Single-phase Power

Systems
Chapter 10 - Polyphase AC Circuits
PDF Version

Single phase power system schematic diagram shows little

about the wiring of a practical power circuit.
 
Depicted above, is a very simple AC circuit. If the load
resistor’s power dissipation were substantial, we might call
this a “power circuit” or “power system” instead of
regarding it as just a regular circuit.
The distinction between a “power circuit” and a “regular
circuit” may seem arbitrary, but the practical concerns are
definitely not.
Practical Circuit Analysis
One such concern is the size and cost of wiring necessary
to deliver power from the AC source to the load. Normally,
we do not give much thought to this type of concern if
we’re merely analyzing a circuit for the sake of learning
about the laws of electricity.
However, in the real world, it can be a major concern. If we
give the source in the above circuit a voltage value and also
give power dissipation values to the two load resistors, we
can determine the wiring needs for this particular circuit:
 

As a practical matter, the wiring for the 20 kW loads at

120 Vac is rather substantial (167 A).
 
 
83.33 amps for each load resistor in the figure above adds
up to 166.66 amps total circuit current. This is no small
amount of current and would necessitate copper wire
conductors of at least 1/0 gage.
Such wire is well over 1/4 inch (6 mm) in diameter,
weighing over 300 pounds per thousand feet. Bear in mind
that copper is not cheap either! It would be in our best
interest to find ways to minimize such costs if we were
designing a power system with long conductor lengths.
One way to do this would be to increase the voltage of the
power source and use loads built to dissipate 10 kW each at
this higher voltage.
The loads, of course, would have to have greater resistance
values to dissipate the same power as before (10 kW each)
at a greater voltage than before.
The advantage would be less current required, permitting
the use of smaller, lighter, and cheaper wire:
 

Same 10 kW loads at 240 Vac requires less substantial

wiring than at 120 Vac (83 A).
 
 
Now our total circuit current is 83.33 amps, half of what it
was before.
We can now use number 4 gauge wire, which weighs less
than half of what 1/0 gauge wire does per unit length. This
is a considerable reduction in system cost with no
degradation in performance.
This is why power distribution system designers elect to
transmit electric power using very high voltages (many
thousands of volts): to capitalize on the savings realized by
the use of smaller, lighter, cheaper wire.
Dangers of Increasing the Source
Voltage
However, this solution is not without disadvantages.
Another practical concern with power circuits is the danger
of electric shock from high voltages.
Again, this is not usually the sort of thing we concentrate
on while learning about the laws of electricity, but it is a
very valid concern in the real world, especially when large
amounts of power are being dealt with.
The gain in efficiency realized by stepping up the circuit
voltage presents us with an increased danger of electric
shock. Power distribution companies tackle this problem by
stringing their power lines along high poles or towers and
insulating the lines from the supporting structures with
large, porcelain insulators.
At the point of use (the electric power customer), there is
still the issue of what voltage to use for powering loads.
High voltage gives greater system efficiency by means of
reduced conductor current, but it might not always be
practical to keep power wiring out of reach at the point of
use the way it can be elevated out of reach in distribution
systems.
This tradeoff between efficiency and danger is one that
European power system designers have decided to risk, all
their households and appliances operating at a nominal
voltage of 240 volts instead of 120 volts as it is in North
America.
That is why tourists from America visiting Europe must
carry small step-down transformers for their portable
appliances, to step the 240 VAC (volts AC) power down to
a more suitable 120 VAC.
Solutions for Voltage Delivery to
Consumers
Step-down Transformers at End-point
of Power use
Is there any way to realize the advantages of both increased
efficiency and reduced safety hazard at the same time?
One solution would be to install step-down transformers at
the end-point of power use, just as the American tourist
must do while in Europe.
However, this would be expensive and inconvenient for
anything but very small loads (where the transformers can
be built cheaply) or very large loads (where the expense of
thick copper wires would exceed the expense of a
transformer).
Two Lower voltage Loads in Series
An alternative solution would be to use a higher voltage
supply to provide power to two lower voltage loads in
series. This approach combines the efficiency of a high-
voltage system with the safety of a low-voltage system:
 
 Series connected 120 Vac loads, driven by 240 Vac source
at 83.3 A total current.
 
Notice the polarity markings (+ and -) for each voltage
shown, as well as the unidirectional arrows for current.
For the most part, I’ve avoided labeling “polarities” in the
AC circuits we’ve been analyzing, even though the notation
is valid to provide a frame of reference for phase.
In later sections of this chapter, phase relationships will
become very important, so I’m introducing this notation
early on in the chapter for your familiarity.
The current through each load is the same as it was in the
simple 120-volt circuit, but the currents are not additive
because the loads are in series rather than parallel.
The voltage across each load is only 120 volts, not 240, so
the safety factor is better. Mind you, we still have a full 240
volts across the power system wires, but each load is
operating at a reduced voltage.
If anyone is going to get shocked, the odds are that it will
be from coming into contact with the conductors of a
particular load rather than from contact across the main
wires of a power system.
Modifications to Two Load Series
Design
There’s only one disadvantage to this design: the
consequences of one load failing open, or being turned off
(assuming each load has a series on/off switch to interrupt
current) are not good.
Being a series circuit, if either load were to open, the
current would stop in the other load as well. For this
reason, we need to modify the design a bit: (Figure below)
 

Addition of a neutral conductor allows loads to be

individually driven.
 
 
Split-phase Power System
Instead of a single 240-volt power supply, we use two 120
volt supplies (in phase with each other!) in series to
produce 240 volts, then run a third wire to the connection
point between the loads to handle the eventuality of one
load opening.
This is called a split-phase power system. Three smaller
wires are still cheaper than the two wires needed with the
simple parallel design, so we’re still ahead on efficiency.
The astute observer will note that the neutral wire only has
to carry the difference of current between the two loads
back to the source.
In the above case, with perfectly “balanced” loads
consuming equal amounts of power, the neutral wire carries
zero current.
Notice how the neutral wire is connected to earth ground at
the power supply end. This is a common feature in power
systems containing “neutral” wires, since grounding the
neutral wire ensures the least possible voltage at any given
time between any “hot” wire and earth ground.
An essential component of a split-phase power system is
the dual AC voltage source. Fortunately, designing and
building one is not difficult.
Since most AC systems receive their power from a step-
down transformer anyway (stepping voltage down from
high distribution levels to a user-level voltage like 120 or
240), that transformer can be built with a center-tapped
secondary winding: 
 

American 120/240 Vac power is derived from a center

tapped utility transformer.
 
If the AC power comes directly from a generator
(alternator), the coils can be similarly center-tapped for the
same effect. The extra expense to include a center-tap
connection in a transformer or alternator winding is
minimal.
Here is where the (+) and (-) polarity markings really
become important. This notation is often used to reference
the phasings of multiple AC voltage sources, so it is clear
whether they are aiding (“boosting”) each other or
opposing (“bucking”) each other.
If not for these polarity markings, phase relations between
multiple AC sources might be very confusing. Note that the
split-phase sources in the schematic (each one 120 volts ∠
0°), with polarity marks (+) to (-) just like series-aiding
batteries can alternatively be represented as such: (Figure
below)
 

Split phase 120/240 Vac source is equivalent to two series

aiding 120 Vac sources.
 
To mathematically calculate voltage between “hot” wires,
we must subtract voltages, because their polarity marks
show them to be opposed to each other:
 
 
If we mark the two sources’ common connection point (the
neutral wire) with the same polarity mark (-), we must
express their relative phase shifts as being 180° apart.
Otherwise, we’d be denoting two voltage sources in direct
opposition with each other, which would give 0 volts
between the two “hot” conductors.
Why am I taking the time to elaborate on polarity marks
and phase angles? It will make more sense in the next
section!
Power systems in American households and light industry
are most often of the split-phase variety, providing so-
called 120/240 VAC power. The term “split-phase” merely
refers to the split-voltage supply in such a system.
In a more general sense, this kind of AC power supply is
called single phase because both voltage waveforms are in
phase, or in step, with each other.
The term “single phase” is a counterpoint to another kind of
power system called “polyphase” which we are about to
investigate in detail. Apologies for the long introduction
leading up to the title-topic of this chapter.
The advantages of polyphase power systems are more
obvious if one first has a good understanding of single-
phase systems.
 
REVIEW:
• Single phase power systems are defined by having an AC
source with only one voltage waveform.
• A split-phase power system is one with multiple (in-
phase) AC voltage sources connected in series,
delivering power to loads at more than one voltage,
with more than two wires. They are used primarily to
achieve a balance between system efficiency (low
conductor currents) and safety (low load voltages).
• Split-phase AC sources can be easily created by center-
tapping the coil windings of transformers or
alternators.
RELATED WORKSHEETS: