Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

Chapter Three
Measuring horizontal distance
3.1. Introduction

Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between two points on the surface
of the earth. Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear measurements is
required in chain surveying, traverse surveying, and other types of surveying.

In surveying the distance between two points means a horizontal distance. When slope
distances are measured in the field, these are always reduced to the equivalent horizontal
distances for preparation of map.

Horizontal distance

There are, in general, three methods of making linear measurements:

1. Direct methods
2. Optical methods
3. E.D.M. methods

In the direct methods, the distance is actually measured in the field using a tape. In
optical methods, the distance is not actually measured in the field. It is computed
indirectly (for example: stadia tachometry).

Electromagnetic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been developed since the
60ties. Two different types are available:
1) Electro optical instruments, which use light waves for measurement of
distance.
2) Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for measurement of
distance.

Approximate method

The following approximate methods are commonly used in reconnaissance surveying for
the measurement of horizontal distances. These methods are also use sometimes to detect
large mistakes in linear measurements obtained with a tape.

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

1. Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked by Counting the number of
paces made. The distance can be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by
the average length of the paces.

2. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a wheel mounted on a lower end

of rod about 1 m long through a fork. The upper end of the rod has a handle. The
wheel is pushed along the ground. The distance traversed is recorded on the dial
attached the wheel.

Measuring wheel

3. Speedometer. All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate the speed and the
distance travelled. If the ground is smooth, the speedometer can be used to
measure the distance.

Tapes
Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon the material used in their
manufacture.

1. Liner or cloth tapes.

2. Glass-fibre tapes
3. Metallic tapes
4. Steel tapes
5. Invar tapes

a) Steel tape b) Invar tape

1. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth. The tape is light
and handy but not very accurate. These tapes are available in length of 10m
20m, 25m and 30m.

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

2. Glass–fibre tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but
they are made of glass-fibre. The tapes are quite flexible, strong and non-
conductive.

3. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to liner tapes but are made of water
proof fabric or glass-fibre in which metallic wires are interwoven.

4. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in surveying.
They are more accurate than metallic tapes. The steel tapes are made of steel
or stainless steel strip.

5. Invar Tapes. Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%),
which has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. Invar tapes are used
for linear measurements of very high precision.

Taping accessories

In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and accessories are required for the
determination of the length of a line.

1. Arrows (Chain pins)

2. Pegs
3. Ranging rods
4. Plumb bobs or rod levels

1. Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the position of the ends of the
tape on the ground.
2. Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the
end points of the survey line.
3. Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long survey
line is called ranging. Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points such
that these points lie on the straight line joining the end stations. Ranging rods
are made of well-seasoned, straight-grained timber.
4. Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a
freely suspended plumb bob always points towards the gravity, it indicates the
direction of the vertical line. In linear measurements plumb bobs are used for
measuring distances on sloping ground.

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods plumb bob

Ranging out lines directly

The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line is known as ranging out
or aligning in surveying. It is necessary to establish intermediate points on a line if the
distance is greater then one tape lengths. The ranging out ensures that the straight
distance between two points is measured.

straight line
A B
line measured without aligning

The procedure is as follows:

Two ranging poles are set up vertically on the two ends of the line to be measured.

A B

The surveyor stands behind one ranging pole at a distance of about 2-3 meters. The
assistant holds another ranging rod approximately on the line at a distance not greater
than one tape lengths.
By looking left and right along the set up ranging poles the surveyor directs the assistant
to move the ranging pole towards the line. The assistant has to hold the ranging pole
vertically.

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

A
2-3m
B
C
side view

A
2-3m
B
C
top view

Having more than one ranging pole to be aligned, start always with the farther one to
have a good visibility.
Never take an intermediate point for ranging out a further intermediate point. If the first
intermediate point has been aligned incorrectly you would align the second one into a
wrong line.

A B
C
D
second incorrect intermediate first incorrect intermediate point
point aligned into line AC

After establishing all intermediate points the result of the ranging out has to be
checked. Therefore, sight left and right along the line. The ranging poles have
to appear one after the other in the right order - that means from the nearest to
the most distant one.

Taping horizontal distance over level ground

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

The simplest taping operation is measuring over level ground where the tape can be
stretched out while fully supported by the ground as shown in the figure below. Range
pole is set at each end of the line and the tape is unwound and laid out on the ground with
the zero ends forward. The front tape person then takes the zero end of the tape hands one
pin to the rear tape person, and moves forward along the line.

Taping horizontal distance over sloping ground

Consider two point A and B which are several tape lengths apart along a slope. The
horizontal distance between the two points can be measured by supporting the tape at the
two ends only, as shown in the figure below.
Assuming that the distance is to be measured downhill, the front tape person holds one
end of the tape at a comfortable height above the ground so that the straight line joining
the two ends are approximately level. Tension is applied and the position of the end of
the tape is transferred by means of a plumb bob to the ground. Where a point is set or on
a hard surface, a keel mark is mode. If accurate work is needed. The tape is stretched a
second time and the mean of the two measurements taken.

It is hardly feasible or good practice to hold the tape more than 5 ft above the ground; if
the slope is more than 5ft per tape length it is necessary to break tape, as the process is
called.

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

Correction for systematic errors in Taping

Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and tension. Change in
temperature, tension and mode of support affect the result of taping. The errors caused by
these sources behave according physical laws and can be expressed with mathematic
expressions. They are systematic errors.

1. Correction for standard

A steel tape will normally be provided with standardizing data, for example it may be
designated as 30m long under a tension of 50N at a temperature of 20 C° when laid on the
flat. With use the tape may stretch and it is imperative that the tape is regularly checked
against a reference tape kept specifically for this [Link] correction to be applied
to any measurement made with the tape in order to account for the deviation is
called the absolute correction (Ca).
Ca= true length–nominal length
The true length is the value determined by calibration under specific conditions. It
is best to understand and then memorize the following set of rules.
1. When measuring an unknown distance, if tape is too long,
add the correction; if tape is too short, subtract the
correction.
2. When laying out a given distance, if the tape is too short,
add the correction; if the tape is too long, subtract the
correction
Example: A distance is measured with a 50m steel tape and is found to be
1357.40m. Later the tape is standardized and is found to have an actual length of
49.96m. What is the correct distance measured?

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

Solution: Ca=true length–nominal length

2. Correction for tension (Pull correction)

Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extend it length is changed by variation in the
tension applied. The correction, which should be applied, is

 P  PS  L
Cp 
AE

Where P is the tension applied in the field.

Ps is the standard/ calibration tension (tape at AU: 50N=5kp)
A is the cross sectional area of the tape.
E is Young’s modulus for the tape material (N/ mm2)
L is the observed length.
Note: The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P-Ps)
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.
Example: A 29.94m distance is measured by a 30m tape weighing 0.90kg has cross-
sectional area of 0.0485 cm2. During the field measures the tape is pulled under a tension
of 45kg. The tape was standardized under a tension of 10kg and modulus of elasticity of
the tape is 2.1x106 kg/cm2. Determine the correct distance measured.
Solution: Using the above equation (correction for pull)

3. Correction for sag

A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the centre by an amount that is related to its
weight and the pull (tension). In the case of a long tape intermediate supports can be used
to reduce the magnitude of the correction.

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

The correction that is applied reduces the curved length to the chord:

w 2 L3
Cs 
24P 2

where w is the weight of the tape per unit length

L is the observed length
P is the tension applied in the field.

Note: If the tape in used on a plane surface, which can be considered, flat
then no correction is applicable.
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.

4 Correction for temperature

If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the
standardization temperature then the correction is

C t  L  t  t s 

where ; is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material

steel: 0.0000115 m/(m °C)
invar: 0.000001 m/(m °C)
t is the field temperature
ts is the standardization temperature
Note: The sign of the correction takes the sign of (t- ts).
To apply this correction a thermometer is needed.
Example: A traverse line is 152.4 m long. If the tape used in the field is 50.0m
when standardized at 170c, what correction must be applied if the temperature at
the time of measurement is 230c? (a =11.2*10-6/0c)

5. Correction for slope

In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a distance lies
along a uniform slope and when the difference in height between the two end points has
been determined it may be preferable to measure the distance directly (see also figure 1).

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

A slop
e di
stan
ce
h

horizontal distance

Fig:1

Afterwards the horizontal distance can be computed by applying the following

correction:
h 2
Cg 
2s

where: Dh is the difference in height between the end points

S is the measured slope distance

4. Correction to mean sea level

In the case of long lines the relationship between the length measured on the ground and
the equivalent length at mean sea level has to be considered.

distance (Lm)

earths surface
H

distance to msl (Lmsl)

mean sea level

)
0km
637
(R=
i us
rad

In the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H then the
correction to be applied is

H
C msl   Lm
R

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

Exercise on basic tape measurements

1. A survey line was measured with a tape, believed to be 20m long, a

length of 284.62m resulted. On checking, the tape was found to
measure 19.95m long.

a) What was the correct length of the line?

b) If the line measured is a slope distance and the difference in
height between the end points is 14.20m what would be the
reduced horizontal length used in the plotting of the survey?
c) What reading is required to produce a horizontal distance of
15.08m between two site pegs, one being 0.66m above the
other?
Solution

a) A length of 20m has been booked overall, but actually only a

length of 19.95m has been covered.

Correct length of line =

19.95  284.62
 283.91m
20

b) the correction for slope has to be applied:

14.20 2
Cg: = = 0.36m
2  283.91

The horizontal distance is therefore: 283.91-0.36 = 283.55m

c) the following reading is required:

Slope distance = 0.66 2

 15.08 2   15.09m

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Fundamental of Surveying measuring horizontal distance

Wolaita sodo university Department of civil Engineering