NAME Aneela Aftab

Semester second

Subject fiber science

Submitted to Sir Muhammad Qasim

 1. ATOM:
The smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist.

Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are extremely small,
typically around 100 picometers across.

Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is
made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons. Only the most common variety of hydrogen has
no neutrons. More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive electric
charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the
number of protons and electrons are equal, then the atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or
fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively – such atoms
are called ions

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2. MOLECULE:
a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound
that can take part in a chemical reaction.

Molecules as components of matter are common. They also make up most of the oceans and atmosphere.
Most organic substances are molecules. The substances of life are molecules, e.g. proteins, the amino
acids they are made of, the nucleic acids (DNA & RNA), sugars, carbohydrates, fats, and vitamins. The
nutrient minerals ordinarily are not molecules, e.g. iron sulfate.
However, the majority of familiar solid substances on Earth are not made of molecules. These include all
of the minerals that make up the substance of the Earth, soil, dirt, sand, clay, pebbles, rocks,
boulders, bedrock, the molten interior, and the core of the Earth. All of these contain many chemical
bonds, but are not made of identifiable molecules

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3. ELEMENTS:
In chemistry and physics, an element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler components
by any non-nuclear chemical reaction

 an element is a pure substance which cannot be broken down by chemical means, consisting
of atoms which have identical numbers of protons in their atomic nuclei. The number of protons in the
nucleus is the defining property of an element, and is referred to as the atomic number (represented by the
symbol Z). Chemical elements constitute all of the baryonic matter of the universe.

In total, 118 elements have been identified. The first 94 occur naturally on Earth, and the remaining 24
are synthetic elements produced in nuclear reactions. Save for unstable radioactive elements
(radionuclides) which decay quickly, nearly all of the elements are available industrially in varying
amounts.

When different elements are combined, they may produce a chemical reaction and form
into compounds due to chemical bonds holding the constituent atoms together. Only a minority of
elements are found uncombined as relatively pure native element minerals. Nearly all other naturally-
occurring elements appear as compounds or mixtures; for example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture
of the elements nitrogen, oxygen, and argon
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4. Atomic number:
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which is characteristic of a chemical element and
determines its place in the periodic table.

OR

Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

5. Atomic mass:
The atomic mass is a weighted average of all of the isotopes of that element, in which the mass of each
isotope is multiplied by the abundance of that particular isotope. (Atomic mass is also referred to
as atomic weight, but the term "mass" is more accurate.)
OR

Atomic mass is the exact mass of one atom of an element.

6. Electron configuration:
Electron configuration is the arrangement of electrons in orbitals.
 7. Electron affinity:
The electron affinity of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of energy released when an electron
is attached to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a negative ion.

OR

 Electron affinity is the ability of an atom to accept an electron. Unlike electronegativity, electron affinity
is a quantitative measurement of the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a neutral gas
atom. The more negative the electron affinity value, the higher an atom's affinity for electrons.

 Electron affinity increases from left to right within a period. This is caused by the decrease in
atomic radius.
 Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom within a group. This is caused by the increase in
atomic radius.
 8. ELECTRONEGETIVITY:

The ability of an element to attract the electron pair toward itself.

 Electronegativity increases as you move across the periodic table from left to right.

 Electronegativity decreases as you move down the periodic table.

9. Shielding effect:
Electrons in an atom can shield each other from the pull of the nucleus. This effect, called
the shielding effect, describes the decrease in attraction between an electron and the nucleus in
any atom with more than one electron shell.

Increases from left to right. This is due to valence shell stability.

Shielding effect increases down the group.

[Link] FORCES:
Interamolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule.

Usaully its more stronger than intermolecular forces.

Require high energy for bond breakage than intermolecular forces.

  usually there are three type of bonding in intramolculer forces:

1. Ionic bond.

2. Covalent bond.

3. Metallic bonding.

[Link] bonding:
Ionic bonding is the one type of Interamolecular bonding.

This bond is formed by the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms.

It is a type of chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions.

In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas the
nonmetal accepts those electrons to become a negatively charged anion.

[Link] bond:
the kind or type of Interamolecular forces between atoms.
This bond is formed between atoms that have similar electronegativities—the affinity or desire
for electrons.

Because both atoms have similar affinity for electrons and neither has a tendency to donate
them.

They share electrons in order to achieve octet configuration and become more stable.

Its further divide into three types:

a. Single covalent bond.

b. double covalent bond.

c. triple covalent bond.

Single covalent bond.

A bond which is formed by sharing of one electron pair.

e.g. H-H,

Double covalent bond:

A bond which is formed by sharing of two electron pairs.

E.g. O=O, CH2.

Triple covalent bond.

A bond which is formed by sharing of three electrons pair.

E.g. N2.

[Link] bond:
The type of Interamolecular forces.

This type of covalent bonding specifically occurs between atoms of metals, in which the valence
electrons are free to move through the lattice.

This bond is formed via the attraction of the mobile electrons

referred to as sea of electrons

and the fixed positively charged metal ions.

Metallic bonds are present in samples of pure elemental metals, such as gold or aluminum, or
alloys, like brass or bronze.

[Link]-ordinate covalent bond:

Co-ordinate bond is a type of alternate covalent bond that is formed by sharing of electron pair
from a single atom. Both shared electrons are donated by the same atom. It is also called dative
bond or dipolar bond.

Co-ordinate covalent bonds are usually formed in reactions that involve two non-metals such as a
hydrogen atom or during bond formation between metals ions and ligands.

EXAMPLES:

Formation Of Ammonium Ion

The nitrogen atom in Ammonia donates its electron pair to the empty orbital of H + ion thus nitrogen is
donor, H+ is acceptor and a co-ordinate bond is formed

Formation Of Hydronium Ion

An oxygen atom in water donates its one pair of electrons to the vacant orbital of H + ion thus a dative
bond is formed oxygen atom is donor atom and H+ acceptor atom
 [Link] structure:
Crystal structure is described in terms of the geometry of arrangement of particles in the unit
cell.

The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit having the full symmetry of the crystal
structure

[Link] structure:
In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a
solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.

They do not have regular arrangement of particles, therefore do not have well defined particles.
TABLE NO 1:

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TABLE NO 2:
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[Link] force:
 Intermolecular forces, often abbreviated to IMF, are the attractive and repulsive forces that arise
between the molecules of a substance. These forces mediate the interactions between individual
molecules of a substance.
Intermolecular forces are responsible for most of the physical and chemical properties of matter.

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forces

Types of intermolecular forces:

1. Dipole –dipole force.

 2. Hydrogen bonding.
3. Dipole induced dipole interaction.
4. London dispersion interaction.
[Link] –dipole force:
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between the positive end of one polar molecule and the
negative end of another polar molecule. Dipole-dipole forces have strengths that range from 5 kJ
to 20 kJ per mole. ... The partially positive end of a polar molecule is attracted to the partially
negative end of another.

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[Link] bonding:
a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton
in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.
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[Link] induced dipole interaction:

A dipole-induced dipole attraction is a weak attraction that results when a polar
molecule induces a dipole in an atom or in a nonpolar molecule by disturbing the arrangement of
electrons in the nonpolar species.

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[Link] dispersion interaction:

The London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in two
adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles. This force is
sometimes called an induced dipole-induced dipole attraction.
 22. Groups: In chemistry, a group (also known as a family[1]) is a column of elements in
the periodic table of the chemical elements. There are 18 numbered groups in the periodic
table; the f-block columns (between groups 3 and 4) are not numbered. 

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 23. Periods: A period in the periodic table is a row of chemical elements. All elements in a
row have the same number of electron shells. Each next element in a period has one
more proton and is less metallic than its predecessor. Arranged this way, groups of
elements in the same column have similar chemical and physical properties, reflecting
the periodic law.

There are currently seven complete periods in the periodic table, comprising the 118 known
elements. Any new elements will be placed into an eighth period.

In the periodic table of the elements, each numbered row is a period.

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[Link]:
In chemistry, the valence or Valency of an element is a measure of its combining capacity with
other atoms when it forms chemical compounds or molecules.

Concept of Valency
Noble gases have a completely filled outermost shell and that’s why they are least reactive. Other
element’s reactivity depends upon their ability to attain the noble gas configuration. In this
section,
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If the outermost shell has 8 electrons then the element is said to have a complete octet. By
gaining, sharing and losing the electrons the atoms complete their outermost orbital and make an
octet.
The capacity of an atom is described by the total number of electrons lost, gained or shared to
complete its octet and it also determines the Valency of the atom.

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a solid material which is typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good
electrical and thermal conductivity (e.g. iron, gold, silver, and aluminum, and alloys such as
steel).
OR
A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous
appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typically malleable or
ductile
OR
Any of a class of substances characterized by high electrical and thermal conductivity as well as
by malleability, ductility, and high reflectivity of light.
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Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively simple crystal
structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree of symmetry. Typically,
the atoms of metals contain less than half the full complement of electrons in their outermost
shell. Because of this characteristic, metals tend not to form compounds with each other. They
do, however, combine more readily with nonmetals (e.g., oxygen and sulfur)

26. NON METALS: In chemistry, a nonmetal is a chemical element that mostly lacks the
characteristics of a metal. Physically, a nonmetal tends to have a relatively low melting
point, boiling point, and density. A nonmetal is typically brittle when solid and usually
has poor thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity.
OR
Non-metals are the elements which form negative ions by accepting or gaining electrons.
Non-metals usually have 4, 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outermost shell.

 Examples of non-metals
Hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, carbon, nitrogen, arsenic, phosphorus, selenium are examples of non-
metal.

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REFERENCE:
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%20are%20attractive,to%2020%20kJ%20per%20mole.&text=The%20partially%20positive
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