2009).

analyze the range, price and charging time of vehicles. It could needs to be done to relate the cost of the vehicle's
help us to improve the features of the vehicle and analyze the performance. One of the main obstacles in the way of EVs is
improving field. Then in section 3, the design of the battery their driving range which is less than other vehicles. Egbue
pack for EVs is discussed. The aim is to develop a battery for and Long (2012) proposed that 33% of the consumers
EV with high energy density and focusing on lightweight, identified that battery range was the most prominent
high energy efficiency, practical usability, and excellent concern with EVs. Axsen and Kurani (2013) suggested that
performance. In sections 4, various tests are discussed consumers most often switch to PHEV because BEVs were
regarding the driving range of battery and various the least favorite, even though it could drive up to 149 miles
mechanical, electrical and environment battery tests for approximately in the range at no additional cost. Tamor
vehicles. Lastly in section 5, paper summarizes with the help et al. (2013) concluded that PHEVs may be more acceptable
of concluding flow charts and remarks given with some than BEVs. On the other hand, Tran et al. (2013) support that
future development of EVs. BEVs are more preferred over PHEVs because of their
enhancing charging infrastructure. Now, the other major
1.1. Factors affecting the EV issue in the adaptation of EV's is charging time. Although, it
is potentially less severe in comparison to the driving range.
There are two types of factors that affect the adoption of EVs, Carley et al. (2013), noted that a majority of consumers
i.e., internal factors and external factor (Young et al., 2013). conclude that it was a disadvantage, but they all were
willing to pay for immediate charging. Hidrue et al. (2011)
1.1.1. Internal factors suggest that most of the consumers are willing to pay nearly
There are certain characteristics of an electric vehicle such as $30 to $70 for the added driving range (Axsen and Kurani,
their driving range, charging time and cost which makes them 2013; Tamor et al., 2013).
less convenient in today's world. EVs are more expensive than
conventional engine vehicles (Coffman et al., 2017). Carley 1.1.2. External factors
et al. (2013) found that the cost of the EVs is more dominant Certain external factors may also affect the adoption of EVs
as compared to another traditional vehicle. Graham-Rowe like consumer characteristics, fuel prices and the availability
et al. (2012) also concluded that people were not willing to of charging stations. The hikes in fuel prices are caused due to
pay the high cost as demanded by EVs. As an industrial the burning of fossil fuel in the combustion engine of vehicles.
survey reviewed by Tran et al. (2013) shows that more than According to Tseng et al. (2013) and Wu et al. (2014, 2015), the
63% of buyers refused to adopt the EVs because of the high petroleum-fuel prices depend directly on the EVs adoption.
price. The purchase costs of EVs should decline rapidly and Sierzchula et al. (2014) studied vehicles survey of 30
quickly render the studies regarding the purchase price of countries and found that fuel price is not a significant
the EVs (Hawkins et al., 2013). Wu et al. (2015) found that analyzer of EV market share, fuel prices are very important
plug-in hybrid EV (PHEV) and battery operated EV (BEV) may factor of HEV adoption (Diamond, 2009; Gallagher and
be competitive with internal combustion engine vehicles Muehlegger, 2011; Li et al., 2011). As consumers have
(ICEV) in Germany by 2025. The rapid downfall in the price different types of interest and the adoption of an EV
of EVs suggests the on-going studies on various parameters depends on different consumer characteristics such as
such as driving cost, purchase price and ownership costs on education, income, level of environmentalism, number and/
EV (Wu et al., 2015; Young et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2017). No or type of car owned and love for technology (Kettles, 2015).
valid explanation is found that's why the purchase price fell Several studies found that consumers having higher
more rapidly than the other EV models. More investigation education are more likely to consider the adoption of
 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 343

Fig. 2 e Classification of motors (Alavije and Akhbari, 2011).

electrical vehicle found that there is no evidence that higher 1993, all the EVs were derived using direct current (DC) Vari-
income makes the consumer-oriented towards using EVs able drives. DC drives have a commutator due to which
(Carley et al., 2013; Hackbarth and Madlener, 2013; Hidrue maintenance cost is less as compared to conventional drives
et al., 2011). In fact, it reduces consumer likelihood and also (Chan, 1993). But we all know that DC motor is used for low
makes the EV adoption less due to the driving range and power level up to 4 kW, needed support and had a shorter
other factors (Wu and Niu, 2017). It was also observed that lifetime. However, it is suitable for small power applications
while the reduction of pollution is the most valuable such as an electric wheelchair, micro-car, etc. So, with the
parameter of EVs, it is evaluated considerably less than advent of the alternating current (AC) drives which are more
performance indicators. The author reported that most of advantageous, we move towards AC motors. Now, a new era
the people appreciated the reduction of gasoline vehicle has pushed towards commutator fewer motors which led to
(Tseng et al., 2013). Sierzchula et al. (2014) reported various benefits like optimum efficiency and high-power
education or environmentalism are not the factors in density with low operating cost, more reliability and lower
determining EV market share within a country. Moreover, maintenance of DC motor. Hence, AC motors of different
studies also suggest that the technology of electric vehicles types that are classified as induction motor, DC brushless
needs to be improved for better adaptability of EVs. motor, permanent magnet synchronous motor, and
According to the consumer's adoption of EVs, the presence switched reluctance motor (Diamond, 2009). As we know,
of charging stations plays an important role as the limited the motor is the most essential component of EV, so it is
availability of charging stations may discourage the adoption essential to select a suitable type of motor with a suitable
of EVs. Tran et al. (2013) observed a simulation model that the rating (Gallagher and Muehlegger, 2011). Induction motor
presence of an extensive charging network is critical to (IM) is used as a commutator motor type for EVs because of
support the mass adoption of EVs. high reliability and free from maintenance (Burridge and
Alahakoon, 2016). Fig. 2 shows the classification of motors
1.2. Components of EVs used in EVs (Alavije and Akhbari, 2011).
It is a very popular AC motor and has a variable speed drive
EVs are based on propulsion systems; no internal combustion application such as air-conditioning, elevator or escalator, and
engine is used. It is based on electric power, so the main many higher power EVs, for more than that of 5 kW energy
components of electric vehicle are motors, power electronic (Chan, 1999). Classically, IM and Synchronous motor are used to
driver, energy storage system, charging system, and DC-DC feed a sinusoidal supply and produce constant instantaneous
converter. Fig. 1 shows the critical configuration of an electric torque without using an electronic controller (Chan, 1999).
vehicle (Diamond, 2009). Immediately replacing a field winding with a permanent
magnet (PM) then the synchronous motor will turn into PM
1.2.1. Motors synchronous motor (PMSM). PM rotor has been selected by its
Each motor has its characteristics and advantages. There are high kW rating and current ratings providing superior torque-
specific requirements of EVs motor, such as high power den- speed combined with lightweight commercial availability and
sity, fast torque response, high efficiency over full speed and compact dimension (Burridge and Alahakoon, 2016). PM rotor
torque ranges, High robustness and good reliability for many is further classified into two types, surface-mounted and
vehicles operating conditions and at a reasonable cost. In interior mounted. Surface-mounted has the magnets outside
344 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

the motor whereas the interior model has the magnets inside present, the primary emphasis is on energy storage and its
the magnetic structure of the rotor. Preference should be given essential characteristics such as storage capacity, energy
to the internal model because of its high operating speed. storage density and many more. The necessary type of energy
Now, modern motor, i.e., PM brushless moto, is used to conversion process that is used for primary battery, secondary
overcome the IM for EVs because of its advantages like battery, supercapacitor, fuel cell, and hybrid energy storage
increasing the speed range and improve efficiency. As in this, system.
there is no rotor due to which rotor copper losses are absent. This type of classifications can be rendered in various
However, motor efficiency is inherently higher, and its fields, and analysis can be abstract according to applications
acceleration is also improved (Chan, 2003). (Gallagher and Muehlegger, 2011). According to electric
According to Rajashekara (2013), switched reluctance vehicles applications, the electrochemical ESS is of high
motor (SRM) is a synchronous device that operates on priority such as batteries, supercapacitors, and fuel cells. An
inverter-driven square wave unipolar current. It is a variable electro-chemical system deals with electrochemistry, i.e.,
reluctance machine, and it has a fault tolerance capability shifting of electrons with the help of chemical reactions at
because of the absence of PM and its reliability also the interface of electrode and the electrolyte (Elliott and
improves. Some researchers used an SR motor in vehicle Cook, 2018; Wu and Niu, 2017; Xia et al., 2015). Many other
traction that could make the system cheaper and also energy stored devices based on electrochemistry have been
improves the performance of the system. Several other fabricated which are named as primary and secondary
researchers and companies are also in the process of using batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, electrolyzers and many
SR motor in the electric propulsion system. more (Xia et al., 2015).

1.2.2. Power electronic driver [Link]. Primary battery. The first primary battery was intro-
Power devices are the most crucial element in the electric duced more than 100 years ago, zinc-carbon was the only
propulsion system. This system consists of a power switching battery used in 1940 (Conway, 2013). After that, many
device, with its closed-loop control and switching strategy for advancements take place in primary cells regarding its
making our system efficient. According to the literature re- capacity, operating temperature, life cycle, etc., hence, there
view, in the past 25 years, power semiconductor devices are are many primary cells designed using various anode-
used in EVs. In the 1970s, thyristors are used as a power cathode combinations some of them are discussed in the
semiconductor switch in EV controllers. But now a day's re- following subsections (Elliott and Cook, 2018; Shen et al., 2016;
searchers replaced a thyristor with new power devices such as Xia et al., 2015). There are a variety of batteries explained
bipolar junction transistor (BJT), metal oxide semiconductor below and summarized in Table 2.
field effect transistor (MOSFET), gate turn-off thyristor (GTO),
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) and many more (Chan,
Zinc-Carbon and alkaline manganese dioxide batteries
1999). However, selecting a proper power device must be
necessary and selection may depend upon the requirement Zinc-Carbon (Zn-C or Zn-MnO2) batteries were the most
of EVs and the parameters of semiconductor devices. Mostly, popular battery for more than 100 years (Xia et al., 2015). It is
three types of semiconductor devices are used for electric also known as “dry battery”. In this, Zn is anode material
propulsion vehicles. The comparison of related methods is while the carbon and MnO2 are used as a cathode material
described in Table 1 (Chan, 1999). (Jom et al., 1981). The cathode material is based on
After reviewing the characteristics of all power devices, electrolytic MnO2, which gives high power and long life. The
IGBT is getting more attention for EVs applications. IGBT has theoretical capacity of the primary battery, i.e., Zn-C is
certain advantages over the other devices such as excellent 225 A$h/kg, synthesized on both types of cathode material and
conductivity as BJT and high-power density, high efficiency, this value is based on simplified cells (Xia et al., 2015). As on a
compact and costs useful power device. It has six thyristors in practical basis, the obtained specific capacity of the battery is
every module, and its drive circuit is integrated into the single 97 A$h/kg, and till now, this is the optimum specific capacity
package. for a cell (Xia et al., 2015). The operating voltage/current of
the primary battery is in the range of 0.16e44 A in prismatic
1.2.3. Electrochemical energy storage system (EESS) battery design and button cells 25e60 mA. These batteries
In EV, the prime importance is given to the energy storage are having a low-temperature range, i.e., 10  C (Bockris,
system that controls and regulates the flow of energy. At 1981; Wendt and Kreysa, 2013).

Zinc-air battery

Table 1 e Comparison of devices (Chan, 1999). The zinc-air battery consists mainly of three components:
Devices IGBT Transistor Mosfet a catalytic cathode, aqueous alkaline electrolyte, and zinc
Voltage drop Medium Low High powder anode (Xia et al., 2015). In this, O2 is utilized from the
Control power Low High Low air as an active cathode, and due to this, the capacity of Zn-air
Control mode Voltage Current Voltage is double than that of primary batteries. The gravimetric and
Switch speed Fast Medium Very fast volumetric size of a cell is very high. In the construction of
Voltage rating Medium Medium Low the button cell, the capacity range is 40e600 mA$h (Xia
Cost Low Low High
et al., 2015). It has an advantage over another cell that its
 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 345

Table 2 e Comparison of primary batteries (Xia et al., 2015).

Primary battery Cathode Anode Electrolyte/reaction Nominal Practical
material material voltage capacity
/current
Zinc-carbon and MnO2 Zn Aqueous KOH/NH4Cl 0.16e44 A 75e35 A$h/kg
alkaline manganese Zn þ 2MnO2 þ 2H2O / 2MnOOH þ Zn (OH)2
Zn þ 2MnO2 / ZnO þ Mn2O3
Zinc-air O2 Zn Alkaline electrolyte 0.4e2 mA 40e600 mA$h
Zn þ 2OH / Zn (OH)2 þ 2e (anode)
O2 þ 2H2O þ 4e / 4OH (cathode)
1
Zn þ O2 / ZnO (overall reaction)
2
Silver-oxide Zn Ag2O KOH or NaOH aqueous electrolyte 1.5e1.6 V 165 mA$h
Zn þ Ag2O / ZnO þ 2Ag (overall reaction)
Lithium-sulfur dioxide Teflon-bonded Li 2Li þ 2SO2 / Li2S2O4 (overall reaction) 2.7e2.9 V ~260 W$h/kg
acetylene black
Lithium-thionyl chloride Porous carbon Li 4Li þ 2SOCl2 / 4LiCl þ S þ SO2 450e600 W$h/kg
(overall reaction)
Lithium-manganese dioxide MnO2 Li Ion conducting organics 3.60 V 200 W$h/kg
Li / Liþ þ e (anode)
2MnO2 þ Liþþ e / MnO þ
2 (Li ) (cathode)
MnO2 þ Li / MnO þ
2 (Li ) (overall reaction)
Lithium-carbon monofluoride Polycarbon fluoride Li xLi þ CFx / xLiF þ xC (overall reaction) 2.8 V 200e600 W$h/kg

excellent retention even at 0  C with its flats discharges The first lithium battery was implemented in the 1970s for
curves. But the main problem with this battery is its life military appliances. The lithium battery has proved
cycle as after 1e3 months the cells come into contact with themselves to the best battery till then because of long
the atmosphere. Therefore, these batteries are used in operational time, extreme temperature or high power (Xia
continuous-drain applications (Xia et al., 2015). et al., 2015). Therefore, the primary lithium batteries can
be classified into several other categories, based on the

Silver-oxide battery type of anode and cathode material discussed below (Xia
et al., 2015).
Silver-oxide battery was first synthesized in the early 1960s
for various applications such as a pocket calculator, watches,
Lithium-sulfur dioxide battery
etc., as this battery offers certain advantages over other bat-
teries named as high capacity, excellent storage capacity The first lithium commercialized cell was introduced in the
retention and a constant discharge voltage (Xia et al., 2015). 1970s, i.e., lithium-sulfur dioxide (Li-SO2) cells (Broussely and
The theoretical energy storage capacity of Zn-Ag2O is Pistoia, 2007). In this cell, carbon is placed as a cathode and
231 A$h/kg, and it shows a steady discharge voltage profile lithium used as an anode. Teflon-bonded acetylene black
between 1.5 and 1.6 V at low and high discharge rates (Xia supported on Al screen also serves as a cathode due to
et al., 2015). Its main advantage is long storage life up to one which cell provides high values of surface area, conductivity,
year at room temperature, and its performance deteriorates and porosity (Xia et al., 2015). This has high conductivity
at low temperatures (20  C) up to 35% at standard capacity even at 50  C (2.2  102 U1$cm1), and working voltage
(Xia et al., 2015). are 2.7e2.9 V (Zhang, 2012). As the tubular construction also
provides a good energy density of z260 W$h/kg and its

Magnesium/manganese dioxide battery storing capacity is 34 A$h (Xia et al., 2015). However, the
primary concern of this battery is its passivating film, which
As in other batteries, now magnesium is considered as an starts reducing its capacity when the concentration of SO2 is
anode material. It has a low atomic weight and a high stan- below 5% (Xia et al., 2015).
dard of potential. The main advantage of Mg battery over the
other is its low operating temperature, i.e., 20  C and below
Lithium-thionyl chloride battery
(Xia et al., 2015). However, the low-temperature affects the
performance of heat generation during discharge and is These batteries were used because of their efficient energy
dependent on the discharge rate, battery configurations, density of 440e610 W$h/kg and the long-life span of 14e21
battery size and many other factors (Xia et al., 2015). years (Xia et al., 2015). Moreover, certain batteries can be
operated at an extensive temperature range 80  Ce150  C

Lithium primary battery (Xia et al., 2015). As similar to a Li-SO2 battery, Li-SOCl2 also
has porous carbon as a cathode, the solvent for the
For high energy density batteries in the 1960s, when the electrolyte salt and SOCl2 acts as an anode. In this, the main
researchers focused on lithium as an anode (Xia et al., 2015). component to form the passivating film on the anode is LiCl.
 346
Table 3 e Comparison of secondary batteries (Xia et al., 2015).
Secondary Cathode Anode material Electrolyte/reaction Nominal voltage (V) Practical capacity (W$h/kg)
batteries material
Lead-acid PbO2 Pb H2SO4 aqueous solution 2 30e50

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361


Pb þ SO24 4 PbSO4 þ 2e (anode)
PbO2 þ 4Hþ þ SO2 
4 þ 2e 4 PbSO4 þ 2H2O (cathode)
PbO2 þ 2PbSO4 þ Pb 4 PbSO4 þ 2H2O (total reaction)
Nickel-cadmium NiOOH Cd KOH aqueous solution 1.2 50
Cd þ 2OH 4 Cd(OH)2 þ 2e (anode)
2NiOOH þ 2H2O þ 2e 4 2Ni(OH)2 þ 2OH (cathode)
2NiOOH þ Cd þ 2H2O 4 Ni(OH)2 þ Cd (OH)2 (total reaction)
Nickel-metal hydride NiOOH Hydrogen KOH aqueous solution 1.2 100
adsorbed alloy H2 þ 2OH 4 2H2O þ 2e (anode)
2NiOOH þ 2H2O þ 2e 4 2Ni(OH)2 þ 2OH (cathode)
2NiOOH þ H2 4 2Ni(OH)2 (total reaction)
Lithium-ion LiCoO2 C þ Li/Li Organic electrolyte with lithium salt 3.6 150e200
Li (C) 4 Li(1-x)(C) þ xLiþ þ xe(anode)
xLiþ þ xe þ Li (1-x)CoO2 4 LiCoO2 (cathode)
Li (C) þ Li (1-x)CoO2 4 LiCoO2 (total reaction)
Lithium-sulfur S Li Liquid electrolyte 2.15 2600e2800
Li2S8 þ 2e þ 2Liþ 4 2Li2S4
Li2S4 þ 2e þ 2Liþ 4 2Li2S2
Li2S2þ 2e þ 2Liþ 4 2Li2S
Lithium-air LiCoO2 C Liquid or gel electrolyte 3.1 3620e5200
2Li þ O2 4 Li2O2
4Li þ 6H2O þ O2 4 4(LiOH$H2O)
 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 347

Hence, to increase the capacity of cell AlCl3 is adding in excess or tubular plates. As we know lead is more substantial in
to the electrolyte (Xia et al., 2015). weight, so its specific energy is low 30e50 W$h/kg (Xia
et al., 2015).

Lithium-manganese dioxide battery

Nickel-cadmium battery
Li-MnO2 was introduced in 1975 and also known as solid-
cathode primary batteries (Broussely and Pistoia, 2007). These Nickel batteries were introduced in 1908e1909 by Edison as
are widely used due to certain advantages followed as a power source for various applications. There are five
relatively high energy density, high working voltage, rechargeable batteries, which belong to nickel groups named
nominal operating temperature range (350  C e400  C), long as Ni-Cd, Ni-H2, Ni-MH, Ni-Zn and Ni-Fe batteries (Xia et al.,
lifespan, and low cost (Xia et al., 2015). The most widely 2015). Presently, Ni-Cd batteries have two significant struc-
used electrolyte is LiClO4-PC-DME. Li-MnO2 can be tures, vented and sealed type. In all types of battery, b-NiOOH
constructed in various forms according to its applications is used as the positive electrode material and Cd is used as a
such as cylindrical, cover coin and prismatic structures (Xia negative electrode. The KOH aqueous solution acts as an
et al., 2015). electrolyte for LiOH, which helps in improving cycle life as
well as its temperature performance (Xia et al., 2015). The

Lithium-carbon monofluoride battery advantages of Ni-Cd over other types of batteries are high
rate capability and excellent lifespan up to ten years in an
Another solid-cathode primary battery is made with Li-C optimum temperature range (30  Ce80  C) (Pistoia, 2008). On
monofluoride (Li-CFx) battery, in which polycarbonate fluo- the other hand, these batteries rapidly lose their capacity at
ride is used as a cathode (Xia et al., 2015). In this, Carbon ambient temperature and excellent self-discharge (Pistoia,
enhances the electronic conductivity of the cathode 2008).
material. Hence, the CFx system has advanced features and
shows the flat operating voltage profile (2.8 V), energy
Nickel-metal hydride battery
density (200e600 W$h/kg), high capacity and full
temperature range (40  Ce85  C and reached up to 125  C Ni-MH battery was introduced in the 1960s as a replace-
depends upon design) (Xia et al., 2015). Also, Li-CFx also ment for both Ni-Cd and Ni-H2 batteries because of its ad-
shows the self-discharge rate among all lithium batteries. vantages such as lower pressure, high energy, and low cost as
Although there are many more lithium primary batteries, compare to Ni-Cd. It was commercialized in 1989 as a
which are designed for various types of applications such as rechargeable battery for multiple applications such as
cell phones, notebooks, etc. portable computers, electronic devices, and hybrid vehicle
propulsion systems (Huggins, 2010). In the Ni-MH battery, the
[Link]. Secondary battery. A rechargeable battery acts as en- hydrogen alloy is a negative side and b-NiOOH is a positive
ergy storage as well as an energy source system. The initial alloy and there is no electrode reaction involving H2O due to
formation of the lead-acid battery in 1858 by Plante (Broussely which concentration and conductivity remain the same
and Pistoia, 2007; Wendt and Kreysa, 2013). Later, the nickel- during the charge and discharge process (Xia et al., 2015).
iron alkaline battery was introduced as a power source for the During overcharge process, both H2 and O2 evolve from the
electric automobile by Edison in 1908 (Shen et al., 2016; positive electrode and recombine to form H2O. The energy
Thomas, 2010; Zoski, 2006). Similarly, other critical commer- density of the cell can approach 100 W$h/kg and 300 W$h/L
cialized batteries are explained in detail and summarized in (Xia et al., 2015). However, there are significant issues with
Table 3 (Xia et al., 2015). Ni-MH, which is yet to be solved such as limited high rate
capability, poor low-temperature capability and also high

Lead-acid battery self-discharge (Xia et al., 2015).

The lead-acid battery was the very commercialize battery
Lithium-ion battery
in the early era, as this battery was introduced in 1859 (Xia
et al., 2015). As compared with other battery it shows Among all other secondary batteries, lithium-ion has high
certain advantages such as low-price, a high voltage of the specific energy and energy density (Xia et al., 2015). In the
cell (2 V), high electrochemical activity, excellent reliability, 1970s, the development of lithium-ion batteries was started
and long-life span (Xia et al., 2015). The main components (Sadoway and Mayes, 2002; Shukla et al., 2001). An earlier
of the lead-acid battery are electrodes, separator, and lithium-ion battery cathode material contains different
electrolyte. In this, the dioxide serves as a cathode and layered structures explained as Li-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) or a
lead serves as an anode, which is immersed in an tunneled structure named as Li-manganese oxide (LiMnO2)
electrolyte solution of sulfuric acid (Bullock, 1994). These (Zimmerman, 2009). There are some other metal oxide
batteries have different types of construction due to which materials that act as a cathode such as LiMn2O4, LiFePO4,
their characteristics vary such as tubular construction, and LiNi1-xMnxCoyO2 and many more (Xia et al., 2015). The
bipolar construction and prismatic construction with grid first commercialized lithium-ion battery was explained, for a
348 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

negative electrode as a coke-based material and after that in solid pores size material may compromise rechargeability
the mid-90s era; graphite-based anode materials were and rate because of their low surface area. Hence pores size
utilized (Xia et al., 2015). The capacity of the graphitic should be optimal, i.e., 10e200 nm (Xia et al., 2015).
content is higher (350 A$h/kg) as compared to the original For the aqueous Li-air battery, the solid electrolyte is only
coke material (180 A$h/kg) (Xia et al., 2015). The other functioned in the system, which behaves like an ionic
advantages are good energy density (150e210 W$h/kg), the conductor that covers the Li anode and then Li violently reacts
top voltage level of graphitic material (4 V in fully charged with water (Bruce et al., 2011; Xia et al., 2015). This invention
state and 3 V in discharged rate) and relatively good cycle by Visco had made a Li cell real. Although, on the other hand,
life with acceptable low self-discharge (<10% per month). the aqueous system suffers from corrosion, which leads to
However, for a lithium-ion battery, the significant high impedance. Therefore, both types of Li-air batteries face
disadvantage is a very high cost and overcharging or heating many challenges for practical implementation (Xia et al.,
above 100  C causes the decomposition of the positive 2015).
electrode and the electrolyte with the liberation of gas (Xia
et al., 2015). [Link]. Supercapacitor. Electrochemical supercapacitors (ES)
or ultracapacitors have high demand, because of their high-

Lithium-sulfur and lithium-air batteries power density and long lifetime (Chen et al., 2013; Xia et al.,
2015). The earliest supercapacitor was invented in 1957. After
Li-S holds unique advantages to achieve the demand for the 1990s supercapacitor starts achieving attention in the field
renewable energy. Since, sulfur as a cathode is considered for of HEVs. The primary purpose of a supercapacitor in the
the battery which leads to specific advantages like optimum hybrid electric vehicle is to boost the battery/fuel cell for
cost, good specific energy and eco-friendly (Fu et al., 2013). providing the necessary power for acceleration. For further
However, both lithium and sulfur are light in weight and development, the US Department of Energy has analyzed ES to
good in exerting multielectron conversion electrochemistry be as important as the battery in the future of energy storage
which has a high specific energy (Xia et al., 2015). In 1962, applications (Xia et al., 2015).
sulfur type battery had been introduced, but there are The electrochemical supercapacitor is divided into two
particular issues that are still not solved such as the types, namely faradaic supercapacitor (FS) electrostatic or
solubility of intermediately formed polysulfide in general electrical double-layer supercapacitors (EDLS) (Xia et al., 2015).
liquid organic electrolyte and electronically insulating
nature (Goodenough, 2012). Lithium-sulfur battery also
Electric-double layer capacitance
shows low coulombic efficiency due to its shuttling effect
and its capacity fades rapidly (Goodenough and Kim, 2009). EDLC produces a non-faradic process featuring ion
When based on overall reaction S8 þ 16Li ¼ 8Li2S, shows the adsorption between the electrode and electrolyte (Seh et al.,
voltage of 2.16 V with a theoretical calculated specific 2013; Yu et al., 2013). They have an unlimited degree of
capacity of 1676 mA$h/g and energy density of 2600 W$h/kg cyclability in theory (Adler et al., 1998; Li et al., 2011). In this,
(2800 W$h/L) which is five times greater than other batteries every layer is conductive and has more power density (Li et al.,
(Whittingham, 2004; Yuan et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2015). 2011). In this supercapacitor, no ion evolves in exchange
Moreover, the modern advancement in Li-sulfur batteries between the electrode and electrolyte.
has been done because of the increasing demands of high
storage energy system, and it also gives many opportunities
Pseudocapacitance
to solve their issues related to bulk material's conductivity
(Amine et al., 2014; Barchasz et al., 2012; Bruce et al., 2011; It evolves a faradic process, intercalation on the surface or
Peng et al., 2017; Su and Manthiram, 2012). redox reactions electrosorption of the electrode achieved by
The other most developing Li batteries regarding energy adsorbed ions that gives reversible faradaic charge-transfer
density are lithium-air system since the cathode active mass on the electrode (Subrahmanyam et al., 2012). The pseudo-
material is not included in these batteries. The excellent capacitors constitute electrode materials of electronically
advantage of the lithium-air battery is its energy density of conducting polymers. There are three different types of
3621 W$h/kg (when discharged to Li2O2 at 3.2 V) or 5210 W$h/ faradaic processes explained as redox reactions reversible
kg (when discharged to Li2O at 3.2 V). Therefore, Li-air gives electrochemical doping, reversible adsorption and de-doping
competition with liquid fuels. Visco and Abraham were the process (Xia et al., 2015). Three components can be
first to describe the aqueous and non-aqueous Li-air batteries categorized into electrode materials of supercapacitors:
in 1996. Although both cells involve O2 reduction, both have conducting polymer, carbon material with the high specific
significant differences according to their merits (Bruce et al., surface area and metal oxides (Li et al., 2012; Ma et al., 2013;
2011; Xia et al., 2015). Sobha and Narayanankutty, 2014).
In a non-aqueous Li-air battery, the primary focus is its
pore volume for higher conductivity and low cost. During [Link]. Fuel cell. An electrochemical device made to transfer
discharging, Li2O2 gets accumulates in the pores and creates the electrical energy from chemical reactions is known as a
fast discharging. So, for blocking the Li2O2, a porous carbon fuel cell (Xia et al., 2015). The difference between the fuel cell
material is used as a cathode. This material has small pores and other storage device are: 1) fuel cell uses liquid reactants
size, and carbon pores may easily block Li2O2 before filled, or supply of gaseous for the reactions (Ahmer and Hameed,
thus limits the discharge capacity (Xia et al., 2015). Although, 2015); 2) it is easy to eliminate the reaction products and
 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 349

keep the operation longer (Bagotsky, 2012; Revankar and 1.3. Charging schemes
Majumdar, 2014; Wang et al., 2012; Wang and Xia, 2013;
Zhang and Zhao, 2009). There are many advantages of the The essential component of BEV is a charger to charge a battery.
fuel cell such as no combustion reaction, pollution-free Charging is not merely to charge a battery, but it needs an
electrical energy, excellent energy efficiency, lightweight, advanced control system to regulate the current and voltage. The
silent operation, and vibration-free operation. The fuel cell charger can be build-in-charge or a standalone charger at a
experiment was performed by Sir William Grove (Grove, charging station. For any battery, the charging and discharging
1839; Hoogers, 2002; Srinivasan, 2006). After more than 100 process help to determine its safety, durability, and perfor-
years, a fuel cell was developed by Francis Thomas Bacon in mance. For EVs, there are different charging methods such as
1959 (Dincer and Bicer, 2018). NASA used it as an auxiliary constant current, constant voltage, combination of constant
power source for space vehicles. The fuel cell working voltage and constant current (Ahmadian et al., 2015). For EVs, the
voltage is less than 1 V, but to have more voltage like 6, 12, random charging of batteries is essential due to regenerative
or 24 V then individual cells are connected to form the braking. So, there are different levels of charging an EVs such
stacks for real-time applications (Xia et al., 2015). Depending as shown in Table 4 explained below (Dost et al., 2015).
upon fuel and electrode, fuel cell may be different types
reactions such as PEM fuel cells (low temperature), alkaline i. Slow charging
fuel cells (low temperature), molten carbonate fuel cells
(high temperature), phosphoric acid, fuel cells (intermediate Level 1 is suitable for a residential outlet (120 V-AC). All EVs
temperature), direct methanol fuel cells (low temperature) are equipped with an on-board charger that can be considered
and solid oxides fuel cells (high temperature) (Xia et al., as the average power of 2 kW. It is the most available form for
2015). Among all these, phosphoric fuel cells and methanol battery charging and can typically charge a vehicle's batteries
fuel cells are used in hybrid electric vehicles because they overnight, as an outcome recharging of the battery will pro-
are easily connected in parallel with lead-acid/NieCd battery vide four miles of travel per hour (Ahmadian et al., 2015).
to supply peak power and to have a good advantage in
regenerative braking (Dincer and Bicer, 2018). ii. Semi-fast charging

[Link]. Hybrid energy storage system (HESS). The energy Charging power at Level 2 charging stations can be five-time
storage system (ESS) is essential for EVs. EVs need a lot of higher than that of Level 1. As, it will supply up to 16 miles of
various features to drive a vehicle such as high energy density, travel for one hour of charging with a 3.4-kW on-board charger,
power density, good life cycle, and many others but these or 35 miles of travel for one hour of charging with a 6.7-kWh on-
features can't be fulfilled by an individual energy storage board charge (Ahmadian et al., 2015). These chargers are
system. So, ESS is required to become a hybrid energy storage especially depleted for PEV batteries that can be charged
system (HESS) and it helps to optimize the balanced energy entirely within seven hours (Rahman et al., 2016).
storage system after combining the complementary charac-
teristics of two or more ESS. Hence, HESS has been developed iii. Fast charging
and helps to combine the output power of two or more energy
storage systems (Demir-Cakan et al., 2013). In HESS, there is a Level 3 is for DC fast charging (DCFC), which provides
combination of two or more features such as high energy 350 km range in half an hour charging (Rahman et al., 2016). In
density or fast response of ESS, high power density and high this level, the charger has to be off-board because its charging
cost or low cost which may be considered in power power exceeds 100 kW, which is significantly higher than
electronic configurations to deliver a suitable power during other levels (Perry and Fuller, 2002). As in general, DCFC
operation (Zhang et al., 2010). recharging will provide 85e105 miles of travel within
Nowadays, lithium-ion battery is most widely used due to 25e30 min. In DCFC charger, high power DC is directly fed to
its surplus demands of EVs in today's market. The current the EV's traction batteries through the charging inlet on the
demand for EVs goes on increasing day by day due to which vehicles (Grove, 1839, 1843; Perry and Fuller, 2002). The most
requirement of lithium-ion battery is on the boom and the
automobile market demands surplus energy from Li-ion bat-
tery, i.e., 2000 W/kg in terms of power density but the current
status of power density is 500 W/kg (Zhang and Read, 2012).
Hence, to fulfill this demand we combine the battery with Table 4 e Comparison of levels for charging an EV (Dost
ultracapacitor because it provides high power density et al., 2015).
(1170 W/kg) to the EVs. But this option is only suitable for Quantity Level 1 Level 2 Level 3
significant increase in power density with a small decrease
Voltage (V) 120 208/240 200e450
in energy density. So, we have a look at other hybrid Current (A) 15 40 125
systems that are classified in various types such as fuel cell Useful power (kW) 1.4 7.2 50
and battery hybrids, flywheel and battery hybrids or many Maximum output (kW) 1.9 19.2 150
more, that depend on types of applications (Aurbach et al., Charging time (h) 12.00 3.00 0.33
2009; Zhang and Read, 2012). Connector J1772 J1772 J1772 combo
350 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

Fig. 3 e General topology of advanced charging system.

reliable charging technique for fast charging is constant temperature and high current (Sorrell et al., 2005). Hence,
voltage and constant current (CV-CC). to allow EVs to be charged quickly without reducing their
Furthermore, these charging schemes can also be performance, it becomes necessary to analyze the main
explained in the form of on-board and off-board chargers. technical factors, such as (1) the utilization of an adequate
Both these chargers can be inductive or conductive and also LIB technology with an architecture design optimized for
described as bi-directional or unidirectional. For low power fast charging and (2) the use of an appropriate fast charging
level applications, on-board chargers are installed within the protocol (Dost et al., 2015). The main factor to achieve high
vehicle whereas off-board chargers are installed outside the power performance in LIBs is to decrease the polarization
vehicle such as malls, hotels, etc. However, both these char- resistances, so energy can rapidly be extracted (Betz et al.,
gers can be single-stage and two-stage systems. In a two-stage 2017). Various high-power cell technologies are available in
EV charger, an AC-DC converter is connected in cascade with the market, including LFP and LTO. Therefore, high power
DC-DC converter as shown in Fig. 3 (Castello et al., 2014). batteries are the best choice for fast charging (Nguyen
This two-stage system represents a dual-stage converter, et al., 2014).
in which first stage is the AC-DC converter and the second
stage is the DC-DC converter. The first stage is interfaced be-
tween the power grid and the DC link, which is composed of 2. Types of electric vehicles
parallel with two full-bridge voltage source converters
(Castello et al., 2014). The second stage is interfaced between The most emerging transportation system, i.e., EV, is also
the DC link and the batteries, which is composed of a bi- described as an automobile vehicle that develops through the
directional three-level asymmetrical voltage source electric propulsion system. Due to this, EVs may include
converter. The two main reasons to employ a two-stage hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs)
charger instead of a single-stage are (i) provide galvanic and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) (Singh et al., 2006).
isolation, and (ii) reduce the second-order harmonic on the The use of batteries in EV has an absolute advantage over
DC side of the charger. The second-order harmonics are a traditional vehicles. EVs are quiet in operation, helps in the
natural byproduct of a single-phase AC-DC converter removal of flue gas pollutants which are created from
(Castello et al., 2014). conventional vehicles and the most crucial factor is
There are two types of topologies in the two-stage system exploitation cost of EV which is three times lower.
which can transfer power according to the requirement such Unfortunately, batteries have certain disadvantages also,
as in unidirectional topology power is transferred from grid like substantial weight, the high cost of batteries, and
to vehicle (i.e., G2V), whereas in bi-directional topology, there volume impose significant range restrictions and
is an advantage to work in the vehicle to grid (V2G) mode performance of battery changes according to the climatic
(Castello et al., 2014). In this, active power is transferred to conditions (Koniak and Czerepicki, 2017). Hence, we focused
the grid according to the requirement. Apart from active on EVs in brief for more enhancement and future
power, it can also provide reactive power either in lagging development.
or leading phase. Therefore, for maintaining the unity
power factor, reactive power is compensated by using 2.1. Battery electric vehicle (BEV)
various techniques such as capacitor banks, static VAR
compensator and many more. In addition to these types of BEV runs using a battery and the electric motor, and it oper-
equipment, the increasing demand for EV owners will have ates solely on the electricity stored in a high-capacity battery.
a frequent effect on electric utilities and consumers BEV can also be charged from the grid. According to the
(Castello et al., 2014). Nowadays, all EVs are powered by transportation sector mainly in the field of electric vehicles,
lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology, and unfortunately, fast one of the leading elements is batteries (Chan and Chau, 1997).
charging may also affect the LIB's performance by So, the main focusing factors related to batteries are cost,
accelerating its aging/durability. Fast charging gives high climatic condition, energy density and power density due to
 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 351

which we differentiate them. According to Nitti et al. (2015), power transmission through the motor and shutting off the
Batteries are significantly reduced greenhouse gas emission engine (Hannan et al., 2014; Shen et al., 2011). Another
and used for various power-grid applications that provide advantage of HEVs is that when the fuel tank gets empty
the high quality of energy derive from various renewable while driving the engine, then the vehicle can be driven on
sources like wind, solar, geothermal and other renewable electric power with its maximum range (Thompson et al.,
sources. As first, EV was launched in 1834, i.e., tricycle, 2011). The HEV is classified into three types according to its
which is powered by a battery (De Luca et al., 2015). structure.
According to Pinsky et al. (2000), Electric vehicles have two
main issues: limited range and cycle life. So, to overcome i. Series hybrid
these issues anciently, the author used lead-acid batteries
because of its robust design and high charge rate A series hybrid system is also known as a range extender.
acceptance. Regarding the cycle life of the battery, the In this system, as shown in Fig. 4, the combustion engine
author discussed the pulsed type algorithm for optimum drives an electric generator to charge a battery and provide
lead oxide morphology. Therefore, the range of vehicle power to make the electric motor (Shen et al., 2011).
depends upon battery configuration, power density, and In this system, the electric motor is the only means of
energy density. For EVs, LIB technology is best suited for supplying power to the vehicles. The generator gives supply to
vehicular application, hence LTO and LFP cell technologies both batteries as well as the motor that drives the vehicle.
are used in the market. There are various BEVs, which run These vehicles have a large battery pack and a large motor
on the road with different ranges listed in Table 5 (Ansean with a small IC engine (Thompson et al., 2011). In this system,
et al., 2011). there is no mechanical connection between the IC engine and
BEVs have a range of 100e400 km, depending upon the transmission (Shen et al., 2011). Thus, IC can operate at
battery capacity. Charging time varies according to the battery maximum efficiency to satisfy the required power of the
cell configuration and its capacity. It is also affected by the vehicle (Shen et al., 2011). The only disadvantage of this
ambient temperature. Furthermore, for increasing the range connection is the high cost of batteries and its components
of EVs, we switched to other technologies such as HEV, PHEV (Pollet et al., 2012).
and many more.
ii. Parallel hybrid

2.2. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)

In this system, the parallel connection is connected with
an IC engine and electric motor for mechanical transmission.
Hybrid means a combination of two or more sources that has
Usually, the IC engine operates as a primary means and
multiple powered sources that could drive the vehicle sepa-
electric motor acts as a backup or torque power booster (Pollet
rately to propel the vehicle (Emadi, 2005). There are many
et al., 2012). The advantage of this system is that EV requires
other hybridization configurations designed as fuel cell, gas
lightweight and smaller batteries. The batteries in the
turbine, pneumatic, ethanol, electric drive, solar, hydraulic,
parallel mode can be recharged during regenerative braking
and much more developed in recent years. Among these
and during cruising. As shown in Fig. 5, there is a fixed
techniques, the most proven and established procedure is
mechanical link between the EV wheels and the motor (Shen
electric motor and an internal combustion (IC) engine
et al., 2011). Hence, the battery can't be charged when the
(Emadi, 2005). The one form of HEV is gasoline with an
car is not moving (Kebriaei et al., 2015).
engine as a fuel converter, and other is a bi-directional
energy storage system (Kebriaei et al., 2015). Nowadays,
iii. Combined hybrid
efficiency-improving technologies are used in HEVs named
as regenerative braking, which converts kinetic energy into
A combination of both series and the parallel hybrid sys-
electrical energy to charge a battery (Kebriaei et al., 2015).
tem is known as a combined hybrid or series-parallel or
According to the previous reviews, the conventional IC
complex/power split system (Kebriaei et al., 2015; Shen et al.,
engine produces lots of harmful gases, wastage of fuel
2011). The principle of this system is the decoupling of the
during heavy traffic and many more. HEV is used to
power supplied by the engine from the energy derived by the
overcome all the disadvantages of IC engine by switching to
driver. There is a second connection between the engine and
the drive axle: mechanical and electrical (Beresteanu and Li,
2011). This is the most complicated system due to the
interconnection of both mechanical and electrical power,
Table 5 e Comparison study of different BEVs.
through which it allows to split power paths as explained
Vehicle model Range (km) Price ($) Charge time (h) with the help of Fig. 6 (Pollet et al., 2012; Thompson et al.,
Tesla Model S 335e426 82,820e120,000 5 2011).
BMW i3 160 44, 950 6 This is the most expensive system for real-time applica-
Mitsubishi IMiEV 100 27,998 7 tions. Hence, the parallel hybrid system is mostly used in
Ford Focus EV 110 36,199 4 HEVs. Although, HEVs are 8e10 times more costly than BEVs
Smart EV 109 26,990 6
and it cannot charge the vehicle at home.
352 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

Fig. 4 e Series hybrid electric vehicle (Shen et al., 2011).

2.3. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV)

3. Battery pack design of EV
PHEVs are capable of running with electricity or gasoline. They
are hybrids that can be plugged into the power grid for battery A battery pack is a combination of cells connected in series
charging. In general mode, the vehicle allows having a me- and parallel for the desired operating voltage and current
dium capacity of the battery (Wirasingha and Emadi, 2009). ratings. These packs having different designs involving
This helps to achieve a range of several dozen kilometers, electrochemical, mechanical, control and thermodynamic
with excellent rates of acceleration and top speeds as principles. For EVs applications, many individual cells
compared to other gasoline-powered vehicles. There are stacked in a specific order for making the interconnection
different types of PHEVs with different varieties. Some of between battery for power flow (Rajasekhar and Gorre, 2015).
them are listed below in Table 6 (Thompson et al., 2011). Hence, battery packs are very expensive for EVs applications
PHEVs have a good range as compared to other electric- due to a high number of cells, different chemistry types
powered vehicles but the significant disadvantages are: 1) based on lithium and different protection circuits. The
costlier than BEVs, 2) not wholly eco-friendly (Thompson battery pack design consists of many steps, such as (1)
et al., 2011). However, after comparing all the vehicles, select the battery cell technology and the pack
battery electric vehicle (BEVs) are suitable in all aspects specifications by battery sizing; (2) battery pack designing
because of their environmental and eco-friendly behavior. (electrical, control and structural); (3) battery pack safety
BEV does not produce any emission in the environment, and testing (Rajasekhar and Gorre, 2015).
and the only disadvantage is its battery ranging and For the battery to be used in EVs, the primary parameter is
speed (Thompson et al., 2011). So, to overcome these the energy density of the cell which decides the EV's driving
factors, researchers have to be more concern about range, speed, and accelerations. Hence, the most recognized
batteries for future development. Henceforth, research material is lithium-ion cells because of its excellent energy to
have been focused on the batteries in brief, how their volume ratio/weight. Currently, the Li-ion cells are used
packaging, testing and ranging are developed (Thompson mostly for energy storage, which is based on the following
et al., 2011). compounds: LTO (Li4Ti5O12), LFP (LiFePO4), NMC (LiNiMnCoO2)

Fig. 5 e Parallel hybrid electric vehicle (Shen et al., 2011).

 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 353

Fig. 6 e Combined hybrid electric vehicle (Shen et al., 2011).

Step 2: calculation of battery pack size.

Table 6 e Comparison study of different PHEVs
The battery pack size (S) can be estimated by Eq. (2).
(Thompson et al., 2011).
Vehicle model Range Price Charge S ¼ VA0 (2)
($) time (h)
where voltage (V) is obtained in Eq. (1) and A0 denotes the
BMW i3 REX 160 km on electric, gasoline 48,950 6
ampere rating of the cells.
GM Chevy Volt 60 km on electric, 500 km on 36,895 2
For estimating the weight (W) of a battery, then pack size
gasoline
Ford Cmax 34 km on electric, 557 km on 36,999 2e3 (S) can be estimated from the above equation and capacity (C)
Energe gasoline of the battery is known in W$h/mile and then weight is esti-
mated by Eq. (3).

and NCA (LiNiCoAlO2) (Koniak and Czerepicki, 2017). Table 7 W ¼ SC (3)

represents energy density data for four different types of
lithium-ion cells. The lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide For example, if the capacity of the battery is 27 kW$h/mile,
(NMC) has the highest energy density as compared to other then the estimated weight of the battery would be 270 kg for
cells (Koniak and Czerepicki, 2017). 10 cells (Lee et al., 2015).
Battery packaging required some calculation which is dis- Step 3: calculation of battery range.
cussed stepwise in the following paragraphs. The battery range (R) is calculated with the help of pack
Step 1: calculation of battery voltage. size (S) and the capacity (C) of the battery using Eq. (4) given
The essential requirement of any vehicle is maintaining below.
the required voltage during the drive. There are multiple cells S
connected in series to realize the required voltage. The voltage R ¼ (4)
C
can be estimated in Eq. (1).
After calculating the above parameters, an extra 19% is
V ¼ nv (1) added to the battery capacity due to the reason that only 81%
of the battery capacity is utilized normally and the efficiency
where V is the voltage of the battery, n is the number of cells
of battery charging is considered to be 81% only (Ahmer and
and v is the cell voltage.
Hameed, 2015).
For example, if the energy density of the LFP cell is
Step 4: calculation of battery power.
100 W$h/kg and the cell voltage is 73.2 V (Lee et al., 2015).
The vehicle performance in terms of power delivered and
Hence for designing the battery pack, 100 cells are
energy usage is calculated. The force Fx required to move the
connected in series.
vehicle with a certain constant velocity v for energy con-
sumption is calculated using Eq. (5) given below (Ahmer and
Hameed, 2015).
Table 7 e Comparison study of lithium cell (Koniak and
Czerepicki, 2017). rACd v2
Fx ¼ þ mgfrr (5)
Cell type The energy The energy density 2
density per weight per volume
where r is air density, A is the frontal area, Cd is aerodynamic
LTO 90 200 drag coefficient, m is mass of the vehicle including passenger
LFP 130 247 and cargo, g is gravitational constant and frr is the tyre rolling
NMC 150 300
resistance coefficient (Ahmer and Hameed, 2015).
NCA 240 670
354 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

Furthermore, the required power which is delivered by the

surface. This test has to perform several times at varies

Sharp steel rod, the diameter of the rod (3 mm), the speed of During the test, the nail inserted through a cell, and the

crush force (<1000 times of battery weight), state of charge pressed down till it reached 85% of its initial dimension
During this test, the battery is freely dropped on a rigid

During the test, the tested battery is immersed fully in

battery for moving a vehicle can be calculated using Eq. (6)

penetration (8 cm$s1), the minimum depth of penetration interfacing of the separator and electrode is damaged.

bubbling had stopped. The result of this test is a short

Although, a short circuit is mechanically induced and

During the test, the battery enclosure is compressed/

circuit with hazardous gases possibly being released.

(6 $s1) for one complete revolution (360 ). The test

given below.

This simulates an overturn of a vehicle that might occur in Rotation speed (360 $min1), rotation steps (90 h1), state of During this test, a battery module is slowly rotated
the lime water for a period of at least (1e2 h) until

evaluates the presence of any leakage (electrolyte,

Fx Paux
PDC ¼ þ (6)

or till an abrupt voltage drop was observed.

hd v

How they are performed

where PDC is the DC energy usage of an electric vehicle, often
expressed in W$h/km, hd is the overall constant efficiency,
Paux is power uses of the auxiliary system independent of the

consequently heat is released.

forward velocity (Besselink et al., 2013).

coolant, liquid) or venting.

4. Testing for EVs

Various tests are performed on the batteries to lay down the

heights.
operating parameters of the battery so that it can work reliably
and remain resilient against failures. Range testing is per-
formed at a constant speed using test benches ETA-TP004 and
SAE J227. There are certain conditions below that must be

Surface type (rigid flat or concrete), drop height (1e10 m)

Crush speed (5e10 mm$min1), crush plate (cylindrical),

satisfied for range testing (Dhameja, 2001).

When a battery submerged, or a vehicle is partially flooded. Immersion fluid (saltwater), temperature ((25 ± 5%) C),
i. Battery pack temperature should be within the range of

immersion time (>2 h), State of charging (100%)

60  F and 120  F.
ii. Wind speed at the test location recorded during a test
Parameters required

should not exceed ten mph.

iii. EV accessories should not be used during the test
and state of charging (95%e100%).

activities.
iv. Range related tests should always commence with
batteries, initially charged to the standard point by
using rapid charging.

charge (95%e100%).
The range test is conducted at different driving periods and

(95%e100%)
spans up to three days. It helps to determine the driving range
Table 8 e Mechanical tests for batteries in electric vehicles (Zhu et al., 2018).

(100 mm).

achieved maximum during a 12-h period (Dhameja, 2001). For

determining the average miles for each day, the average is
taken from the total miles driven by the EV over the three-
day period. The second type of test is the driving test which
During installation or removing a battery from the vehicle, it
suddenly drops. Hence to overcome this situation, this test
Evaluate battery for various accidental situations

external load force that may damage a battery enclosure

is performed on the EV for safety purposes (Dhameja, 2001).

Penetration test When sharp objects penetrate inside the battery, and it

During an accident, when force is applied or any outer/

The following parameters are checked during the driving

test (Dhameja, 2001).
induced mechanical and electrical damage.

Average speed of the vehicle.

Average distance required for charge.

Average distance traveled between charges.

Average kWh available per charge.

The third type of test is a safety test that batteries have to

and cause deformation.

pass through. These tests evaluate the characteristics of the

battery and also determine how the battery will behave in
certain abnormal/severe situations. The safety tests are
is performed.

divided into the following three stages, mechanical tests,

an accident.

electrical tests, environment tests.

Tables 8e10 present further details of these tests. In Table
8, mechanical tests for batteries in EVs are explained (Doughty
and Crafts, 2006; Holze and Pistoia, 2012; Ruiz et al., 2017).
Immersion test

There are five different tests such as drop test, penetration

Rollover test
Test type

Crush test

test, immersion test, crush test, and rollover test. In all these
Drop test

tests mechanical force is applied on the battery and

accidental situation is created to evaluate the battery
capability for practical applications. Similarly, in Tables 9
Table 9 e Electrical tests for batteries in electric vehicles (Abaza et al., 2018; Kellner et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2018).
Test type Evaluate battery for various accidental Parameters required How they are performed
situations
External short circuit Measure safety performance from overcurrent Resistance element (5e100 mU), passive short circuit During this test, a resistance is externally connected to
protection. protection device, state of charging (95%e100%). the battery terminal from about 10 min. As a
consequence, current flows across the system and
protection devices are connected to limit the current
such as a fuse, circuit breaker, etc. (Zhu et al., 2018).
Internal short circuit This test is not for consumer's safety. This represents e e
the imperfection during manufacturing, the

J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

presence of impurities in the battery shows the
dendritic growth of lithium (Zhu et al., 2018).
Overcharge/overdischarge test Evaluate the functionality of battery during charging/ Charge rate and discharge rate (>C/3), end of charge. During the test, the controlled current is applied to the
discharging. battery up to a limited range (Zhu et al., 2018).

Table 10 e Environment tests for batteries in electric vehicle (Knap et al., 2018; Li et al., 2018; Rago et al., 2018; Ren et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018).
Test type Evaluate battery for various accidental Parameters required How they are performed
situations
Thermal stability Evaluates the thermal stability of a battery under the Heating rate (>5), Heating steps (5  Ce10  C), During this test, the battery is placed in a chamber
various condition of temperature. When an accident termination (300  C), repetition in case of self- and temperature goes on increasing slowly and
scenario involves fire. heating (2  C heating steps-hold for >1 h), state of slowly in different ranges such as 80  C, 85  C till
charging (95%e100%) 130  C.
Thermal shock and cycling Determine changes in the integrity of the device Protection device, Tmax (80  C), Tmin During the test, the device is exposed to different
from various conditions arising from expansion and (40  C), hold time (>1 h), Repetitions (5 or 10), state temperature limits for a specific period of time.
contraction of the cell during sudden changes in of charging (95%e100%).
temperature.

355
356 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

and 10, electrical and environmental tests for batteries in EVs able to meet their goals. The new approaches such as high
are explained and different electrical and thermal inputs are capacity metal oxide cathode materials, high capacity anode
provided to the batteries for evaluating the battery capacity material and new electrolyte with high oxidation potential,
for hazardous situations. metal-air batteries after replacing the positive electrode with
an air electrode may help the BEV to perform as expected.
New DC fast charging schemes need to be developed to in-
crease the accelerating rate with higher efficiency of
5. Conclusions charging.

Among several technologies, EVs would be one of the widely

used technologies in the near future due to the development Conflict of interest
of battery design and control techniques. In this paper, a
detailed discussion on all the aspects of EVs is presented The authors of this paper do not have any conflict of interest
with a focus on the design and development of batteries for with any other entities or researchers.
EVs. The paper also outlines the issues coming in the way of
operationalization of EVs at a mass level. The cost, lifespan,
safety, reliability, sustainability, usability and power or en-
ergy of the battery is of the major issue to be solved to make Acknowledgment
EVs popular. This paper attempted to highlight the most
important discoveries for designing and development of new Authors are thankful to Lithium-ion Batteries Technology Lab,
material for batteries to attain improvements. The de- Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological Univer-
velopments in new fields such as nanotechnology, recycla- sity, New Delhi for providing support to carry out this research
bility, manufacturing process, battery pack design and work.
testing may also supplement the battery design process for
EV. Due to advancements in Li-ion and NiMH battery tech- Appendix
nology, the transportation system like HEV and PHEV are

Electric vehicles

Concept History Factors affecting EV Components

Electric propulsion First vehicle Motors

system launched in 1834
Internal External

Till 1918, EV on Power electronic

Main system for
high demand driver
EV Purchase Fuel price and
price and environment
EV vanished from battery
market till 1930 cost Energy storage
Electric Energy Consumer
system
motor source characteristics
In 1976, new EVs Driving
launched range (150
miles) Charging
Power Availability of
schemes
converter In 1998, EV were charging
compulsory on Charging station
road time

In 2003, technical Level 1 (120 V) Level 3 (450 V)

comparison with fuel cell
was estimated.
Level 2 (240 V)

In 2007, micro EV was

proposed.

During last 10 years, EVs

demand goes on increasing

Fig. A1 e Summarization of EVS.

 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 357

Fig. A2 e Summarization of ESS (for EV).

Fig. A3 e Summarization of BEV (manufacturing).

358 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361

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electric vehicles using GPS-based longitudinal travel data.
various applications such as electric vehicles.
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 J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 2020; 7 (3): 340e361 361

Amrish K. Panwar completed his MS degree M.M. Tripathi received his B. Tech from
from Chaudhary Charan Singh (CCS) Univer- Madan Mohan Malviya Engineering College,
sity, India and PhD degree from Indian Insti- Gorakhpur, India and PhD from Gautam
tute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, India in 2005. Buddha Technical University, Lucknow,
After completing PhD degree, he has worked India in 1994 and 2010, respectively. He has
as a post-doctoral research associate at the worked as Engineer-SC at Institute for
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Plasma Research, Gandhinagar, India. He
Engineering, IIT Kharagpur, India. Before has also worked as Scientist-D in Depart-
joining Delhi Technological University (DTU), ment of Electronics Accreditation of Com-
He has also worked as senior lecturer in Jaypee puter Course (DOEACC), New Delhi, India.
University of Engineering and Technology Presently, he is a professor in Department of
(JUET), India. Presently, he is working as assistant professor in the Electrical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, New
Department of Applied Physics, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. His research interest includes embedded system,
New Delhi, India. His area of research includes: energy storage and electronic device design, renewable energy forecasting and
conversion devices (Liþ/Naþ batteries/supercapacitors/solar cells), manymore.
surface modification, wetting adhesion, and nanocomposites.