Geography Notes
MAP SKILLS
How to draw a sketch from a map
1. Using a ruler and pencil draw a frame, and include the scale of both sides (points on actual
map
2. Lightly draw grid lines
3. Draw features relevant to question
4. Add appropriate labels and annotations
How to interpret aerial, oblique or satellite photographs
Aerial
Satellite: image can show patterns on large scale, taken from space.
Ordnance Survey (OS) Maps
Feature What to look for?
Tourist information Symbols in blue
Fields Usually white areas
Urban areas Brown/beige shadings
Roads Motorways – blue
A roads –Green(major routes) and red (main roads)
Secondary roads (B) roads – yellow/orange
Small side roads – yellow
Spot heights Number next to a dot. Show height of the land
Triangular pillar Number next to a symbol also shows height at that point.
Cross sections
Site: land which a settlement is built on
Situation: This is where the settlement is located in relation to other physical and human features in
the area.
Shape: This is the form that the settlement takes. This can be dispersed, linear or nucleated.
CHAPTER 1 (Geographical skills)
Patterns of human and physical features
The human and physical features include patterns of vegetation (e.g. woodland), the land use (e.g.
urban or rural) and communication networks (e.g. roads or railways).
1. Begin with a general statement, e.g. the woodland is located in the south-east.
2. Then go to greater details such as ‘the settlement us along the lines of communication at the
bottom of a steep slope.’ This example is both physical and human feature.
3. Then include example from the map, like the name of the road and height of the land.
CHAPTER 2( challenges for the planet)
Why has the world’s climate changed since the last ice age?
Long term climate change can be either:
EXTERNAL: e.g. from space
INTERNAL: e.g. from ocean, land or atmosphere.
External Factors
Solar output: This energy comes from the sun, it changes over time. Measurements made in
1980s shows that 0.1% of solar energy reaching earth has decreased. If this trend continued
for 100 years, could influence global climate.
Activity of sunspots affects solar outputs. E.g. drastically reduced sunspot activity in 1645-
1715 might have caused little ice age.
Orbital geometry :
1. Shape of the orbit around the sun varies from circular (making it warmer) to elliptical
(making it colder). Goes from circular to elliptical to circular every 95,000years.
2. The tilt of the earth’s axis varies over time from 21.5®and 24.5®. Happens over
41,000year time span.
Internal Factors
Volcanic activity: Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of sulphur dioxide and ash into
the atmosphere. These reduce amount of solar (radiation) energy reaching the earth’s
surface.
e.g. 1815 Mount Tambora erupted, following year unusually cold over most of the world +
Europe having heavy snowfall and frost over summer. 1816 became known as ‘the year
without summer’.
Surface reflection: During colder periods, snow and ice will cause the temperature to drop
due to the sunlight reflecting back to space. If the planet warms up the snow and ice will
reduce causing earth to get warmer.
Change in atmospheric gas: clear relationship between c02 in the atmosphere and
temperature variations.C02 most important gas responsible for greenhouse gas. The
greenhouse effect keeps heat within the earth’s atmosphere by absorbing long wave
radiation. Without greenhouse gas the global temperature would be -18 that the present
15.
Tectonic Activity: Movements caused by the plate tectonic affects global pattern of
atmospheric and ocean circulation, changing shape of the earth’s surface causes winds and
ocean currents to change. This process is to slow to have much effect.
The cause of current climate change on a local and global scale
Current climate change is due to burning of fossil fuels and increase of methane in atmosphere.
Fossil fuels are fuels produced from coal, natural gas and coal. Burning these produce co2 which is a
greenhouse gas.
Methane is also a greenhouse gas. Methane comes from:
Wetlands including marshes and swamps
Growing of rice
The bowels of animals
Burning vegetation
Level of methane has been rising by 1.5% each year for the past decade due to:
Increase in mining of fossil fuels
Rising temperature, increase bacteria emission from wetlands
Increase in rice due to an increase in population rice producing countries
Negative effects of climate change
Global scale:
Changing patterns of crop yields: countries closer to the equator are likely to suffer as most
yield crops will decrease. In Mozambique and Tanzania they have longer droughts and
shorter growing periods.
Rising sea levels: Research published in 2007 showed that between 1993 and 2006 sea levels
rose 3.3mm a year. At the end of the century it will rise by 88cm threatening large areas of
low lying coastal lands, e.g. London, New York and Tokyo.
Islands on the Pacific Ocean are being affected, and 2 of the Kiribati islands are now covered
by water.
Retreating glaciers: most of the world’s glaciers are melting, due to the increase in
temperature.90% of glaciers melting in Antarctica. This could affect ocean water movement.
