Review of Related Literature
Novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
On February 11, 2020 the World Health Organization announced an official name
for the disease that is causing the 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak, first identified in
Wuhan China. The new name of this disease is coronavirus disease 2019, abbreviated
as COVID-19. In COVID-19, ‘CO’ stands for ‘corona,’ ‘VI’ for ‘virus,’ and ‘D’ for
disease. Formerly, this disease was referred to as “2019 novel coronavirus” or “2019-
nCoV” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020, About COVID-19
section).
There are many types of human coronaviruses including some that commonly
cause mild upper-respiratory tract illnesses. COVID-19 is a new disease, caused by a
novel (or new) coronavirus that has not previously been seen in humans.
A novel coronavirus is a new coronavirus that has not been previously identified.
The virus causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is not the same as
the coronaviruses that commonly circulate among humans and cause mild illness, like
the common cold.
COVID-19 is caused by a coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2. Coronaviruses are a
large family of viruses that are common in people and many different species of
animals, including camels, cattle, cats, and bats. Rarely, animal coronaviruses can
infect people and then spread between people. This occurred with MERS-
CoV and SARS-CoV, and now with the virus that causes COVID-19. The SARS-
CoV-2 virus is a betacoronavirus, like MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV. All three of these
viruses have their origins in bats. The sequences from U.S. patients are similar to the
one that China initially posted, suggesting a likely single, recent emergence of this
virus from an animal reservoir. However, the exact source of this virus is unknown.
Transmission of COVID-19
Currently available evidence indicates that COVID-19 may be transmitted from
person to person through several different routes. In the scoping review published by
La Rosa, the human coronaviruses primary transmission mode is person-to-person
contact through respiratory droplets generated by breathing, sneezing, coughing, etc.,
as well as contact (direct contact with an infected subject or indirect contact, trough
hand-mediated transfer of the virus from contaminated fomites to the mouth, nose, or
eyes). Infection is understood to be mainly transmitted via large respiratory droplets
containing the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Transmission through aerosols has also been
implicated but the relative role of large droplets and aerosols is still unclear. Indirect
transmission through fomites that have been contaminated by respiratory secretions is
considered possible, although, so far, transmission through fomites has not been
documented (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2020,
Transmission of COVID-19 section).
Evidence on SARS-CoV-2 transmission is available from a recent animal study
on ferrets, which are considered suitable animal models for human respiratory
infections, that assessed transmission in an experimental setting. The findings suggest
that direct transmission occurs between the animals, and the virus can be shed through
multiple routes with rapid transmission to naive hosts in close contact with the
infected hosts. The evidence of airborne transmission is considered less robust than
the evidence of direct contact transmission between infected animals and naïve
animals.
Rule of Law in the Time of Covid-19: The Philippines
The COVID-19 outbreak in the Philippines risks exacerbating systemic
challenges already faced by vulnerable groups. These challenges include prison
overcrowding, case backlog in the justice system, unequal access to health care and
social services, ongoing conflict, and corruption (International Development Law
Organization, 2020, Rule of Law in the time of COVID-19: The Philippines section).
With more than half of its 110 million population living in the Luzon region,
including Metro Manila, implementation of Enhanced Community Quarantine (ECQ)
regulations, including strict curfew, police-military checkpoints and pass system,
cancellation of public transportation, and closure of most industries and government
services, has negatively impacted women and low-income workers in particular.
Initial challenges with testing, hospital capacity, and underlying health concerns
already present in the country further contributed to the impact of the pandemic.
t is estimated that 17.6 million Filipinos live below the poverty threshold
estimated at Php 10,727 (approximately US$200) for a family of five per month.
Particular concerns for poor people in the context of the pandemic include limited or
no access to soap and water and face masks, cramped and close living quarters
making social distancing difficult, and limited access to health, basic social services
and public transport. Moreover, the suspension of social welfare programs triggered
the need for cash subsidies to buy food and essential supplies, including medicines;
these were to be provided under the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino Program which
supports some 4.3 million poor households. There has been a substantial impact on
informal and low-income workers who were unable to work from home and are now
jobless and unable to provide basic essentials for their families.
Women in the Philippines have been experiencing the pandemic differently from
men. Specific challenges for women include difficulties in receiving hygiene kits and
access to family planning and pre- and post-natal care. Female-headed households are
most vulnerable with the widespread loss of jobs due to the ECQ, including those in
low-income and informal jobs. The strain is particularly acute for women who are
under pressure to home-school children and care for elderly family members
Moreover, as they are called upon to help with community frontline disease
prevention, women put themselves at risk of exposure to COVID-19 due to a lack of
personal protection equipment, which increases the risk of spreading infection to
children and family at home. There are also indications of an increase in gender-based
violence as women are forced into lockdown with abusive partners and access to
justice and resources becomes more difficult.
While many confirmed cases of COVID-19 are adults with pre-existing
conditions, children are affected when they are separated from their parents and
caregivers who are quarantined or confined in hospitals. With the suspension of
classes, more than 22 million children and adolescents have had their education
disrupted. Children are also restricted from going outside and to public places such as
grocery stores.
The Coronavirus Crisis and Leadership in Business
The coronavirus crisis and its economic effects coincides with the 50th
anniversary of Milton Friedman's influential assertion that the social responsibility of
business was only to increase its profits, within the law. This mantra has gained a
strong hold on much of business practice, with a fierce focus on the short term. It is in
this context that business leaders will be responding to the effects of the coronavirus
crisis (Tourish, 2020).
Even before it struck, self-interest had been increasingly at the fore of
organizational behaviour. And what are the consequences? Employment has been
casualized to a previously unimaginable extent. 2.8 million people in the UK held gig
economy jobs in 2017. One in four of such workers earned less than £7.50 an hour. It
is these workers who are most vulnerable to the economic fallout from the
coronavirus crisis.
Mainstream leadership theorizing predominantly takes the rights of business
leaders to pursue whatever purpose they have in mind entirely for granted. The job of
leadership research is to develop theories that help them to do this in the most
effective and efficient way possible. I don't think this approach ever had much to
commend it, but it has even less going for it now.
It is undeniable that hard choices lie ahead. But when these choices are guided
primarily by the short-term interests of a few then the disenchantment that already
exists with business leaders will intensify. Feelings of relative deprivation will grow,
with destabilizing consequences for all of society. The resultant cynicism is not
reduced when billionaires such as Richard Branson respond to the crisis by asking for
state support. In response, many are asking what forms of leadership should
businesses now adopt?
In my view, this is the wrong question. It suggests that those who inhabit
organizations are invariably committed to an overarching common purpose and are
bonded by the same set of unitarist interests. Of course, organizational actors share
some interests and sense of purpose. If they didn't, organization would be impossible.
But these exist alongside tensions between the immediate short-term interest of
shareholder value and the long-term welfare of those that organizations employ and
the customers that they serve. It is pointless to pretend otherwise. The actions of
leaders will surely depend on how businesses are organised, how power within them
is distributed, and on the views that exist about the primary importance of shareholder
value – what can be called the underlying theory of the business.
These are early days. A number of large organizations in the US have pledged no
layoffs this year, including Morgan Stanley and the Bank of America. Of course,
these organizations have deep pockets. Others have already shown themselves to have
deep pockets but short arms. Assume, also, that the main theory of business for many
remains the primacy of shareholder value, and that they have fewer resources to fall
back on than the examples just given. Transferring the costs of the crisis to labour
rather than capital will seem an entirely rational response, and the sooner the better. In
understanding the consequences of this, we need to return to "the norm of
reciprocity." Long ago, Alvin Gouldner stated that "a norm of reciprocity . . . makes
two interrelated . . . demands: (1) people should help those who have helped them,
and (2) people should not injure those who have helped them."1 The promotion of
shareholder value as the primary, and often only, real purpose of business has
activated this norm in a purely negative sense. People have already learned to
reciprocate the uncaring and dismissive attitudes that they judge many business
leaders have shown to them. Actions now that are perceived as being primarily
concerned with prioritizing shareholder value at the expense of employees will
intensify these attitudes.
They will also activate concerns for what Al Goethals (2018) calls "procedural
justice," where people believe that they are not getting what they think they deserve.
Global COVID 19 Impact on Medical Supplies Market
The global COVID-19 impact on the medical supplies market is segmented based
on type, end-user, and region (Prophecy Marketing Insights, 2020, Global COVID 19
Impact on Medical Supplies Market section). Owing to the spread of the COVID-19
pandemic, there has been a surge in the demand for N95 masks, PPE kits, and
ventilators across the globe. This surge in demand positively influences the global
medical supplies market. The widespread of the disease has created a severe shortage
of medical resources in the front line. This shortage of medical supplies worldwide
has pushed numerous non-pharmaceutical companies to produce various medical
products.
On the basis of the type, the global COVID-19 impact on the medical supplies
market is segmented into diagnostic supplies, disinfectants, intubation & ventilation
supplies, personal protection equipment, sterilization supplies, infusion & injectable
supplies, dialysis consumables, wound care supplies, radiology supplies, and other
medical supplies. Based on the end-user, the target market is segmented into hospitals
& clinics, ambulatory care, and home settings.
In the region, the global COVID-19 impact on the medical supplies market is
segmented into North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America, and Middle East
& Africa. North America estimated the maximum share of the medical supplies
market in 2020, followed by Europe, mainly due to a growing number of positive
COVID-19 cases and deaths in the US. Further, a strong healthcare system and the
presence of many large hospitals also drive the growth of the target market in this
region. While Asia-Pacific is also expected to register the highest growth rate / CAGR
in the coming years. Factors such as a rise in the prevalence of multiple diseases and a
growing population would create profitable growth prospects for the medical supplies
market across the Asia-Pacific region.
Global COVID 19 Impact on Vaccines & Drugs Market
An increasing number of clinical trials drive the growth of the vaccine and drug
market. For instance, on 17th April 2020, the National Medical Products
Administration of China approved Two COVID-19 inactivated vaccines for phases 1
and 2 combined trials. Additionally, in March 2020, two major pharma companies,
Pfizer and BioNTech declared a joint venture to co-develop and distribute coronavirus
vaccine. Similarly, in April 2020, Johnson & Johnson proclaimed to produce to 900
million COVID-19 vaccines by the first quarter of 2021. Therefore, the outbreak of
the pandemic has stirred share activity in the vaccine and drug market leading to its
growth (Prophecy Marketing Insights, 2020, Global COVID 19 Impact on Vaccines
& Drugs Market section).
At present, about 155 molecules are under clinical investigation, and around 45
molecules are under preclinical development to be targeted against COVID-19. In
which, four promising drugs have been repurposed for use against COVID-19.
According to data published in June 2020, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) is
planning late-stage studies for multiple COVID-19 vaccines. The NIH intends to start
a phase 3 trial of Moderna’s vaccine in July 2020, followed by an August trial of
AstraZeneca’s vaccine and a September study of Johnson & Johnson’s shot.
Global COVID 19 Impact on Critical Care Device Market
Increasing cases of COVID-19 has driven the adoption of clinical care device as
it has spread across the world. In May 2020, the number of COVID-19 cases in the
U.S. has surged to 1.59 million, followed by Russia with 0.308 million and Brazil
with 0.293 million. Companies that are not involved in these segments are also
establishing a manufacturing unit to deal with this war-like situation. For instance, In
April 2020, workers at a Ford manufacturing plant started up new production lines.
Ford partnered with Thermo Fisher to produce critical medical equipment and
supplies, including face masks and reusable gowns from airbag materials to ramp up
production of COVID-19 collection kits to test for the virus. This wider plan
highlights the latest effort by automakers and medical device manufacturers to meet
the growing demands of equipment and supplies such as face masks, face shields,
protective gowns, and ventilators, a medical device that is used in the treatment of
COVID-19. Further, in March 2020, Ford announced a partnership with 3M to build
Powered Air-Purifying Respirators (PAPRs) (Prophecy Marketing Insights, 2020,
Global COVID 19 Impact on Critical Care Device Market section).
Shortage of personal protective equipment endangering health workers
worldwide
The World Health Organization (2020, Shortage of personal protective equipment
endangering health workers worldwide section) has warned that severe and mounting
disruption to the global supply of personal protective equipment (PPE) – caused by
rising demand, panic buying, hoarding and misuse – is putting lives at risk from the
new coronavirus and other infectious diseases. Healthcare workers rely on personal
protective equipment to protect themselves and their patients from being infected and
infecting others. But shortages are leaving doctors, nurses and other frontline workers
dangerously ill-equipped to care for COVID-19 patients, due to limited access to
supplies such as gloves, medical masks, respirators, goggles, face shields, gowns, and
aprons. “Without secure supply chains, the risk to healthcare workers around the
world is real. Industry and governments must act quickly to boost supply, ease export
restrictions and put measures in place to stop speculation and hoarding. We can’t stop
COVID-19 without protecting health workers first,” said WHO Director-General Dr
Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus.
Since the start of the COVID-19 outbreak, prices have surged. Surgical masks have
seen a sixfold increase, N95 respirators have trebled and gowns have doubled.
Supplies can take months to deliver and market manipulation is widespread, with
stocks frequently sold to the highest bidder.
WHO has so far shipped nearly half a million sets of personal protective equipment to
47 countries,* but supplies are rapidly depleting. Based on WHO modelling, an
estimated 89 million medical masks are required for the COVID-19 response each
month. For examination gloves, that figure goes up to 76 million, while international
demand for goggles stands at 1.6 million per month. Recent WHO guidance calls for
the rational and appropriate use of PPE in healthcare settings, and the effective
management of supply [Link] is working with governments, industry and
the Pandemic Supply Chain Network to boost production and secure allocations for
critically affected and at-risk countries.
To meet rising global demand, WHO estimates that industry must increase
manufacturing by 40 per cent. Governments should develop incentives for industry to
ramp up production. This includes easing restrictions on the export and distribution of
personal protective equipment and other medical supplies. Every day, WHO is
providing guidance, supporting secure supply chains, and delivering critical
equipment to countries in need.
COVID-19 impact on Medical Supplies Market by Type (Intubations, Personal
Protective Equipment, Infusion, Radiology, Wound Care Supplies), End User
(Hospitals, Clinics) - Global Forecast to 2021
The COVID-19 impact on the global medical supplies market is expected to reach
USD ~100 billion by 2021 from an estimated value of USD ~78 billion in 2019,
growing at a CAGR of ~13.4% during the forecast period. The market for medical
supplies is driven primarily by the growing awareness on environmental & personal
hygiene leading to rising demand for disinfectants , expansion of healthcare settings
owing to increasing COVID 19 patients, increased requirement of PPE kits & N95
masks globally, rising demand for ventilators, and increasing demand for diagnostic
supplies. In addition, repurposing liquor production lines to manufacture sanitizers
offers an opportunity for players in this market. However, delays in non-urgent
treatment and surgical procedures and impact on supply chain and logistics due to
lockdown is likely to restrain the growth of this market (MarketsandMarkets, 2020,
COVID-19 impact on Medical Supplies Market section).