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7 April,2021
Assignment No;02

Spermatogenesis
o Defination

o Steps

 Step 1: Spermatocytogenesis
 Step 2: Spermatidogenesis
 Step 3: Spermiogenesis

o Physiology of Spermatogenesis

o Regulation Of Spermatogenesis

o Disturbances of Spermatogenesis

o References
 “Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid spermatozoa develop

from germ cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. This process starts

with the mitotic division of the stem cells located close to the basement

membrane of the tubules. These cells are called spermatogonial stem cells.”

Spermatogenesis, the origin and development of the sperm cells within the

male reproductive organs, the testes. The testes are composed of numerous thin

tightly coiled tubules known as the seminiferous tubules; the sperm cells are

produced within the walls of the tubules. Within the walls of the tubules, also, are

many randomly scattered cells, called Sertoli cells, that function to support and

nourish the immature sperm cells by giving them nutrients and blood products. As

the young germ cells grow, the Sertoli cells help to transport them from the outer

surface of the seminiferous tubule to the central channel of the tubule.

Sperm cells are continually being produced by the testes, but not all areas of the

seminiferous tubules produce sperm cells at the same time. One immature

germ cell takes as long as 74 days to reach final maturation, and during this

growth process there are intermittent resting phases.

The immature cells

(called spermatogonia) are all derived

from cells called stem cells in the outer

wall of the seminiferous tubules. The stem

cells are composed almost entirely of

nuclear material. (The nucleus of the cell is the portion containing the

chromosomes.)

The stem cells begin their process by multiplying in the process of cell

duplication known as mitosis. Half of the new cells from this initial crop go on to

become the future sperm cells, and the other half remain as stem cells so that there

is a constant source of additional germ cells.

Spermatogonia destined to develop into mature sperm cells are known as

primary sperm cells.

These move from the outer portion of the seminiferous tubule to a more central

location and attach themselves around the Sertoli cells. The primary sperm cells

then develop somewhat by increasing the amount of cytoplasm (substances

outside of the nucleus) and structures called organelles within the cytoplasm.

After a resting phase the primary cells divide into a form called a secondary

sperm cell. During this cell division there is a splitting of the nuclear material. In

the nucleus of the primary sperm cells there are 46 chromosomes; in each of the

secondary sperm cells there are only 23 chromosomes, as there are in the egg.
When the egg and sperm combine and their chromosomes unite, the

characteristics of both individuals blend and the new organism starts to grow.

Step 1: Spermatocytogenesis

Spermatocytogenesis: Diagram of the steps of spermatocytogenesis, including

type Ad spermatogonium, type Ap Spermatogonium, type B spermatogonium,
primary spermatocyte, and secondary spermatocyte.
Mitotic division of a diploid spermatogonium that resides in the basal
compartment of the seminiferous tubules, resulting in two diploid intermediate
cells called primary spermatocytes.

Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the
seminiferous tubules, duplicates its DNA, and subsequently undergoes meiosis I
to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes.

Secondary spermatocytes later divide into haploid spermatids. During this

division, random inclusion of either parental chromosome and chromosomal
crossover both increase the genetic variability of the gamete.

Each cell division from a spermatogonium to a spermatid is incomplete; the cells

remain connected to one another by bridges of cytoplasm to allow synchronous
development. Not all spermatogonia divide to produce spermatocytes; otherwise,
the supply would run out. Instead, certain types of spermatogonia divide to
produce copies of themselves, thereby ensuring a constant supply of gametogonia
to fuel spermatogenesis.

oStep 2: Spermatidogenesis
The creation of spermatids from secondary spermatocytes. Secondary
spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly enter meiosis II and divide to produce
haploid spermatids. The brevity of this stage means that secondary spermatocytes
are rarely seen in histological preparations.

oStep 3: Spermiogenesis
At this stage, each spermatid begins to grow a tail and develop a thickened
midpiece where the mitochondria gather and form an axoneme. Spermatid DNA
also undergoes packaging, becoming highly condensed. The DNA is packaged
with specific nuclear basic proteins, which are subsequently replaced with
protamines during spermatid elongation.

The resultant tightly packed chromatin is transcriptionally inactive. The Golgi

apparatus surrounds the now condensed nucleus, becoming the acrosome. One of
the centrioles of the cell elongates to become the tail of the sperm.

The non-motile spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in testicular fluid

secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid of peristaltic contraction.

While in the epididymis, the spermatozoa gain motility and become capable of
fertilization. However, transport of the mature spermatozoa through the remainder
of the male reproductive system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than the
spermatozoon’s recently acquired motility.
Physiology of
Spermatogenesis

Seminiferous Tubule: Micrograph showing seminiferous tubule with maturing

sperm.

Maturation takes place under the influence of testosterone, which removes the
remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and organelles. The excess cytoplasm, known
as residual bodies, is phagocytosed by surrounding Sertoli cells in the testes.

The resulting spermatozoa are now mature but lack motility, rendering them
sterile. The mature spermatozoa are released from the protective Sertoli cells into
the lumen of the seminiferous tubule in a process called spermiation.

Spermatogenesis is highly sensitive to fluctuations in the environment,

particularly hormones and temperature. Seminiferous epithelium is sensitive to
elevated temperature in humans and is adversely affected by temperatures as high
as normal body temperature.
 Consequently, the testes are located outside the body in a sack of skin called the
scrotum. The optimal temperature is maintained at 2 °C below body temperature
in human males.

This is achieved by regulation of blood flow and positioning towards and away
from the heat of the body by the cremaster muscle and the dartos smooth muscle
in the scrotum. Dietary deficiencies (such as vitamins B, E, and A), anabolic
steroids, metals (cadmium and lead), x-ray exposure, dioxin, alcohol, and
infectious diseases will also adversely affect the rate of spermatogenesis.

Both intrinsic and extrinsic regulations influence spermatogenic process.

Intrinsic Regulation Testosterone, neurotransmitters (neuroendocrine

substances), and growth factors are secreted by Leydig cells to neighboring

Leydig cells, blood vessels, the lamina propria of the seminiferous tubules and
Sertoli cells Leydig cells help maintain the nutrition of the Sertoli cells, and the

cells of the peritubular tissue influence the contractility of myofibroblasts and

regulate the peristaltic movements of seminiferous tubules and transportation of

the spermatozoa. Leydig cells also help regulate blood flow in the intertubular

microvasculature .

Sertoli cells deliver different growth factors, and various germ cells participate

in the development and regulation of germ cells. These factors represent an

independent intratesticular regulation of spermatogenesis.

Extrinsic Influences The hypothalamus and hypophysis control local

regulation of spermatogenesis by pulsatile secretion of GnRH and release of LH.

Leydig cells produce testosterone, which influences spermatogenesis and

provides feedback to the hypophysis, which regulates the secretory activity of

Leydig cells. FSH action on the Sertoli cells is necessary for maturation of the

germ cells. Both FSH and LH are necessary for complete spermatogenesis.

Testicular function is determined by interaction between the endocrine and

paracrine mechanisms . Sertoli cells secrete inhibin, which functions in the

feedback mechanism directed to the hypophysis. Thus, both growth and

differentiation of testicular germ cells involve a seriesof complex interactions

between somatic and germinal elements

Disturbances in both proliferation and differentiation of the male germ cells

and the intratesticular and extratesticular mechanisms regulating spermatogenesis

can occur as a result of environmental influences or as a result of diseases that

directly or indirectly affect spermatogenesis . In addition, nutrition, therapeutic

drugs, hormones and their metabolites, increased scrotal temperature, toxic

substances, and radiation can reduce or completely inhibit spermatogenesis.

References

 [Link]

%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/26%3A_The_Reproducti

ve_System/26.4%3A_Physiology_of_the_Male_Reproductive_System/2

6.4C%3A_Spermatogenesis

 [Link]
 [Link]

ions/61_Sharma_and_Agarwal_Spermiogenesis_-_an_overview.pdf