MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE 4

I. TOPIC: STATISTICS (FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION, RELATIVE FREQUENCY)

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

1. Make a frequency table for a set of data

2. Create a frequency distribution for a data set
3. Understand the relative frequency distribution table

III. INTRODUCTION:

Statistics (in the singular sense) is a scientific discipline that deals with the methods and theories
in the manipulation of numerical data. It leads to the analysis and interpretation of the data set so
one can make a sound decision and thorough inferences.

Statistics (in the plural sense) are numerical data. Some examples are revenues, allowed kilograms
for check in luggage, stipend, tuition fee, ID number, military ranks, etc.

IV. DISCUSSION:

DATA MANAGEMENT
Data Management deals with the collection, organization and presentation of the numerical data
or (statistics) in a presentable and usable manner.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION (UNGROUP)

A frequency distribution is a statistical table that summarizes a set of numerical data in a
comprehensive manner.

Steps in Creating a Frequency Distribution:

1. Create an array from the numerical data, that is, arrange the scores in an ascending (or
descending) order.
2. Count the number of times each score/variable appeared.
3. Employ a two-column table, first column contains the scores/variables, second column has
number of times each it appeared.
4. Label the first column by using the variable’s name.
5. Label the second column frequency. Frequency is the number of times each score appears.

Example:
The following are the responses of fifteen students when interviewed on the number of times they
open their chatroom in a day. Create a frequency distribution table.

Students A B C D E F G H I
# of Times 22 23 13 11 25 11 23 17 22

Following the steps, below is the Frequency Distribution Table:

# of Times FREQUENCY
11 2
13 1
17 1
22 2
23 2
25 1
RELATIVE FREQUENCY
A relative frequency (rf) is the percentage of items per category.
𝑟𝑟 = ! × 100%
"
where
• 𝑟 is the frequency per category,
• 𝑟 is the total number of frequency

# of Times FREQUENCY RELATIVE FREQUENCY

RF IN %
11 2 22.22
13 1 11.11
17 1 11.11
22 2 22.22
23 2 22.22
25 1 11.11
N=9 99.99% - 100%

STEPS ON HOW TO CREATE A GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

1. Determine the range. Range (𝑟) is the difference between the maximum and the minimum
scores.
2. Decide on the desired number of class intervals (x). It is arbitrarily chosen between 5 to 20.
Evade class intervals with no entries as well as numerous class intervals with a handful of entries
per category. Notice that the desired number of class intervals may or may not be attainable. There
is no hard rule.
3. Solve for the class width (𝑟). Class width is the quotient between the range and the desired
number of class intervals. Round off the class with to an integer if the given data set are integers.
On the other hand, if the given data set has a decimal number, round off 𝑟 to one decimal number.
If it contains 2 decimal numbers, round off 𝑟 to two decimal places, and so on.
4. Create the first lower limit. The first lower limit may be less than or equal to the minimum
score. It can also be a number divisible by the size width (𝑟). The choice is on the researcher.
5. To get the next lower limit, add the class width to the prior lower limit. Continue the process
until the maximum score will belong to the last class interval.
6. To get the first upper limit, subtract one unit from the second lower limit. Similarly, continue
the process until the last upper limit. Or, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ
− 1, if the scores are integers. 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ − 0.1, if
scores have 1 decimal place. And so on..
7. When a data set has extremely small or large scores, it is advised to do open-ended class
intervals. This avoids class intervals with no entries.
8. Find the class boundaries (𝑟𝑟) or also called the true limits. If the scores are integers, subtract
0.5 unit from the lower limits and add 0.5 units from the upper limits. If scores have one decimal
place, subtract 0.05 from the lower limit and add 0.05 to the upper limit. And so on. The
boundaries are also half-way between the upper limit of one class and the lower limit of the next
class.
9. Tally the scores falling within a class interval. The total tally in each group is called the
frequency (𝑟).
10. Find the class mark (𝑟𝑟) or the midpoint of each class interval. It is the average of the
limits in a class interval.
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍,𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
𝑟𝑟 = 𝒍
11. Find the relative frequency if needed. These are the percentages of cases in each group.
12. Determine the less than cumulative frequency (𝑟. 𝑟. )𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟. The first c.f. is the
same as the first frequency. To get the second, add the next f to the preceding c.f. and so on
until the last c.f. is the total number of scores.
Example:
Listed below are the weights in kilograms of 60 male and female students of the 1st year Computer
Science students. Construct a frequency table with eight (8) class intervals.

46 57 59 64 56 50 70 62 68 79 63 54
60 51 58 37 68 35 50 74 39 75 67 69
40 52 65 45 59 70 73 84 54 42 44 63
40 63 64 45 70 41 56 49 64 76 80 78
58 54 65 62 55 55 52 81 83 84 85 53

Following the steps

1. 𝑟 = max − min = 85 − 35 = 50

2. Desired number of class interval (dci): 𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 8 (Note that dci is arbitrarily chosen.)

0 45
3. Class size (or class width): 𝑟 = 123 = = 6.25, 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 7. Since the data set are
6
whole numbers, the class size should be a whole number as well.

GROUPED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE:

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟. 𝑟. 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 (%) < 𝑟. 𝑟.
𝑟𝑟 − 6 34.5 − 41.5 38 10 6
𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 − 5 41.5 − 48.5 45 8.33 11
𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 − 12 48.5 − 55.5 52 20 23
𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 − 10 55.5 − 62.5 59 16.67 33
𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 − 12 62.5 − 69.5 66 20 45
𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 − 7 69.5 − 76.5 73 11.67 52
𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 − 5 76.5 − 83.5 80 8.33 57
𝑟𝑟
𝑟𝑟 − 3 83.5 − 90.5 87 5 60
𝑟𝑟
𝑟=𝑟 𝑟 = 60 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
= 100%

SUMMARY MEASURES:

V. SUMMARY
Statistics (in the singular sense) is a scientific discipline that deals with the methods and theories
in the manipulation of numerical data. It leads to the analysis and interpretation of the data set so
one can make a sound decision and thorough inferences.

Statistics (in the plural sense) are numerical data. Some examples are revenues, allowed kilograms
for check in luggage, stipend, tuition fee, ID number, military ranks, etc.
Data Management deals with the collection, organization and presentation of the numerical data or
(statistics) in a presentable and usable manner.

A frequency distribution is a statistical table that summarizes a set of numerical data in a

comprehensive manner.

VI. ENRICHMENT VIDEOS

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

VII. REFERENCE

[Link]
[Link]
Mathematics In The Modern World – Adamson University Textbook
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4.1

I. TOPIC: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

Upon completion of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Differentiate between the mean, median and the mode of the data;
2. Determine the value of the mean, the median and the mode of the ungrouped data;
3. Determine the mean, the median and the mode of the grouped data;
4. State the advantages and disadvantages pf the three measures.

III. INTRODUCTION:

Statistics (in the singular sense) is a scientific discipline that deals with the methods and theories
in the manipulation of numerical data. It leads to the analysis and interpretation of the data set so
one can make a sound decision and thorough inferences.

Statistics (in the plural sense) are numerical data. Some examples are revenues, allowed kilograms
for check in luggage, stipend, tuition fee, ID number, military ranks, etc.

IV. DISCUSSION:

MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

A single value that is used to identify the “center” of the data in a data set.
a. It is thought of as a typical value of the distribution
b. Precise yet simple
c. Most representative value of the data

A. MEAN
Most common measure of the center. It is also known as arithmetic average. It is the summation
of the data (x) divided by the total number of population.

Formula:

Now, why are we going to get the mean? What are the properties of this:
1. It may not be an actual observation in the data set
2. Can be applied in at least interval level
3. Easy to compute
4. Every observation contributes to the value of the mean

B. MEDIAN
Divides the observations in two equal parts.
a. If the number of observations is odd, the median is the meddle number.
b. If the number of observation is even, the median is the average of the two middle numbers.

Sample median is denoted as

Population Median is denoted as

Properties of median:
1. May not be an actual observation in the data set
2. Can be applied in at least ordinal level
3. A positional measure; not affect by the extreme values

C. MODE
Mode occurs most frequently in the data set. It is a nominal average, it may be exist or not exist.

Properties of the mode?

1. It can be used for qualitative as well as quantitative data.
2. May not be unique
3. It is not affected by extreme values
4. It can be computed for ungrouped and grouped data.

Example for mean:

Example for Median:

Example for Mode:

V. SUMMARY
A measure of central tendency (also referred to as measures of center or central location) is a summary
measure that attempts to describe a whole set of data with a single value that represents the middle or center
of its distribution. The mode is the most commonly occurring value in a distribution. The mode has an
advantage over the median and the mean as it can be found for both numerical and categorical (non-
numerical) data. The median is the middle value in distribution when the values are arranged in ascending or
descending order. The median is less affected by outliers and skewed data than the mean, and is usually the
preferred measure of central tendency when the distribution is not symmetrical. The mean is the sum of the
value of each observation in a dataset divided by the number of observations. This is also known as the
arithmetic average. The mean can be used for both continuous and discrete numeric data.

VI. REFERENCE

[Link]
[Link] pdf
[Link]
central%[Link]
Mathematics in the Modern World – Adamson University Textbook
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
MODULE 4.3

I. TOPIC: MEASURE OF VARIATION, NORMAL DISTRIBUTION & SIMPLE

REGRESSION

II. OBJECTIVE(S):

1. Explain the importance of measuring variability

2. Calculate and interpret the index of range, interquartile range, the variance, and
the standard deviation
3. Identify the relative strengths and weaknesses of the measures
4. Understand the concepts of normal distribution and simple regression

III. INTRODUCTION:

Statistics (in the singular sense) is a scientific discipline that deals with the methods and theories
in the manipulation of numerical data. It leads to the analysis and interpretation of the data set so
one can make a sound decision and thorough inferences.

Statistics (in the plural sense) are numerical data. Some examples are revenues, allowed kilograms
for check in luggage, stipend, tuition fee, ID number, military ranks, etc.

IV. DISCUSSION:

MEASURE OF VARIATION
A measure of variation is a single value that is used to describe the spread of the distribution. A
measure of central tendency alone does not uniquely describe a distribution.

There are two types of measure of variation; (1) Absolute measures of dispersion and (2) Relative
measure of dispersion.

Absolute measures of dispersion consist of Range, Inter-quartile Range, Variance and Standard
Deviation.
Relative Measure of Variation consist only of coefficient of variation.

A. RANGE
Range is the difference between the maximum and the minimum value in a data set.
R = MAX – MIN
Example:
Pulse rates of 15 male residents of a village
54 58 58 60 62 65 66 71 74 75 78 80 85

Range = 85 – 54 = 31
So, the range is 31.

Properties of range:
1. The karger the value of the range, the more dispersed the observations are.
2. It is quick and easy to understand
3. A rough measure of dispersion

B. INTERQUARTILE RANGE
The difference between the third quartile and the first quartile.
IQR = Q3 – Q1
Properties of the interquartile range:
1. Reduces the influence of extreme values
2. Not as easy to calculate as the range

The following are the steps in calculating interquartile range:

 1. Quartiles are scope points which divide the distribution into four equal parts.
2. First quartile (Q1) or the lower quartile is the value that separates the lower 25% from the
upper 75% of the scores.
3. Third quartile (Q3) or the upper quartile is the value that separates the lower 75% from the
upper 25% of the scores.
4. Locating quartiles is similar to the median.
a. That is Q1 = ¼ * n, Q3 = ¾ * n
5. Arrange the scores in an ascending order to locate the Q1 and Q3.

Example:

First, compute the Q3 and Q1.

Q1= ¼ * 9 = 2.25 round up to 3rd from the lowest, thus Q1=43

Seventy percent of the expemses are higher that 43,000php but only 25% are below it.

Q3= ¾ * 9 = 6.75 roud up to 7th from the lowest, thus Q3 = 59

Twenty five percent of the expenses are higher that 59,000php but 75% are below it.

Therefore, IQR = 59 – 43 = 14

This means that the middle 50% of the housewives’ expemses has a deviation of 14,000php.

C. VARIANCE
Variance is important measure of variance. It shows variation about the mean

Formula:

Population Variance:
2 
( X  X )2
N

Sample Variance:
( X  X )2
s 
2
N 1
 D. STANDARD DEVIATION
Most important measure of variation. It is the squareroot of variance. It has the same units as the
original data.

Formula:

Population Standard Deviation:

  ( X  X )2
 2 N



Sample Standard Deviation:

s 
 s2 ( X  X )2

N1
Example:
Consider the following data:
10 12 14 15 17 18 18 24

N=8
Mean = 16

(10−16)2+ (12−16)2+ (14−16)2+ (15−16)2+(17−16)2+(18−16)2+(18−16)2+(24−16)2

𝑠=√
7

S= 4.309

E. COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
Measure of relative variaktion. Usually expressed in percent. It shows variation relative to the
mean and used to compare 2 or more groups.

Formula:

𝑆𝐷
𝐶𝑉 = ( ) 𝑋 100%
𝑀𝐸𝐴𝑁
Example:

The data below are the number of latecomers in a week from the three sections in the college if
Liberal Arts. Which section has the highest variability?

Section 1: 5, 4, 2, 1, 3, 1, 2
Section 2: 1, 0, 2, 1, 3, 1, 2
Section 3: 2, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 2

MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION COEFFECIENT OF VARIANCE

Section 1 2.571 1.511 58.77%
Section 2 1.429 0.976 68.30%
Section 3 1.714 0.76 44.34%

The most dispersed section is section 2, since it has the highest variability with a CV of 68.30%.
Section 3 has the least variability with a CV of 44.34%.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Normal distribution is also known as Gaussian distribution, after the mathematician and
astronomer Karl Gauss. It is a continuous distribution which is regarded by many as the most
significant probability distribution in the entire theory of statistics, particularly in the field of
statistical inference.

It is a graphically represented by a symmetrical, bell shaped curve known as the normal curve.

Norma Distribution is characterized by the following:

The mean, median and mode have the same value, and therefore are plotted on the same
point (central point) along the horizontal axis.
The curve is symmetric about the vertical line which contains the mean.
The curve is asymptotic to the horizontal axis; that is, the curve extends indefinitely in
both directions.
The total area under the normal curve is equal to 1.
The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution of standardized values called z-
scores. A z-score is measured in units of the standard deviation.
Why Standardize?
Because it can help us make decisions about our data.
 Example:
The IQ scores of a large group of students are approximately normally distributed with a mean of
100 and a standard deviation of 15. What is the probability that a randomly chosen student from
this group will have an IQ score?
a. above 120?
b. below 128?
c. below 93?
d. between 98 and 105?

Solution:

a. above 120?
b.
𝑥−𝜇 120 − 100 20
𝑧= = = = 1.33
𝜎 15 15
𝑃 (𝑧 > 1.33) = 0.5 − 0.4082 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟏𝟖 = 9.18%

b. below 128?
𝑃(𝑥 < 128)
𝑥−𝜇 128 − 100 28
𝑧= = = = 1.87
𝜎 15 15

𝑃 (𝑧 < 1.87) = 0.5 + 0.4693 = 0.9693 = 96.93%

c. below 93?
𝑃(𝑥 < 93)
𝑥−𝜇 93 − 100 −7
𝑧= = = = −0.47
𝜎 15 15

𝑃 (𝑧 < −0.47 ) = 0.5 − 0.1808 = 0.3192 = 31.92%

d. between 98 and 105?

𝑃(98 < 𝑥 < 105)

𝑥1 − 𝜇 98 − 100
𝑧1= = = −0.13
𝜎 15

𝑥2 − 𝜇 105 − 100
𝑧 2= = = 0.33
𝜎 15

SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS

Regression determines if the independent variable 𝑥 and the dependent variable 𝑦 show a
positive or negative relationship.
The variable 𝑥 is used to explain or predict the value of the dependent variable, thus it is called
explanatory or predictor variable or repressor.
The variable that is being explained or predicted is symbolized as 𝑦 and is called explained or
predicted variable or regressand.
Linear regression shows a direct relationship between x and y.a
It is represented by the linear equation 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥,
Where a: y – intercept of the line (regression constant)
b: slope of the line (regression coefficient)
Regression analysis aims to establish a line called the regression line that abridges the stochastic
relationship between x and y.
Direct and Indirect Relationships
The Method of Least Square is more precise method of finding the regression line which minimizes
the sum of the squared errors.
𝑦̂ = 𝑎∑+ 𝑏𝑥,
𝑥𝑦−∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦 ∑ 𝑦−𝑏 ∑ 𝑥
𝑏= ,𝑎= , 𝑛 is the number of pairs
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥2−(∑ 𝑥)2 𝑛

Example: The manager of an art gallery wants to determine the relationship between the auction
of price of paintings, y, and the number of bidders, x. From the data,
a. Determine the regression model
b. Find the estimated price of a painting if there are 20 bidders
c. Find the estimated number of bidders if the price is P13k.

y (in 12 8.5 9.6 11 7.3 6.9 10.5 9

thousand
of pesos)
x 9 12 14 16 17 15 10 13
(bidder)

a. Determine the regression model

𝑦̂ = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 14.3874 − 0.3802𝑥
b. Find the estimated price of a painting if there are 20 bidders
𝑦̂ = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 = 14.3874 − 0.3802(20) = 𝑃𝐻𝑃6.7835

c. Find the estimated number of bidders if the price is P13k.

𝑦̂ = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
13 = 14.3874 − 0.3802𝑥
0.3802𝑥 = 14.3874 − 13
(14.3874 − 13)
𝑥= = 3.644~4 𝑏𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠
0.3802
d. 𝑟 = −0.6014, 𝑟 2 = 0.3617 = 36.17% 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

V. SUMMARY
A measure of variability is a summary statistic that represents the amount of dispersion in a
dataset. In statistics, variability, dispersion, and spread are synonyms that denote the width of the
distribution. A range is one of the most basic measures of variation. It is the difference between
the smallest data item in the set and the largest. Quartiles divide your data into quarters: the
lowest 25%, the next lowest 25%, the second highest 25% and the highest 25%. The interquartile
range is one of the most popular measures of variation used in statistics. It is a measure of how
data is spread around the mean. The basic formula is: IQR = Q3 – Q1. Variance tells you how far
a data set is spread out, but it is an abstract number that really is only useful for calculating
the Standard Deviation.
Normal Distribution is a continuous distribution which is regarded by many as the most
significant probability distribution in the entire theory of statistics, particularly in the field of
statistical inference.
Regression determines if the independent variable 𝑥 and the dependent variable 𝑦 show a
positive or negative relationship.
VI. REFERENCES

[Link]
[Link]
[Link] [Link]
ioana/statistics/7.%20Measures%20of%[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

TOPIC: STATISTICS
(FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION,

RELATIVE FREQUENCY)

Learning Outcome:
1. Make a frequency table for a set of data
2. Create a frequency distribution for a data set
3. Understand the relative frequency distribution table

Statistics is a scientific discipline that deals with the methods and theories in
the manipulation of numerical data. It leads to the analysis and interpretation
of the data set so one can make a sound decision and thorough inferences.