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01 - What controls breath rate?

Medulla oblongata controls breathing rate by the amount of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood

02 - Henry, Boyle, Dalton Laws

Henry Law - At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas that dissolves in a given type and
volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid
A slightly more exotic example of Henry's law is in the decompression and decompression sickness of
underwater divers.

Boyle Law - The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to
the volume it occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed system

P1V1 = P2V2

The equation shows that, as volume increases, the pressure of the gas decreases in proportion. Similarly,
as volume decreases, the pressure of the gas increases

Dalton Law - In chemistry and physics, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states
that the total pressure exerted by the mixture of non-reactive gases is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of individual gases.

03 - Hypoxia types and symptoms and hyperventilation.

Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply.
Hypoxia may be classified as either generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of
the body.

Types of hypoxia;

Ischaemia

It means insufficient blood flow to a tissue, can also result in hypoxia. This is called 'ischaemic hypoxia'.
This can include an embolic event, a heart attack that decreases overall blood flow, or trauma to a tissue
that results in damage. An example of insufficient blood flow causing local hypoxia is gangrene that
occurs in diabetes.

Hypoxemic Hypoxia

This refers specifically to hypoxic states where the arterial content of oxygen is insufficient. [5] This can be
caused by alterations in respiratory drive, such as in respiratory alkalosis, physiological or pathological
shunting of blood, diseases interfering in lung function resulting in a ventilation-perfusion mismatch,
such as a pulmonary embolus, or alterations in the partial pressure of oxygen in the environment or lung
alveoli, such as may occur at altitude or when diving.

Histotoxic hypoxia (also called histoxic hypoxia)

It is the inability of cells to take up or utilize oxygen from the bloodstream, despite physiologically
normal delivery of oxygen to such cells and tissues.[1] Histotoxic hypoxia results from tissue poisoning,
such as that caused by alcohol,[2] narcotics, cyanide (which acts by inhibiting cytochrome oxidase), and
certain other poisons like hydrogen sulfide (byproduct of sewage and used in leather tanning).

Hypemic Hypoxia

It is a type of hypoxia in which the lack of oxygen is caused by an inability of your blood cells to carry
oxygen. It can be caused by anemia, carbon monoxide poisoning. Hypemic means lack of blood.

04 - Solar x Galactic radiation

Galactic Radiation is more present at night since during the day solar radiation makes harder for galactic
particles penetrate the atmosphere. The amount of particles from galactic radiation that reaches the
earth are minimum and those who reach it are blocked by earth’s atmosphere the amount of particles
that actually land at earth’s surface is very low. Solar radiation thought is more dangerous because
although filtered by atmosphere the rate of particles that reach earth’s surface is way bigger.

05 - Acid x Alkaline Blood

Respiratory acidosis results from a build-up of carbon dioxide in the blood (hypercapnia) due to
hypoventilation.

06 - Oxygen Breathing at other levels.

At 18000FT the oxygen levels available are 50% lower than sea level.

07 - TUC times

Altitude in Flight level Time of Useful Consciousness Altitude in meters Altitude in feet
FL 150 30 min or more 4,572 m 15,000
FL 180 20 to 30 min 5,486 m 18,000
FL 220 5-10 min 6,705 m 22,000
FL 250 3 to 6 min 7,620 m 25,000
FL 280 2.5 to 3 mins 8,534 m 28,000
FL 300 1 to 3 mins 9,144 m 30,000
FL 350 30 sec to 60 sec 10,668 m 35,000
FL 400 15 to 20 sec 12,192 m 40,000

08 - Semicircular canals

The semicircular ducts provide sensory input for experiences of rotary movements. They are oriented
along the pitch, roll, and yaw axes.

Each canal is filled with a fluid called endolymph and contains motion sensors within the fluids. At the
base of each canal, the bony region of the canal is enlarged which opens into the utricle and has a
dilated sac at one end called the ampulla. Within the ampulla is a mound of hair cells and supporting
cells called crista ampullaris. These hair cells are composed of many cilia and embedded in a gelatinous
structure called the cupula. As the head rotates the duct moves but the endolymph lags behind. This
deflects the cupula and bends the cilia within. The bending of these cilia alters an electric signal that is
transmitted to the brain. Within approximately 25–30 seconds of constant motion, the endolymph
catches up to the movement of the duct and the cupula is no longer affected, stopping the sensation of
acceleration.
09 - Cones and Rods functions / Eye - Pupils, Cornea and lens

The human retina has approximately 6 million cones and 120 million rods

At the "center" of the retina (the point directly behind the lens) is the fovea, which contains only cone
photoreceptor cells; this is the region capable of producing the highest visual acuity. Across the rest of
the retina, rods and cones are intermingled. No photoreceptors are found at the blind spot, the area
where ganglion cell fibers are collected into the optic nerve and leave the eye.

Rods Cones
Used for scotopic vision (vision under low light Used for photopic vision (vision under high light
conditions) conditions)
Not very light sensitive; sensitive to only direct
Very light sensitive; sensitive to scattered light
light
Loss causes night blindness Loss causes legal blindness
Low visual acuity High visual acuity; better spatial resolution
Not present in fovea Concentrated in fovea
Fast response to light, can perceive more rapid
Slow response to light, stimuli added over time
changes in stimuli
Have more pigment than cones, so can detect lower Have less pigment than rods, require more light
light levels to detect images
Stacks of membrane-enclosed disks are unattached to
Disks are attached to outer membrane
cell membrane directly
About 6 million cones distributed in each
About 120 million rods distributed around the retina [10]
retina[10]
Three types of photosensitive pigment in
One type of photosensitive pigment
humans
Confer achromatic vision Confer color vision

The crystalline lens is a transparent, biconvex structure in the eye that, along with the cornea, helps to
refract light to be focused on the retina. The lens, by changing shape, functions to change the focal
distance of the eye so that it can focus on objects at various distances, thus allowing a sharp real image
of the object of interest to be formed on the retina.

The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. The
cornea, with the anterior chamber and lens, refracts light, with the cornea accounting for approximately
two-thirds of the eye's total optical power. While the cornea contributes most of the eye's focusing
power, its focus is fixed. The curvature of the lens, on the other hand, can be adjusted to "tune" the
focus depending upon the object's distance.

The pupil is a hole located in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the retina

10 - Myopia, Presbiopya, Astigmatism, Hypermetropia, Empty field myopia

Myopia is a condition of the eye where the light that comes in does not directly focus on the retina but
in front of it. This causes the image that one sees when looking at a distant object to be out of focus, but
in focus when looking at a close object.

Presbyopia is a condition where, with age, the eye exhibits a progressively diminished ability to focus on
near objects. Presbyopia’s exact mechanisms are not known with certainty; the research evidence most
strongly supports a loss of elasticity of the crystalline lens, although changes in the lens’ curvature from
continual growth and loss of power of the ciliary muscles (the muscles that bend and straighten the
lens) have also been postulated as its cause.

Astigmatism is an optical defect in which vision is blurred due to the inability of the optics of the eye to
focus a point object into a sharp focused image on the retina. This may be due to an irregular or toric
curvature of the cornea or lens. The two types of astigmatism are regular and irregular. Irregular
astigmatism is often caused by a corneal scar or scattering in the crystalline lens, and cannot be
corrected by standard spectacle lenses, but can be corrected by contact lenses.

Hyperopia or hypermetropia, commonly known is a defect of vision caused by an imperfection in the

Empty field myopia (Empty space myopia) - a condition in which the eyes, having nothing specific
within the available visual field upon which to focus, focus automatically at a range of the order of a few
metres ahead. Detection of objects outside this restricted field of view is delayed and if an object of
interest does enter the restricted field of vision, the determination of its size or range would be
problematic.

11 - Saccade

A saccade is a fast movement of an eye, head or other part of an animal's body or of a device. It can also
be a fast shift in frequency of an emitted signal or other quick change. Saccades are quick, simultaneous
movements of both eyes in the same direction. The human eye scans the surrounding so as to create a
3D mental picture.

12 - Sleep (REM non-REM)

In mammals and birds, sleep is divided into two broad types: rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid
eye movement (NREM or non-REM) sleep.

Rapid eye movement sleep, or REM sleep (also known as paradoxical sleep), [18] accounts for 20–25% of
total sleep time in most human adults. The criteria for REM sleep include rapid eye movements as well
as a rapid low-voltage EEG. During REM sleep, EEG patterns returns to higher frequency saw-tooth
waves. Most memorable dreaming occurs in this stage. At least in mammals, a descending muscular
atonia is seen. Such paralysis may be necessary to protect organisms from self-damage through
physically acting out scenes from the often-vivid dreams that occur during this stage

 NREM stage 1: This is a stage between sleep and wakefulness. The muscles are active, and the eyes
roll slowly, opening and closing moderately.
 NREM stage 2: theta activity In this stage, it gradually becomes harder to awaken the sleeper; in this
stage the alpha waves of the previous stage are interrupted by abrupt activity called sleep spindles and
K-complexes.[7]
 NREM stage 3: Formerly divided into stages 3 and 4, this stage is called slow-wave sleep (SWS). SWS is
initiated in the preoptic area and consists of delta activity, high amplitude waves at less than 3.5 Hz. The
sleeper is less responsive to the environment; many environmental stimuli no longer produce any
reactions.
Sleep proceeds in cycles of REM and NREM, usually four or five of them per night, the order normally
being N1 → N2 → N3 → N2 → REM. There is a greater amount of deep sleep (stage N3) earlier in the
night, while the proportion of REM sleep increases in the two cycles just before natural awakening.

13 - Psychosomatic problems

Anything that relates to a disorder having physical symptoms but originating from mental or emotional
causes.

14 - Causes of DCS??

Decompression sickness (DCS; also known as divers' disease, the bends or caisson disease) describes a
condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on
depressurisation.

DCS is classified by symptoms. The earliest descriptions of DCS used the terms: "bends" for joint or
skeletal pain; "chokes" for breathing problems; and "staggers" for neurological problems.

The term dysbarism encompasses decompression sickness, arterial gas embolism, and barotrauma,
whereas decompression sickness and arterial gas embolism are commonly classified together as
decompression illness when a precise diagnosis cannot be made.[6] DCS and arterial gas embolism are
treated very similarly because they are both the result of gas bubbles in the body.

15 - Eustachian Tube / The Ear

The Eustachian tube extends from the anterior wall of the middle ear to the lateral wall of the
nasopharynx, approximately at the level of the inferior nasal concha. Under normal circumstances, the
human Eustachian tube is closed, but it can open to let a small amount of air through to prevent damage
by equalizing pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere
16 - Haze effect

Haze causes issues in the area of terrestrial photography, where the penetration of large
amounts of dense atmosphere may be necessary to image distant subjects. This results in the
visual effect of a loss of contrast in the subject, due to the effect of light scattering through the
haze particles.

17 - kinaesthetic sense?

Kinesthesia is the awareness of the position and movement of the parts of the body using sensory
organs, which are known as proprioceptors, in joints and muscles.

18 - Mental Models Advantages and disadvantages

A mental model is an explanation of someone's thought process about how something works in the real
world. It is a representation of the surrounding world, the relationships between its various parts and a
person's intuitive perception about his or her own acts and their consequences. Mental models can help
shape behaviour and set an approach to solving problems (akin to a personal algorithm) and doing tasks.

19 - Selective Attention

Selective attention is purposely focusing your conscious awareness onto a specific stimulus. This means
when someone says your name from across the room, even across the room at a loud party, you quickly
and unconsciously attend to it.

20 - General Adaptation Syndrome

Physiologists define stress as how the body reacts to a stressor, real or imagined, a stimulus that causes
stress. Acute stressors affect an organism in the short term; chronic stressors over the longer term.

Alarm is the first stage, which is divided into two phases: the shock phase and the antishock phase.[51]

 Shock phase: During this phase, the body can endure changes such as hypovolemia,
hypoosmolarity, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, hypoglycemia—the stressor effect. The
organism's resistance to the stressor drops temporarily below the normal range and some level
of shock (e.g. circulatory shock) may be experienced.

 Antishock phase: When the threat or stressor is identified or realized, the body starts to
respond and is in a state of alarm. The result is: increased muscular tonus, increased blood
pressure due to peripheral vasoconstriction and tachycardia, and increased glucose in blood.

Resistance is the second stage. If the stressor persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of
coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to adapt to the strains or demands of the
environment, the body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are gradually depleted.

The third stage could be either exhaustion or recovery:

 Recovery stage follows when the system's compensation mechanisms have successfully
overcome the stressor effect .
  Exhaustion is the alternative third stage in the GAS model. At this point, all of the body's
resources are eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain normal function. The
initial autonomic nervous system symptoms may reappear (sweating, raised heart rate, etc.). If
stage three is extended, long-term damage the body's immune system becomes exhausted,
and bodily functions become impaired, resulting in decompensation.

21 - Ozone Layer

The ozone layer is a layer in Earth's atmosphere which absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiation. It
contains relatively high concentrations of ozone (O3). Ozone is transparent to most UV-A, so most of this
type of longer wavelength radiation reaches the surface and it constitutes most of the UV reaching the
Earth. This type of UV radiation is significantly less harmful to DNA, although it may still potentially
cause physical damage, indirect genetic damage, and skin cancer

22 - Tidal Volume

Tidal volume is the lung volume representing the normal volume of air displaced between normal
inspiration and expiration when extra effort is not applied. In a healthy, young adult, tidal volume is
approximately 500 ml per inspiration or 7 ml/kg of body weight

23 - Air Sickness

Airsickness is a sensation which is induced by air travel. [1] It is a specific form of motion sickness, and is
considered a normal response in healthy individuals. Airsickness occurs when the central nervous
system receives conflicting messages from the body (including the inner ear, eyes and muscles) affecting
balance and equilibrium.

24 - Illusions

The leans

This is the most common illusion during flight, and is caused by a sudden return to level flight following a
gradual and prolonged turn that went unnoticed by the pilot. The reason a pilot can be unaware of such
a gradual turn is that human exposure to a rotational acceleration of 2 degrees per second squared or
lower is below the detection threshold of the semicircular canals. Leveling the wings after such a turn
may cause an illusion that the aircraft is banking in the opposite direction. In response to such an
illusion, a pilot may lean in the direction of the original turn in a corrective attempt to regain the
perception of a level attitude.

Graveyard spin

The graveyard spin is an illusion that can occur to a pilot who enters a spin. For example, a pilot who
enters a spin to the left will initially have a sensation of spinning in the same direction. However, if the
left spin continues the pilot will have the sensation that the spin is progressively decreasing. At this
point, if the pilot applies right rudder to stop the left spin, the pilot will suddenly sense a spin in the
opposite direction (to the right).

If the pilot believes that the airplane is spinning to the right, the response will be to apply left rudder to
counteract the sensation of a right spin. However, by applying left rudder the pilot will unknowingly re-
enter the original left spin. If the pilot cross-checks the turn indicator, he would see the turn needle
indicating a left turn while he senses a right turn. This creates a sensory conflict between what the pilot
sees on the instruments and what the pilot feels. If the pilot believes the body sensations instead of
trusting the instruments, the left spin will continue. If enough altitude is lost before this illusion is
recognized and corrective action is not taken, impact with terrain will occur.
Graveyard spiral

Main article: Graveyard spiral

The graveyard spiral is more common than the graveyard spin, and it is associated with a return to level
flight following a prolonged bank turn. For example, a pilot who enters a banking turn to the left will
initially have a sensation of a turn in the same direction. If the left turn continues (for more than about
20 seconds), the pilot will experience the sensation that the airplane is no longer turning to the left. At
this point, if the pilot attempts to level the wings this action will produce a sensation that the airplane is
turning and banking in the opposite direction (to the right). If the pilot believes the illusion of a right
turn (which can be very compelling), he will re-enter the original left turn in an attempt to counteract
the sensation of a right turn.

Unfortunately, while this is happening, the airplane is still turning to the left and losing altitude. Pulling
the control yoke/stick and applying power would simply tighten the turn. If the pilot fails to recognize
the illusion and does not level the wings, the airplane will continue turning left and losing altitude until it
hits the ground (example picture).

Coriolis illusion

This involves the simultaneous stimulation of two semicircular canals and is associated with a sudden
tilting (forward or backwards) of the pilot's head while the aircraft is turning. This can occur when tilting
the head down (to look at an approach chart or to write on the knee pad), or up (to look at an overhead
instrument or switch) or sideways. This can produce an overpowering sensation that the aircraft is
rolling, pitching, and yawing all at the same time, which can be compared with the sensation of rolling
down a hillside. This illusion can make the pilot quickly become disoriented and lose control of the
aircraft.

Inversion illusion

An abrupt change from climb to straight-and-level flight can stimulate the otolith organs enough to
create the illusion of tumbling backwards, or inversion illusion. The disoriented pilot may push the
aircraft abruptly into a nose-low attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion.

Head-up illusion

The head-up illusion involves a sudden forward linear acceleration during level flight where the pilot
perceives the illusion that the nose of the aircraft is pitching up. The pilot's response to this illusion
would be to push the yoke or the stick forward to pitch the nose of the aircraft down. A night take-off
from a well-lit airport into a totally dark sky (black hole) or a catapult take-off from an aircraft carrier can
also lead to this illusion, and could result in a crash.

Head-down illusion

The head-down illusion involves a sudden linear deceleration (air braking, lowering flaps, decreasing
engine power) during level flight where the pilot perceives the illusion that the nose of the aircraft is
pitching down. The pilot's response to this illusion would be to pitch the nose of the aircraft up. If this
illusion occurs during a low-speed final approach, the pilot could stall the aircraft.

25 - Angina

Angina is pain, "discomfort," or pressure localized in the chest that is caused by an insufficient supply of
blood (ischemia) to the heart muscle. It is also sometimes characterized by a feeling of choking,
suffocation, or crushing heaviness.