Module 1: Metacognition

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain metacognition in different perspective.

2. Define what the significance of metacognition is in the learning process of the
students.
3. Identify variables and factors affecting metacognition.
4. Develop how metacognition is applied in different aspect.

Description

The word metacognition is such a broad word. In this module, you will learn the
concept of such word and be able to apply metacognition in your learning throughout the
end of this book.

Introduction

What Is Metacognition?

 Metacognition is one’s ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for

approaching a learning task; take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and
evaluate results, and modify one’s approach as needed. It helps learners choose the
right cognitive tool for the task and plays a critical role in successful learning.
 Metacognition refers to awareness of one’s own knowledge—what one does and
doesn’t know—and one’s ability to understand, control, and manipulate one’s
cognitive processes (Meichenbaum, 1985). It includes knowing when and where to
use particular strategies for learning and problem solving as well as how and why to
use specific strategies. Metacognition is the ability to use prior knowledge to plan a
strategy for approaching a learning task; take necessary steps to problem solve,
reflect on and evaluate results, and modify one’s approach as needed. Flavell (1976),
who first used the term, offers the following example: I am engaging in Metacognition
if I notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I
should double check C before accepting it as fact (p. 232).

Cognitive strategies are the basic mental abilities we use to think, study, and learn
(e.g., recalling information from memory, analyzing sounds and images, making associations
between or comparing/contrasting different pieces of information, and making inferences or
interpreting text). They help an individual achieve a particular goal, such as comprehending
text or solving a math problem, and they can be individually identified and measured. In

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contrast, metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that an overarching learning goal is
being or has been reached.

Elements of Metacognition

Researchers distinguish between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive

regulation (Flavell, 1979, 1987; Schraw & Dennison, 1994). Metacognitive knowledge refers to
what individuals know about themselves as cognitive processors, about different approaches
that can be used for learning and problem solving, and about the demands of a particular
learning task. Metacognitive regulation refers to adjustments individuals make to their
processes to help control their learning, such as planning, information management
strategies, comprehension monitoring, de-bugging strategies, and evaluation of progress and
goals. Flavell (1979) further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:

 Person variables: What one recognizes about his or her strengths and weaknesses in
learning and processing information.
 Task variables: What one knows or can figure out about the nature of a task and the
processing demands required to complete the task—for example, knowledge that it
will take more time to read, comprehend, and remember a technical article than it
will a similar-length passage from a novel.
 Strategy variables: The strategies a person has “at the ready” to apply in a flexible
way to successfully accomplish a task; for example, knowing how to activate prior
knowledge before reading a technical article, using a glossary to look up unfamiliar
words, or recognizing that sometimes one has to reread a paragraph several times
before it makes sense.

Livingston (1997) provides an example of all three variables: “I know that I (person
variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the
computational problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable).”

Why Teach Metacognitive Skills?

Research shows that metacognitive skills can be taught to students to improve their
learning (Nietfeld & Shraw, 2002; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault, 2003).

Constructing understanding requires both cognitive and metacognitive elements.

Learners “construct knowledge” using cognitive strategies and they guide, regulate, and
evaluate their learning using metacognitive strategies. It is through this “thinking about
thinking,” this use of metacognitive strategies, that real learning occurs. As students become
more skilled at using metacognitive strategies, they gain confidence and become more
independent as learners.

Individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills can think through a problem or

approach a learning task, select appropriate strategies, and make decisions about a course of
action to resolve the problem or successfully perform the task. They often think about their
own thinking processes, taking time to think about and learn from mistakes or inaccuracies

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(North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1995). Some instructional programs
encourage students to engage in “metacognitive conversations” with themselves so that they
can “talk” with themselves about their learning, the challenges they encounter, and the ways
in which they can self-correct and continue learning.

Moreover, individuals who demonstrate a wide variety of metacognitive skills

perform better on exams and complete work more efficiently—they use the right tool for the
job, and they modify learning strategies as needed, identifying blocks to learning and
changing tools or strategies to ensure goal attainment. Because Metacognition plays a critical
role in successful learning, it is imperative that instructors help learners develop
metacognitive.

What is Research?

Metacognitive strategies can be taught (Halpern, 1996), they are associated with
successful learning (Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987). Successful learners have a repertoire
of strategies to select from and can transfer them to new settings (Pressley, Borkowski, &
Schneider, 1987). Instructors need to set tasks at an appropriate level of difficulty (i.e.,
challenging enough so that students need to apply metacognitive strategies to monitor
success but not so challenging that students become overwhelmed or frustrated), and
instructors need to prompt learners to think about what they are doing as they complete
these tasks (Biemiller & Meichenbaum, 1992). Instructors should take care not to do the
thinking for learners or tell them what to do because this runs the risk of making students
experts at seeking help rather than experts at thinking about and directing their own
learning. Instead, effective instructors continually prompt learners, asking “What should you
do next?”

McKeachie (1988) found that few college instructors explicitly teach strategies for
monitoring learning. They assume that students have already learned these strategies in high
school. But many have not and are unaware of the metacognitive process and its importance
to learning. Rote memorization is the usual—and often the only—learning strategy employed
by high school students when they enter college (Nist, 1993). Simpson and Nist (2000), in a
review of the literature on strategic learning, emphasize that instructors need to provide
explicit instruction on the use of study strategies. The implication for ABE programs is that it
is likely that ABE learners need explicit instruction in both cognitive and metacognitive
strategies. They need to know that they have choices about the strategies they can employ in
different contexts, and they need to monitor their use of and success with these strategies.

Recommended Instructional Strategies

Instructors can encourage ABE learners to become more strategic thinkers by helping
them focus on the ways they process information. Self-questioning, reflective journal writing,
and discussing their thought processes with other learners are among the ways that teachers
can encourage learners to examine and develop their metacognitive processes.

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Fogarty (1994) suggests that Metacognition is a process that spans three distinct phases, and
that, to be successful thinkers, students must do the following:

 Develop a plan before approaching a learning task, such as reading for

comprehension or solving a math problem.

 Monitor their understanding; use “fix-up” strategies when meaning breaks down.

 Evaluate their thinking after completing the task.

Goals of teaching Metacognitive Skills

Instructors can model the application of questions, and they can prompt learners to
ask themselves questions during each phase. They can incorporate into lesson plans
opportunities for learners to practice using these questions during learning tasks, as
illustrated in the following examples:

1. During the planning phase, learners can ask, what am I supposed to learn? What prior
knowledge will help me with this task? What should I do first? What should I look for in this
reading? How much time do I have to complete this? In what direction do I want my thinking
to take me?

2. During the monitoring phase, learners can ask, how am I doing? Am I on the right track?
How should I proceed? What information is important to remember? Should I move in a
different direction? Should I adjust the pace because of the difficulty? What can I do if I do
not understand?

3. During the evaluation phase, learners can ask, How well did I do? What did I learn? Did I
get the results I expected? What could I have done differently? Can I apply this way of
thinking to other problems or situations? Is there anything I don’t understand—any gaps in
my knowledge? Do I need to go back through the task to fill in any gaps in understanding?
How might I apply this line of thinking to other problems?

Rather than viewing reading, writing, science, social studies, and math only as
subjects or content to be taught, instructors can see them as opportunities for learners to
reflect on their learning processes. Examples follow for each content area:

 Reading: Teach learners how to ask questions during reading and model “think
aloud.” Ask learners questions during read-aloud and teach them to monitor their
reading by constantly asking themselves if they understand what the text is about.
Teach them to take notes or highlight important details, asking themselves, “Why is
this key phrase to highlight?” and “Why am I not highlighting this?”

 Writing: Model prewriting strategies for organizing thoughts, such as brainstorming

ideas using a word web, or using a graphic organizer to put ideas into paragraphs,
with the main idea at the top and the supporting details below it.

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  Social Studies and Science: Teach learners the importance of using organizers such as
KWL charts, Venn diagrams, concept maps, and anticipation/reaction charts to sort
information and help them learn and understand content. Learners can use
organizers prior to a task to focus their attention on what they already know and
identify what they want to learn. They can use a Venn diagram to identify similarities
and differences between two related concepts.

 Math: Teach learners to use mnemonics to recall steps in a process, such as the order
of mathematical operations. Model your thought processes in solving problems.

The goal of teaching metacognitive strategies is to help learners become comfortable

with these strategies so that they employ them automatically to learning tasks, focusing their
attention, deriving meaning, and making adjustments if something goes wrong. They do not
think about these skills while performing them but, if asked what they are doing, they can
usually accurately describe their metacognitive processes.

Guide Questions

1. Explain your understanding about metacognition? How it differs from your

perspective after reading the module?
2. Why is there a need to understand and realize the importance of metacognition in
the learning process?

Activity 1

Work with group. Ask the students to form a circle, then let them discuss what is all about
metacognition, with the use of sticky notes, write as many as they can and post it in the
board then present it to the class.

Evaluation

Directions: Answer the given question briefly.

1. In your own understanding what is Metacognition?
2. What is the significance of metacognition in education?
3. How do metacognitive skills affect the learning process of the students?
4. Is developing metacognitive important? Why or why not?
5. Cite an example where metacognition is applied in real life situation?

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References

A. Books

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Biemiller, A., & Meichenbaum, D. (1992). The nature and nurture of the self-directed
learner. Educational Leadership, 50, 75–80. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Borkowski, J., Carr, M., & Pressely, M. (1987). “Spontaneous” strategy use:
Perspectives from metacognitive theory. Intelligence, 11, 61–75. Retrieved November
17, 2019.
 Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of
cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.),
The nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Fogarty, R. (1994). How to teach for metacognition. Palatine, IL: IRI/Skylight
Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Halpern, D. F. (1996). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An overview. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 McKeachie, W. J. (1988). The need for study strategy training. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T.
Goetz, & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment,
instruction, and evaluation (pp. 3–9). New York: Academic Press. Retrieved November
17, 2019.
 Meichenbaum, D. (1985). Teaching thinking: A cognitive-behavioral perspective. In S.
F., Chipman, J. W. Segal, & R. Glaser (Eds.), Thinking and learning skills, Vol. 2:
Research and open questions. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. (1995). Strategic teaching and
reading project guidebook. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 Nietfeld, J. L., & Shraw, G. (2002). The effect of knowledge and strategy explanation
on monitoring accuracy. Journal of Educational Research, 95, 131–142. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Nist, S. (1993). What the literature says about academic literacy. Georgia Journal of
Reading, Fall-Winter, 11–18.
 Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., & Schneider, W. (1987). Cognitive strategies: Good
strategy users coordinate metacognition and knowledge. In R. Vasta, & G. Whitehurst
(Eds.), Annals of child development, 4, 80–129. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

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Module 2: 14 Learner-
Centered
Psychological
Principles
Learning Outcomes

1. identify the 14 Learner-centered psychological principles

2. Enumerate and discuss the following LCP
3. Analyze the importance of each principle on learning
4. Apply the 14 learner-centered psychological principles on learning effectively

Description

Throughout its history, psychology has provided vital information for the design of
schooling based on theory and research on human learning, development, and motivation.
Research in psychology relevant to education has been particularly informative during the
past decade. Advances in our understanding of thinking, memory, and cognitive and
motivational processes can contribute directly to improvements in teaching, learning, and the
whole enterprise of schooling. At the same time, educators concerned with the growing
problems of school dropout, low levels of academic achievement, and other indicators of
school failure are arguing for more learner-centered models of schooling. Such models attend
to the diversity among students, and use this diversity to enrich learning and to produce
results within the context of current school reform.

COGNITIVE AND
METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

MOTIVATION LEARNER-CENTERED DEVELOP-

AND AFFECTIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL MENTAL
FACTORS PRINCIPLE FACTORS

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
FACTORS

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The 14 learner-Centered Psychological Principles

The following 14 psychological factors pertain to the learner and the learning process.
They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the
learner rather than biological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge
external environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.

The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-
world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no
principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into those referring to
cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and affective, developmental and social, and
individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.

Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners-from children, to teachers,
to administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational
system.

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

Nature of the learning process

The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional

process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

There are different types of learning processes; for example, habit formation in motor
learning and learning that involves the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills, and
learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that
students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own
thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and assume
personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.

The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct

useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies
necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and
pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students’ short-term goals and learning may be
sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving
inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can

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reach longer-term goals. Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals
that are consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.

Construction of knowledge

The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.

Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can
take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or
skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in different subject areas and among
students with varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge
becomes integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge and understanding, this new
knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not
transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating
knowledge by a number of strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of
varying abilities, such as correct mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.

Strategic thinking

The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning,

problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to
help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel
situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and
feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can
be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic
learning skills.

Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative and critical thinking.

Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning
or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to do if
a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They
can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and
utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop this higher
order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for
learning.

Context of learning

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 Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and
instructional practices.

Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both
the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can
impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward
learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate
for learners’ level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking
strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not,
can also has significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Factors

Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation. Motivation
to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals,
and habits of thinking.

The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or
failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information
processing. Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a
marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the
quality of thinking and information processing as well as an individual’s motivation to learn.
Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and
performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the
learner’s attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety,
panic, rage, insecurity) and relative thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating
about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from
motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.

Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice of control.

Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs
to be competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks
that learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in
complexity and difficulty to the learners’ abilities, and on which they believe they can
succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world
situations and meet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage and support

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learners’ natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in
learners’ perception of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and
control.

Effects of motivation and effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice.

Without learners’ motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion. Effort is another main indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with
facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning
and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding. Effective strategies
include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance positive emotions and
intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners’ perceptions that a task is
interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.

Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and
is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development varies
across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different
instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one’s type of developmental
readiness–such as reading readiness, for example–may preclude learners from demonstrating
that they are more capable in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional and
social development of individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected
by prior schooling, home, culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental
involvement in schooling and the quality of language interactions and two-way
communications between adults and children can influence these developmental areas.
Awareness and understanding of developmental differences among children with and
without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities can facilitate the creation of optimal
learning contexts.

Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and

communication with others.

Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social

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interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In
interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for
perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social,
and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide
stability trust, and caring can increase learners’ sense of belonging, self-respect and self-
acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning. Family influences, positive
interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that
interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular
subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and unique pressure to
perform well. Positive learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier
levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas,
actively participate in the learning process, and create a learning community.

Individual Differences Factors

Individual differences in learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a
function of prior experience and heredity.

Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition,
through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how
they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not
always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals. Educators need to help students
examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary. The interaction
between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions is another key
factor affecting learning outcomes. Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in
general. They also need to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these
differences are accredited and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.

Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds are taken into account.

The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to
all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can
influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the
possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning environments. When
learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, and
experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, levels
of motivation and achievement are enhanced.

Standards and assessment

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 Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as
well as learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment are integral
parts of the learning process.

Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all
stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to
work towards appropriately high goals. Therefore, appraisal of the learner’s cognitive
strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the
selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty. On-going assessment of
the learner’s understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both
learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment of
learner progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about
achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform various types of
programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can provide other sources of information
about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress can also
improve students’ self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

Guide Questions

1. What is the importance of the LCP in the development of the learning?

2. As a learner, how will you apply the LCP?
3. What do you think is reason why they created this framework?

Activity 2

Construct a paragraph that states the difficulties/problems you’ve encountered upon learning
and how would you apply the LCP to address those difficulties?

Rubrics:

Content: 50%
Organization: 50%
Total 100%

Evaluation

Identify what principle is being asked on the following.

__________1. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals”.
__________2. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology,
and instructional practices.

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__________3. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning.

__________4. Learning is most effective when differences in learner’s linguistic, cultural, and
Social backgrounds are taken into account.
__________5. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
B. Website
 [Link] . Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

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Module 3: Review of
Theories Related to the
Learners’ Development
Learning Outcomes

1. Discuss the different theories that are related to the learners’ development

2. Interpret the fundamental concepts and principles of each theory

3. Apply the different theories in the teaching-learning process

Description

This module introduces you the different theories that are related to the learner’s
development. It includes Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development, Erik
Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development, Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive
Development, Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, Vygotsky on Language and Zone of
Proximal Development and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model.

Overview of Psychosexual Theory of Development

Freud believe that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in

which the pleasure-seeking energies of the Id become focused on certain erogenous areas.
An erogenous zones is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to
stimulation. During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent and
genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.
Freud viewed development as discontinuous, he believed that each of us must pass
through a serious of stages during childhood, and that we lack proper nurturance and
parenting during a stage, we may became stuck, or fixated, in that stage.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

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 During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating,
and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as
tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are
responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort
through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with
drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--
the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a
sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to
become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative

outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-
expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or
destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud
believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the
genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.

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 Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s
affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother
and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by
the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy
was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and
demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority
because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred to as womb envy.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults
outside of the family.

The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The
stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned
with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual
pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.

As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for
children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final
stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.

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 Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance
between the various life areas. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the
individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.

Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego
and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by
the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and wants. Teens in
the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic urges against the need
to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Erik Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

Background and key Concepts of Erikson’s Theory

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and
influential theories of development. Erikson's theory focused on psychosocial development
rather than psychosexual development. The stages that make up his

What is Psychosocial Development?

So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much like
Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Unlike
Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory described the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and
relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings.

Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for
following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a
conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are
centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During
these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure.

If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with
psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal

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effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong
sense of self.

Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviours and actions.
Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the
stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to
as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth
and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.

Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the

dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is
utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything that he or she needs to survive
including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate
care and love, the child will come to feel that he or she cannot trust or depend upon the
adults in his or her life.

If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings
of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a
belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

No child is going to develop a sense of 100 per cent trust or 100 per cent doubt.
Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the
two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as
openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They
are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what
they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can
help children develop a sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences,
and clothing selection.

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who
do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a

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balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that
children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years.

At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and
control over the world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who
fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is
achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately age 5 to 11.

Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their

accomplishments and abilities. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and
teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or
no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the

strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief their abilities to handle the
tasks set before them.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This
stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to
influence behaviour and development for the rest of a person's life.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration
will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and
control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused
about themselves and the future.

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. Completing this stage successfully
leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and
expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he
placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious
sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during
the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.

According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we
also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.

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 Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that
endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and
interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and
behaviours as we age.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring
and secure.

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that
a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships.
Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self do tend to have less
committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and
depression.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the
ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.

Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity
with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
life.

At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine
if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and
will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and
despair.

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Background and key Concepts of Piaget’s Theory

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 Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how
children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's
stages are:

 Sensorimotor Stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete Operational Stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal Operational Stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like
little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world.
As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student,
publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the
intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet
and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding
hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.

Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions
of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different
from the way adults think.

Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a

series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he
suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the
thinking of young children versus older children.

Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than
adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a
genius could have thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive

development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to
changes in mental operations.

The Stages

Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of

intellectual development that included four distinct stages:

1. The Sensorimotor Stage: Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

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 During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience
at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor
responses.

It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic

growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making
new discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively
short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to
perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about
language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into a
number of different sub stages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage that early
representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence
of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names
and words to objects.

Object Permanence

 Ability attained in this stage where he knows that an object still exists even when out
of sight.
2. The Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous
stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the
preoperational stage of development.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them.

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking
the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of
constancy.

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and
then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is
rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two
pieces are exactly the same size.

Symbolic Function

 The ability to represent objects and events.

Egocentrism

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  The tendency of a child to only see his point of view and assume that everyone else
also has his same point of view.
Centration

 The tendency of the child to only focus on one thing or event and exclude other
aspects.
Lack of Conservation

 The inability to realize that some things remain unchanged despite looking different.
Irreversibility

 Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.

Animism

 The tendency of the child to attribute human like traits to inanimate objects.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the previous
stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might
view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it
can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and
hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily
shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

Decentering

 The ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations.
Reversibility

 The ability of the child to follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
Conservations

 The ability to know that certain properties of objects like numbers, mass, volume or
area do not change even if there is a change in appearance.
Seriation

 The ability to arrange things in a series based on our dimensions such as weight,
volume, size, etc.
4. The Formal Operational Stage: Ages 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

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 The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become
capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about
the world around them.

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the
formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the
future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during
this stage.

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their
existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative
change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. A child at
age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did at age 2; there is a
fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

Hypothetical Reasoning

 The ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and weigh data to
make a judgement.
Analogical Reasoning

 Ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that relationship to
narrow down possible answers in similar problems.
Deductive Reasoning

 Ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular situation.

Kohlberg 3 Stages and 6 Sub stages of Moral Development

Concepts to Kohlberg Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work

of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral
development of children, which he believed follows a series of
stages. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development states that we
progress through three levels of moral thinking that build on
our cognitive development.
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive
theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of
children. Kohlberg believed that moral development,
like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used
the idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting
ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys about morality and values.
The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which discusses
the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an
individual reasons about a dilemma that determines positive moral development.

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After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s responses
and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an individual
progresses from the capacity from pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity
for conventional morality (early adolescence), and towards attaining post-conventional
morality (once Piaget’s idea of formal operational thought is attained), with only a few fully
achieve. Each level of morality contains two stages, which provide the basis for moral
development in various.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional,

and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral
development.

Level 1: Pre-conventional

Throughout the pre-conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.

Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A
child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions
regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that
certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an
action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the
punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behaviour is defined by
whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further the
individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An
example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in
it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to
their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.
Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s
appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

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Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behaviour and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and
obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral
reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. If
one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to
uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality
is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Post conventional

Throughout the post conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of
more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and
should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that individuals
are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with
their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—
principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view
rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be
obeyed without question. Because post conventional individual elevate their own moral
evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behaviour, especially at stage six, can
sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have
speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are
regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general
welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest
number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise.
Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical

principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on
ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in
justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles,
they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not
because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is

27
legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he
found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.

Vygotsky on Language and Zone of Proximal Development

Concepts on Vygotsky’s Theory

Since the translation and publication of Vygotsky's work into the

English language in 1962 his work has been widely cited and
studied by Western-European and American developmental
psychologists and educators. Vygotsky 's theory of culture and
language and highlights the similarities of his views
(e.g. scaffolding, assisted learning, private speech) and behavioural
principles (e.g. shaping cueing, chaining and verbal behaviour).
While many philosophical differences exist between Vygotsky’s
theories and contemporary behaviour analysis, identifying the
similarities between these two positions may allow for a greater
understanding of human development and for an increase in
collaborative research between developmental psychologists and
behaviour analysts.

Two Theories of Vygotsky

Language
In Vygotsky's philosophy, language plays a central role in the theory of
human cognitive development. Language plays multiple roles including culturally shaping
the overt behaviour of individuals as well as influencing their covert behaviour, such as
thinking. Language has been defined as a psychological tool that shapes other mental
functions while at the same time being socially-shaped itself.

Zone of Proximal Development

The concept, zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist

and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky(1896 – 1934). The zone of proximal development refers
to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve
with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. Thus, the term “proximal" refers to
those skills that the learner is “close" to mastering.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

"The distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent

problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-
solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers”

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 Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a
particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost"
to achieve the task.

To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are
encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:

 The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a
more knowledgeable other).
 Social interactions with a skilful tutor that allow the learner to observe and practice
their skills.
 Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent
peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory

An Overview of Ecological System Theory

American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems

Theory to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to
influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the
importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as ecological systems,
in the attempt to understand their development.

Bronferbrenner’s ecological system theory is one of the most accepted explanations

regarding the influence of social environments of human development. This theory argues
that the environment grow up in affects every faces of your life. Social factors determine your
way of thinking, the emotions you feel and your likes and dislikes.

According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological

Systems Theory, children typically find themselves
enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most
intimate home ecological system to the larger
school system, and then to the most expansive
system which includes society and culture. Each
of these ecological systems inevitably interacts
with and influences each other in all aspects of
the children’s lives.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model

organizes contexts of development into five levels of external influence. These levels are
categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem

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 The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and most
immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily
home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment of the children.

Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with

family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals
interact with the children will affect how they grow.

Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence how
they treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and
relationships will understandably foster they children’s improved development.

One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study
of ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the same
ecological system to experience very different environments.

Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not impossible
for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular
personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological
factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem

The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which

children find them in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages
between home and school, between peer group and family, and between family and
community.

According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in the

friendships of their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their house from
time to time and spend time with them, and then the child’s development is affected
positively through harmony and like-mindedness.

However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them,
then the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to
negative development.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem

The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings,
one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless.

Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not
directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may
include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighbourhood the
children live in.

For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent

boss at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.

30
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macro system

The macro system is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to
the children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is composed
of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as
well as political and economic systems.

For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of

development than children in peaceful environments.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful
dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the
children’s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family structure,
address, parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes such as economic
cycles and wars.

Value of the Theory

This theory, published in 1979, has influenced psychologist in terns of the manner of
analyzing the person and the effects of different environmental systems that he encounters.
The ecological system theory has since became a foundation of other theorist’s work.

Guide Questions

1. What are the different theories related to the learners’ development? Explain its
stages.

2. Why it is important to learn about these theories?

3. If you were a teacher, how would you apply these theories when teaching your
students?

Activity 1.1

Directions: Choose a partner and read through the various Mother Goose nursery rhymes and
determine which fixation the character is stuck on from the previous psychosexual stages of
development.

Jack and Jill

Jack an jill went up the hill
To fetch a pail of water.
Jack fell down and broke his crown
And jill came tumbling after.

31
Which stages of psychosexual development did jack and jill likely develop a fixation?
Expalin you answer?

Mary, Mary Quite Contrary

Mary, mary quite contrary,
How does your garden grow?
With silver bells, and cockles shells,
And pretty maids all in a row.
Which stages of psychosexual development did Mary likely develop a fixation?
Explain your answer?

Activity 1.2

Ask students to imagine themselves 40 years in the future and having their favorite
grandchild on their knee. Then ask them to tell the grandchild what wisdom they have
learned in life that they would like to pass on to them. Ask them to write this down on a piece
of paper without placing their names on it.

Then collect the pieces of paper, mix them up, and read them out loud. Then discuss the
advice that is being passed down and relate it to Erikson’s last stage. I then suggest they
consider living their lives in a way that would be consistent with these pearls of wisdom.

Activity 1.3

Materials: writing paper or computer access, materials that students choose to include as
they create a lesson or activity. Put students into four groups (if the class is large, consider
eight groups).Assign each group one of Piaget's stages of cognitive development:
-Sensorimotor
-Preoperational
-Concrete Operational
-Formal Operations
Instruct each group to develop a lesson or activity that might be used with children
within the age of the stage they have been assigned. The lesson or activity should be
designed to help children further develop their skills within that stage.

Once complete, each group will present (or ''teach'') their lesson or activity to the class as
if they were presenting to a group of children within the age they are working with (this
would obviously be difficult with students in the Sensorimotor stage, but the idea can still be
the same).

32
 Activity 1.4

Directions: Read the story below and relate it Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Thinking Exercise Heinz Dilemma (An Idea on Moral Reasoning)

Heinz’s wife was dying because of a special kind of cancer. There was only one
medicine that the doctors thought might cure her, but it was an advanced formula that a
pharmaceutical company had recently discovered. This drug was extremely costly to produce
due to high-cost equipment and singular production techniques. On top of that, the company
was selling the drug at a price tenfold the production costs.

Heinz went to everyone he knew to borrow money but he could only collect half of what the
drug costs. He sought an audience with the CEO of the pharmaceutical company, told him
that his wife was dying and begged him to sell the drug cheaper or allowed him to defer the
payment. But the CEO refused. He couldn’t make any exception as they had spent massive
funds in the research and equipment, and turning in a profit was the top priority for the
company.

Heinz was devastated, and at wits end about what he should do next. In the end, he
broke into the company and stole the drug for his wife .

Activity 3.5

Each student is to receive a plain piece of whole sheet of paper and access to colored and
non-colored pencils. Next, student have approximately 15 minutes to explain there
understanding of Bronferbrenner’s ecological system theory and write it down on their paper.

Evaluation

Identification
____1. Virtue that develop during Intimacy vs. Isolation.
____2. It is the sub stage of conventional where people’s decisions based on the
approval of others.
____3. It is a smallest and most immediate environment in which children live?
____4. Who was the man developed the psychosexual stages of development?
____5. When children is acting to avoid punishment.
____6. He expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain
the moral development of children.
____7. The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting

33
 back on life.
____8. An ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development.
____9. In this stage primary source of interaction occurs through mouth?
____10. According to Lawrence Kohlberg it is like cognitive development which
follows a series of stages.

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Websites
 Education,Society, and the K-12 Learner.
[Link]
stages-of-moral-development/Moral Development – Lessons - Tes Teach. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

 [Link] . Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

 Saul McLeod. (2019). The Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding.

[Link] Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

 Eric O. Burkholder, Martha Peláez. (2000). Behavioral Interpretation of Vygotsky's

Theory of Thought, Language, and Culture. [Link]
[Link]. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

 [Link]
2795962. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 [Link]
2795740. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

 [Link] Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

 [Link]
ecological-systems-theory/amp/. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

34
Module 4: Individual
Differences

Learning Outcomes

1. Determine the factors that makeup student diversity in a classroom

2. Elaborate how individual differences help to enrich the learning environment
3. Apply teaching strategies that consider student diversity to facilitate teaching-
learning process

Description

This module explains the different factors that make individuals unique from each
other. It also includes some concepts about how student diversity enriches the learning
environment. As future educator, you will be able to know how you can apply different
teaching strategies that facilitate learning in a diverse set of learners.

Factors that Makeup Student Diversity

There are many factors that make a classroom diverse because of the differences, in
one way or another, of the students that interact with each other. This includes the following:

1. Gender
2. Race
3. Ethnic or Cultural Background (nationality, province, language)
4. Socioeconomic status- socioeconomic level or status (SES) is defined by the income,
education, and occupation of members of the household.
5. Thinking/ Learning Style- some learners learn better when they get to see
something, others by hearing or manipulating something.
6. Exceptionalities- the term exceptionalities in K–12 schooling refer to both disabilities
and giftedness. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ’04 (IDEA ’04), the
national law that guarantees an appropriate education to students with disabilities,
recognizes fourteen disability categories.

How Individual Differences Help Enrich Learning Environment

In a classroom setting, a teacher may find it hard to deal with a diverse set of learners
in a learning environment. He/she might struggle to cater the learning needs of these
individuals. Challenging as it may seem, a wise and reflective teacher, rather than grumble,

35
would consider this situation as a great way to promote understanding across diversity. Below
are benefits of how individual differences or student diversity help enrich the learning
environment.

1. Student’s self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to others with

diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on their
awareness of themselves. When they see how others are different, students are given
reference points or comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own
attitudes, values, and behaviors.

2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The opportunity to gain

access to the perspective of peers and to learn from other student, rather than the
instructor only, maybe especially important for promoting the cognitive development
of the learners. Supreme Court Justice, William J. Brennan said: “the classroom is
peculiarly the market place of ideas.’ The depth and breadth of student learning are
enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in the
classroom brings about different points of view and varied approaches to the learning
process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago: “ The more
affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use
to observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this thing, our
objectivity, be.”

3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members

of society. Suzanne Mores stresses one competency that has strong implications for
instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity: "The capacity to imagine situations
or problems from all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of diversity”.
Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than just theory given by
the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a ‘public
place’ where community can be practiced.

4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is integrated into
the classroom teaching and learning process. It can become a vehicle for promoting
harmonious race relations. Through student-centered teaching strategies, diverse
students can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another on learning
task that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of
backgrounds.

Teaching Strategies on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.

Students will be made to realize that they have something in common with the rest.
They also differ in several ways.

36
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’ multicultural
and cross-cultural awareness.
 You can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that are aimed at
promoting diversity awareness. These activities could be held to coincide with
already-scheduled national weeks or months which are designated for
appreciation of diverse groups: Disability Awareness Week, Linggo ng Wika,
Indigenous People’s Week, etc.
 Let students interview other students on campus who are from diverse
backgrounds (foreign students or students from other ethnic/racial groups).
These students of different racial and ethnic origin serve as source of first-hand
information on topics related to their culture. This can also provide opportunity
for interaction among students who may otherwise never come in contact with
each other.
 Invite students to Internet discussion groups or e-mail; have students “visit”
foreign countries and “talk” to natives of those countries.
 Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of prejudice or
discrimination, and have them share these experiences with other members of
the class.

3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group
differences.

Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent a lifetime studying

human diversity across different cultures, concluded from his extensive research
that , “Every human is, at the same time, like all other humans, like some humans, and
like no other human” (cited in Wong, 1991). His observation suggests a paradox in the
human experience, namely: We are all the same in different ways. It may be important
to point out to students the biological reality that we, human beings, share
approximately 95% of our genes in common, and that less than 5% of our genes
account for the physical differences that exist among us. When focusing on human
differences, these commonalities should not be overlooked; otherwise, our repeated
attempts to promote student diversity may inadvertently promote student
divisiveness. One way to minimize this risk , and promote unity along with diversity, is
to stress the universality” of the learning experience by raising students’
consciousness of common themes that bind all groups of people- in addition to
highlighting the variations on those themes.

 Periodically place students in homogeneous groups on the basis of shared

demographic characteristics (e.g., same-gender groups or same-race/ethnicity
groups), and have them share their personal views or experiences with respect to
course issues. Then form a panel comprised of representatives from each group
who will report their group’s ideas. You can serve as moderator and identify the
key differences and recurrent themes that emerge across different groups who are
not on the panel can be assigned this task.

37
  To form group of students who are different with respect to one demographic
characteristic but similar with respect to another (e.g., similar gender but different
with respect race/ethnicity, or similar in age but different gender). This practice
can serve to increase student awareness that humans who are members of the
same group- and share similar experiences, needs or concerns.
 After students have completed self-assessment instruments (e.g., learning style
inventories or personality profiles), have them line up or move to a corner of the
room according to their individual scores or overall profile. This practice can
visibly demonstrate to students how members of different student populations
can be quite similar with respect to their learning styles or personality profiles,
i.e., students can see how individual similarities can often overshadow group
differences.

4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.

 Make a conscious attempt to call on, or draw in students from diverse groups by
using effective questioning techniques that reliably elicit student involvement. In
addition to consciously calling on them on class, other strategies for “drawing in”
and involving students include: (a) assigning them the role of reporter in small-
group discussions, i.e., the one who reports back the group’s ideas to the class,
and (b) having them engaged in paired discussions with another classmate with
the stipulation that each partner must take turns assuming the role of both
listener and speaker, and (c) scheduling instructor-student conferences with them
outside the classroom.
 Learn the names of your students, especially the foreign names that you may
have difficulty pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early personal
rapport with them which can later serve as a social /emotional foundation or
springboard for encouraging them to participate.

5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning

styles.
 Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you deliver and
present information (e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic and pictorial
representations, or “hands on” experiences).
 Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use in class:
 Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class discussions, small group
work) and teacher-centered (e.g., lectures demonstrations).
 Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial and error discovery learning)
and structured (e.g., step-by-step instructions).
 Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g., independently
completed projects, individual presentations) and interdependent learning
(e.g., collaborative learning in pairs or small groups).

6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple
contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.

38
 Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts that are
relevant to their varied backgrounds include the following:

 Have students complete personal information cards during the first week of class
and use this information to select examples or illustration that are relevant to
their personal interests and life experiences.
 Use ideas, comments and questions that student raise in class, or which they
choose to write about to help you think of examples and illustrations to use.
 Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts based on experiences
drawn from their personal lives.
 Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context that is
relevant to their lives (e.g., “How would you show respect to all persons in your
home?”).
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them
personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn
and how they will learn it.

Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with respect to learning

tasks: (a) promotes positive student attitudes toward the subject matter, (b) foster
more positive interactions among students, and (c) results in students working more
consistently with lesser teacher intervention. Also, when individuals are allowed to
exert some control over a task, they tend to experience less anxiety or stress while
performing the task.

8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.

You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what you do with
your teaching, but also varying what you ask students to do to demonstrate learning.
In addition to the traditional paper-and-pencil tests and written assignments,
students can demonstrate their learning in a variety of performance formats, such as:
(a) individually-delivered oral reports, (b) panel presentations, (c) group projects, (d)
visual presentations (e.g., concept maps, slide presentations, Power Point
presentations collages, exhibits), or (e) dramatic vignettes-presented live or on
videotape. One potential benefit of allowing students to choose how they
demonstrate their learning is that the variety of options exercised may be a powerful
way to promote student awareness of the diversity of human learning styles.

9. Purposefully, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds.

You can form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural
background, etc.

Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting student progress

to a more advanced stage of cognitive development. Peer-learning groups may
promote this cognitive advancement because: (a) the instructor is removed from
center stage, thereby reducing the likelihood that the teacher is perceived as the
ultimate or absolute authority; and (b) students are exposed to the perspectives of

39
 other students, thus increasing their appreciation of multiple viewpoints and
different approaches to learning.

Other Tips on Student Diversity

1. Learn about your own culture

Become aware of how the influence of your own culture, language, social interests,

Goals, cognitions, and values could prevent you from learning how you could best teach
your students of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.
2. Learn about your students’ culture
Understand how your students’ cultures affect their perceptions, self-esteem, values,
classroom behavior, and learning. Use that understanding to help your students feel
welcomed, affirmed, respected, and valued.

3. Understand your students’ linguistic traits

Learn how students’ patterns of communication and various dialects affect their
classroom learning and how second-language learning affects their acquisition of literacy.

4. Use this knowledge to inform your teaching

Let your knowledge of your students’ diverse cultures inform your teaching. This,
along with a sincerely caring attitude, increases student participation and engagement.

5. Use multicultural books and materials to foster cross-cultural understanding

Are open to a variety of instructional strategies as students’ cultures may make
certain strategies (such as competitive games or getting students to volunteer
information) uncomfortable for them.

6. Know about your students’ home and school relationships

Collaborate with parents and caregivers on children’s literacy development and
don’t rely on preconceived notions of the importance of literacy within your students’
families. Acquiring this rich store of knowledge may seem overwhelming, but whatever
investment you can make will be well worth the time and effort. Make it a career-long
goal to build your knowledge bases a little piece at a time.

Guide Questions

1. What are the different factors that compose student diversity?

2. In your own words, what other tips or strategies you can use to teach diverse
learners?
3. Why it is important to consider individual differences when teaching?

40
 Activity 1

Form a group of five members. In each group, there will be an assigned task whether to make
a poster, slogan, poem, song or a role play that relates to individual differences. The outputs
will be presented in front of the class.

Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Mastery: 20%
Organization: 30%
Total 100%

Evaluation

Essay. In a sheet of paper, explain in your own words how student diversity enriches the
learning environment.

Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Organization: 50%
Total 100%

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Websites
 [Link] Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

 [Link] Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

41
Module 5:
Learning/Thinking Styles
and Multiple
Intelligences
Learning Outcomes

1. Discuss how individuals differ from learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences.
2. Determine how the left and right brain functions.
3. Identify the teaching strategies guided by thinking/learning styles and multiple
intelligences.

Description

Individuals have preferred ways of learning. Teachers often refer to these differences as
learning styles, though this term may imply that students are more consistent across
situations than is really the case. Individuals, including students, do differ in how they
habitually think. This module presents you the different learning styles of students and
strategies that can be used to guide these differences for a successful learning.

Learning/Thinking Styles

According to Kolb and Kolb (2005), learning style describes individual differences in
approaches to or ways of learning. A person’s learning style is a biologically and
developmentally imposed set of personal characteristics that make the same teaching
method effective for some and ineffective for others.

Some sstudents may like to make diagrams to help remember a reading assignment,
whereas another student may prefer to write a sketchy outline instead. Yet in many cases, the
students could in principle reverse the strategies and still learn the material: if coaxed (or
perhaps required), the diagram-maker could take notes for a change and the note-taker could
draw diagrams. Both would still learn, though neither might feel as comfortable as when
using the strategies that they prefer. This reality suggests that a balanced, middle-of-the-road
approach may be a teacher’s best response to students’ learning styles. Example, a student
may prefer to hear new material rather than see it; he may prefer for you to explain
something orally, for example, rather than to see it demonstrated in a video. But he may
nonetheless tolerate or sometimes even prefer to see it demonstrated. In the long run, in

42
fact, he may learn it best by encountering the material in both ways, regardless of his habitual
preferences.

Learning Styles

1. Visual - best acquire new information by sight

2. Auditory - needs to hear content explanations. He/She appreciates and learns faster
through songs and stories. He/She also finds it easier to learn through sounds.
3. Kinesthetic - they prefer activities that involve their whole bodies. Learners like him
prefer dramatizations, pantomimes, and fieldtrips. They may often be restless in
class. Role-playing and interactive games are good strategies to help them learn.
4. Tactile - learns best by manipulating materials. He/She requires experimentation and
hands-on activities to learn well. He/She needs to touch, feel, and experience.

Categories of Learning Styles

1. Imaginative learners: They perceive information concretely and process it

reflectively. They learn well by listening to and sharing with others while integrating
others’ ideas with their own experiences. They often have a difficulty with traditional
teaching approaches.
2. Analytic learners: They perceive information abstractly and process it reflectively.
They prefer sequential thinking, require details, and value what experts have to offer.
They do well in traditional classrooms.
3. Common sense learners: They process information abstractly and actively. They
enjoy practical and hands-on learning. They often find school frustrating because they
do not see an immediate use for learning.
4. Dynamic learners: They provide information concretely and process it actively. They
prefer hands-on learning and get excited with new concepts and ideas. They like
taking risks. Activities that are tedious and sequential frustrate them.

Individual Preferences

 Sound levels
 Lighting
 Temperature levels
 Seating arrangements
 Mobility
 Group sizes
 Types of learning activities
 Eating or drinking while concentrating
 Time preferences

There are two major ways to use knowledge of students’ cognitive styles (Pritchard,
2005). The first and the more obvious is to build on students’ existing style strengths and

43
preferences. A student who is field independent and reflective, for example, can be
encouraged to explore tasks and activities that are relatively analytic and that require
relatively independent work. One who is field dependent and impulsive, on the other hand,
can be encouraged and supported to try tasks and activities that are more social or
spontaneous. But a second, less obvious way to use knowledge of cognitive styles is to
encourage more balance in cognitive styles for students who need it. A student who lacks field
independence, for example, may need explicit help in organizing and analyzing key academic
tasks (like organizing a lab report in a science class). One who is already highly reflective may
need encouragement to try ideas spontaneously, as in a creative writing lesson.

The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning and
development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use of their
most highly developed intelligences (for example, the highly bodily-kinesthetic individual who
is stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much happier in a job
where they could move around, such as a recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical
therapist).

The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their
lives, examining potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art or
drama) but now have the opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or other
programs of self-development. It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in
a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia,
field trips, inner reflection, and much more.

If you’re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in economics, you
might read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that express it (logical-
mathematical), examine a graphic chart that illustrates the principle (spatial), observe the law
in the natural world (naturalist) or in the human world of commerce (interpersonal); examine
the law in terms of your own body [e.g. when you supply your body with lots of food, the
hunger demand goes down; when there’s very little supply, your stomach’s demand for food
goes way up and you get hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic and intrapersonal); and/or write a song
(or find an existing song) that demonstrates the law (perhaps Dylan’s “Too Much of
Nothing?”).

Left and Right Brain (Comparison Chart)

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)
Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
[Link] ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s name 7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual

44
 [Link] formal study design [Link] sound/music background while
studying
11. Prefers bright lights while studying 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying

Multiple Intelligences

Multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators around the country,
and hundreds of schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the way it educates
children.

1. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) - learning visually and organizing ideas

spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to “see”
things in one’s mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.
2. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) - learning through the spoken and written word. This
intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional
assessments of intelligence and achievement.
3. Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) - learning through reasoning and
problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students are
asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) - learning through interaction with one’s
environment. This intelligence is the domain of ‘overly active learners. It promotes
understanding through concrete experience.
5. Musical (Music Smart) - learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes
not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all the
senses.
6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) - learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is a
decidedly affective component of learning through which students place value on
what they learn and take ownership for their learning.
7. Interpersonal (People Smart) - learning through interaction with others. Not the
domain of children who are simply “talkative” or “overly social.” This intelligence
promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others.
8. Naturalist (Nature Smart) - learning though classification, categories and hierarchies.
The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is not simply
the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study.
9. Existential (Spirit Smart) - learning by seeing the “big picture”: “Why are we here?”
“What is my role on the world?” “What is my place in my family, school and
community?” This intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and
application of new learning.

It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/learning style and
multiple intelligences in planning activities to help their students learn effectively.

Every student has their own learning styles which speak to the understanding that
each of them learns differently. Technically, an individual’s learning style refers to the

45
preferential way in which the students absorbs, processes, comprehends and retains
information.
Teaching Strategies on Different Learning Styles

 Be inquisitive and ask them what they think about the concept/idea/topic.
 Ask them to bounce ideas off of each other and compare their ideas with others.
 Allow them to discuss and share stories.
 Include group work that accepts each other’s’ different ideas.
 Engage in a role-play that depicts different way of learning/thinking styles and
multiple intelligences.

Guide Questions

1. How do individuals differ with each other in terms of learning and thinking styles?
2. How does left and right brain function?
3. What teaching strategies must be used by the teachers to manage students with
different learning styles?

Activity 1

Divide the class into 5 groups and let every group draw one of the multiple
intelligences. Allow them to picture-out what has been drawn through a role play and
evaluate them if they have depicted it well. This will serve as an application on what they
have learned that suits with their ages. Let them include how should a teacher manages
his/her students with different learning/thinking styles.

Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Performance: 50%
Total 100%

Evaluation

Name:__________________ Course and Section:_____________

Directions: Answer the following questions shortly.

1. How can you manage a class having a percentage of 60% slow-learners?

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

2. How do you left and right brain works? Give an example based on your own.

46
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Give at least three (3) multiple intelligences and explain how applicable they are on
yourself.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Reference:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

47
Module 6: Learners with
Exceptionalities

Learning Outcomes

1. Define learners with exceptionalities

2. Distinguish the terms disability and handicap
3. Describe the basic categories of exceptional learners
4. Give what is people-first language when referring to exceptional learners and
advocate for its use

Descriptions

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in learning is
the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with exceptionalities as
persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or “average”. Most of these
learners that have disabilities require a lot of understanding, more patience and respect as
well as special education and related services if they are to reach their full potential of
development.

Introduction

The term learners with exceptionalities refers to the individuals whose physical,
behavioral, or cognitive performance is so different from the normal and additional services
are required to meet for individual’s needs. They are differ from their peers through their
differences in requirements to learning and the classroom environment in regard to factors
such as support systems, teaching methods, and social interaction with other learners and
teachers. Each group needs a special level and type of support for their individual learning
needs.

Handicap the world health organization defines handicapped person to have a loss or
limited opportunities in being involved in activities as compared to the majority of the
population. A handicap is the effect of disability. It focuses on an obstacle experienced by a
person due to a restriction in the environment.

Disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person’s

ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. World health organization defines a disabled
individual to have any lack of ability in carrying out an activity in the means viewed as normal
by the community. A disability is a reduced capacity to specifically perform a movement
detects certain sensory information, or executes a cognitive function.

48
 Handicap and disability are closely related terms which are often used concerning
people with special needs. They are usually interchangeable used, in situations, social stigma,
low self-esteem, and support system issues may be experienced by the individuals. Therefore,
the extent to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary greatly. Two persons may
have same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example, they both
hearing impairment, one knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot. The
first individual would not have as much handicap as the second one.

Categories of Exceptionalities

There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special

education practitioners would have varying terms and categories.

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

 Learning Disabilities refers to a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological

processes in the understanding or using language, written or spoken, which may
manifest itself in difficulty performing basic task like arithmetic
(dyscalculia), reading (dyslexia), writing (dysgraphia) , spelling or attention.
 Attention-Deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is manifested in either or both of
these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent
hyperactive and impulsive behavior. A with ADHD has differences in brain
development and brain activity that affect attention, the ability to sit still, and self-
control.
 Speech and communication disorder people with speech problems can understand
language code ( rules governing word construction, meaning, grouping, and
pragmatics) but there is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders,
inability to produce the sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language
comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.

Social/emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

 Autism refers to a developmental disability affecting verbal and non-verbal

communication and social interaction, manifested by different levels of impaired
social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interest.
Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable
environment.
 Mental Retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning
characterized by significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior.
There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves
appropriately in social situations.
 Emotional/Conduct disorders this involves the presence of emotional states like
depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably
disturb learning and performance in school.

49
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

 Physical and health impairments this involves physical or medical conditions (usually
long-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2)
reduced mental alertness, and /or (3) little muscle control.
 Severe and Multiple Disabilities this refers to the presence of two or more different
types of disabilities, at times at a profound level. The combination of disabilities
makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more specialized
educational programs.
 Visual Impairments these are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes or
optic nerves that prevent the normal vision even with corrective lenses. Visual
disabilities can be divided into low vision and blindness. Individuals with low vision
can function but with assistance of optical or non-optical devices and environmental
modifications and/or techniques. Blindness refers to being without functional use of
vision and reliance on other sensory systems education.
 Hearing Impairments these involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
hinder perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech. Hearing
disability can be sub-divided into hard of hearing or profoundly hard of hearing or
deaf.

Giftedness

 Giftedness this involves a significantly high level of cognitive development. There is

unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual
ability, aptitude in academics subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or
leadership. For that reason, these children require activities or services not provided
ordinarily by schools. Gifted and talented children tend to be highly motivated, learn
to read early and perform well academically.

Recognizing a Student with Learning Disability

students with
learning
disabilities...
have processing
have average or
difiulties
above average
ability (thinking
and reasoning

demonstrate a
significant
demonstrate difference
below average between
academic achievement
achievement and ability

50
People-First Language

It is a type of linguistic prescription in English. it aims to avoid perceived and

subconscious dehumanization when discussing people with disabilities and is sometimes
referred to as a type of disability etiquette (e.g., a person with disabilities, not a disabled
person). Thus, people first language tells us what conditions people have, not what they are.
Other suggestions for referring to those with disabilities include:

 Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to mentally

retarded);
 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is preferable to
confined to a wheelchair);
 Avoiding euphemism which are regarded as condescending and avoid the real issues
that result from a disability; and
 Avoiding implying illness or suffering had polio is preferable to is a polio victim, and
has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis)

Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will remind you to
have be more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with exceptionalities.

Learners with exceptionalities need more attentions and understanding from others.
The presence of impairments requires them to exert more effort to do things that others like
us find quite easy to do. We need to exert more effort to show and to make them feel that
they like normal like others them that they not. And as future teachers we should have a right
attitude and compassion neither to pity nor ridicule them will make us more effective and
have a heart to facilitate their learning and adjustment.

Teaching Strategies on Learners with Exceptionalities

Special education classes provide a unique service to physically or mentally

challenged students. The ideal special education classroom provides quality instruction to
students with disabilities. Some strategies that teachers can use to benefit all of their
students:

 Form small groups

 Create classroom centers
 Maintain an organized classroom and limit distractions
 Blend the basics with more specialized instruction
 Rotate lessons
 Provide different levels of books and materials
 Use music and video inflection
 Use multi-sensory strategies

51
 Guide Questions

1. What do learners with exceptionalities mean?

2. What are the examples of exceptionalities?

Activity 1

Divide the class into 5 groups and make a role play on how a teacher should handle those
learners with exceptionalities.

Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Performance: 50%
Total 100%

Evaluation

Directions: In a sheet of paper, answer the following questions.

1. By means of graphic organizer enumerate and discuss the basic categories of
exceptional learners.
2. Compare and contrast handicap and disability.
3. In your own words, what is people first language?
4. As future teachers, how will you deal if you have a student with disability?
5. What strategies will you perform in teaching learners with exceptionalities?

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Website
 [Link] Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 [Link]
[Link]. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 [Link]
and-disabled/

52
Module 7: Behaviorism:
Pavlov,
Thorndike,
Watson, Skinner

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the basic assumption of Behaviourism Theory.

2. Interpret the principle of the persons behind the development of Behaviorism
Theory.
3. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively.

Description

The theory of Behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior
of an individual. It emphasizes that behaviorism is mostly learned through conditioning and
reinforcement (Rewards and Punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and
the possibility of the thought processes occurring in the [Link] this module, you will learn
the principle of Behaviorism Theory for the learning progress of the student.

Introduction to Behaviorism Theory

Behaviorism refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective

methods of investigation. The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response
behaviors, and states all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. The
behaviorist movement began in 1913 when John Watson wrote an article entitled 'Psychology
as the behaviorist views it,' which set out a number of underlying assumptions regarding
methodology and behavioral analysis:

Basic Assumptions

All behavior is learned from the environment. Behaviorism emphasizes the role of
environmental factors in influencing behavior, to the near exclusion of innate or inherited
factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. We learn new behavior through
classical or operant conditioning (collectively known as 'learning theory').Therefore, when
born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).The components of a theory should be as simple
as possible. Behaviorists propose the use of operational definitions (defining variables in
terms of observable, measurable events). Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable

53
behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion: While behaviorists often
accept the existence of cognitions and emotions, they prefer not to study them as only
observable (i.e., external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically [Link],
internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated
altogether).There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that
in other [Link]'s no fundamental (qualitative) distinction between human and animal
behavior. Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well as humans (i.e.,
comparative psychology).Consequently, rats and pigeons became the primary source of data
for behaviorists,
as their environments could be easily controlled.

The Behaviorism (Biography, Laws and Theories)

Ivan Pavlov

He was a Russian Physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or
stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involves the meat, a dog and a
bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is
when he stumbled upon classical Conditioning.

Pavlov’s Experiment

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the
dog. Placing food (Unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation
(unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the
dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned
stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response).

An Illustration of Classical Conditioning:

Stage 1 - Before conditioning

Bell No Response
(Neutral stimulus)

Stage 2-During conditioning

Bell
(Neutral stimulus)

Paired with

Meat (Unconditioned Salivation

Stimulus)

54
Stage 3- After conditioning

Bell Salivation

Pavlov findings:

1. Stimulus Generalization- Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the
bell, it will salivate at other similar sound.
2. Extinction- if you stop comparing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually
cease in response to the bell.
3. Spontaneous Recovery- Extinguished response ca be “recovered” after an elapsed
time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
4. Discrimination- the dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimulus)
and discern which bell would result in the presentation of the food and which would
not.
5. Higher- Order Conditioning- Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as light may be flashed at the same
time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light
without the sound of the bell.

Edward Thorndike

He was an influential psychologist who is often referred to as the founder of modern

educational psychology. He was perhaps best-known for his famous puzzle box experiments
with cats which led to the development of his law of effect. Thorndike's principle suggests
that responses immediately followed by satisfaction will be more likely to recur. His Theory
gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago
he wrote a text book entitled, educational Psychology. He explained that the learning is result
of associations forming between stimulus (S) and response (R).The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavior theory) was that learning could be adequately explained
without considering any unobservable internal states. It is the strong connection or bond
between stimulus and response is formed.

He came up with the three laws:

1. Law of Effect- The law of effect states that the connection between a stimulus and
response is strengthened when the consequence is the positive (Reward) and the

55
 connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the
consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found that
negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some
seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
2. Law of Exercise- This tells us that the more an S-R (Stimulus-Response) bond is the
practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated
with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised
when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance.
3. Law of Readiness- This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to
the stimulus, the stronger, will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to
respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the
person. For example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie
(stimulus) you’ve been waiting for”. And suddenly the power goes off. The students
will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but ware
prevented from doing so.

John B. Watson

He was a pioneering psychologist who played an important role in

developing behaviorism. Watson believed that psychology should primarily be scientific
observable behavior. He is remembered for his research on the conditioning process, as well
as the Little Albert experiment, in which he demonstrated that a child could be conditioned to
fear a previously neutral stimulus. His research also revealed that this fear could be
generalized to other similar objects. He considered that the humans are born with a few
reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through
stimulus and response associations through conditioning.

Experiment on Albert

Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child
and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat: but Watson made a sudden
loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise,
he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was
generalized to other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then
“extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat without the loud noise.
Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today; nevertheless, his work did
clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of the emotional responses to
certain stimulus.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner

He was an American psychologist best-known for his influence on behaviorism.

Skinner referred to his own philosophy as 'radical behaviorism' and suggested that the

56
concept of free will was simply an illusion. All human action, he instead believed, was the
direct result of conditioning. Skinner’s work was different from that of the three behaviorists
before him that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behavior used in operating on the
environment). Thus, his theory came to be known as Operant Theory.

Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to event (stimuli) that
occur in the environment. A response produced a consequently such as defining a word,
hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular stimulus-response (S-R) pattern is
reinforced (reward) the individual is conditioned to respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desire response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.

Positive Reinforcement is any stimulus that is given or added to the increase the response.
An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in play area to
children who behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new
cellphone for her son who gets good grades. Still, other examples include verbal praises, star
stamps and stickers.

Negative Reinforcement is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a

response when it is withdrawn or removed. Negative reinforcer in not a punishment, in fact it
is reward. For instance, a teacher announces that student who gets an average grade of 1.5
for the two grading periods will no longer take the final examination.

The Extinction and Non-reinforcement

1. Shaping of Behavior- an animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that
pressing a level will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive
approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association
between the lever and the food reward.
2. Behavioral Chaining- comes about when series of steps are needed to be learned.
The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned.
This can be applied to a child being taught to tie shoelace. The child can be given
reinforcement (reward) until the process of tying the shoelace is learned.
3. Reinforcement Schedules- Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished,
reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more
successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules.
Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules.
4. Fixed Interval Schedule- The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of
time has passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food
(reinforcer) every 10 minutes,regardless of how many times it presses the bar.

57
 5. Variable Interval Schedules- This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount
of the time that must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may
receive food (reinforcer) different intervals, not every ten minutes.
6. Fixed Ratio Schedules- A fixed number of correct responses must occur before
reinforcement may recur. Example, the bird will be given a food (reinforcer)
everytime it presses the bar 5 times.
7. Variable Ratio Schedules- The number of correct repetitions of the correct response
for reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given a food (reinforce) after it presses
the bar 3 times, then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to
predict how many times it needs to press the bar before it gets food again.

COMPARISON CHART

Basis for Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Comparison
Meaning Classical Conditioning is a process Operant conditioning refers
in which learning is possible by to the learning in which the
forming association between organism studies the
stimuli. relation between responses
and its consequences.
Stresses on What precedes response? What follows response?

Based on Involuntary or reflexive behavior. Voluntary Behavior.

Stimulus Conditioned and Unconditioned Conditioned stimulus is not

stimuli are well defined. defined.

Occurrence of Controlled by experimenter Controlled by organism.

unconditioned
stimulus

The Behaviorism Theory is based on the behavioral study and that behavior is
determined by the environment. It occurs through interaction with the environment and we
learned how to response to the stimuli that shapes us. This emphasizes of our behavior is we
learned through conditioning and reinforcement (Having a rewards or punishment).

Guide Questions

1. What are the differences between behaviorism and behaviorist?

2. How do Classical and Operant conditioning affect the learning?
3. As a future educator, how will you apply the primary laws while you teach a topic?

58
 Activity 1

Directions: Spend time observing the child interaction in their environment such as in School.
Observe the child reacts in stimulus and how the child response to it. Pay attention on the
behavior of the child whenever there is a reward or punishment (Conditioning and
reinforcement).

Evaluation

Thorndike’s Connectionism

How would you apply the three primary Laws as a student?

Primary Laws APPLICATION

1. Law of Effect (Positive and Negative

Reinforcement)

2. Law of Exercise

3. Law of Readiness

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Websites
 [Link] . Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 [Link]
Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 [Link]
[Link]. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

59
Module 8: Neo Behaviorism:
Tolman
and
Bandura
Learning Outcomes

1. Design Tolman’s Purposive Communication.

2. Recognize the significance of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
3. Discuss the overview of each two theories.
4. Enumerate the key concepts of Tolman regarding his purposive behaviorism.
5. Appreciate the general principles of Bandura’s social learning theory.

Description

Tolman’s theorizing has been called purposive behaviorism and is often considered
the bridge between behaviorism and cognitive theory. According to Tolman’s theory of sign
learning, an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior. Tolman emphasized the organized aspect of learning: “The stimuli
which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing
responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the
central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this
tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally
determine what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.” (Tolman, 1948, p192)

Tolman (1932) proposed five types of learning: (1) approach learning, (2) escape
learning, (3) avoidance learning, (4) choice-point learning, and (5) latent learning. All forms of
learning depend upon means-end readiness, i.e., goal-oriented behavior, mediated by
expectations, perceptions, representations, and other internal or environmental variables.

Tolman’s version of behaviorism emphasized the relationships between stimuli rather

than stimulus-response (Tolman, 1922). According to Tolman, a new stimulus (the sign)
becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significate) through a series of
pairings; there was no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning. For this reason,
Tolman’s theory was closer to the connectionist framework of Thorndike than the drive
reduction theory of drive reduction theory of Hull or other behaviorists.

60
 Although Tolman intended his theory to apply to human learning, almost all of his
research was done with rats and mazes. Tolman (1942) examines motivation towards war, but
this work is not directly related to his learning theory.

Much of Tolman’s research was done in the context of place learning. In the most
famous experiments, one group of rats was placed at random starting locations in a maze but
the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had the food placed in
different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns from their starting
location. The group that had the food in the same location performed much better than the
other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the location rather than a
specific sequence of turns.

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states:
“Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most
human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one
forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action.” (p22). Social learning theory explains human
behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an
environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational learning are:
(1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity,
prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level,
perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive
organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including
physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4)
Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory

spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura’s theory improves upon the strictly
behavioral interpretation of modeling provided by Miller & Dollard (1941). Bandura’s work is
related to the theories of Vygotsky and Lave which also emphasize the central role of social
learning.

Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of

aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of
behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique
of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has
focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997).

The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are
television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a
particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people.
Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we
may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised.

61
Biography of Tolman

Edward C. Tolman is best-known for cognitive behaviorism, his research on cognitive

maps, the theory of latent learning and the concept of an intervening variable. Tolman was
born on April 14, 1886, and died on November 19, 1959.

Early Life of Edward C. Tolman

Tolman originally started his academic life studying physics, mathematics, and
chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After reading William James'
Principles of Psychology, he decided to shift his focus to the study of psychology. He enrolled
at Harvard where he worked in Hugo Munsterberg's lab. In addition to being influenced by
James, he also later said that his work was heavily influenced by Kurt Koffka and Kurt Lewin.
He graduated with a Ph.D. in 1915.

Tolman's Career and Contributions to Psychology

Tolman is perhaps best-known for his work with rats and mazes. Tolman's work
challenged the behaviorist notion that all behavior and learning is a result of the basic
stimulus-response pattern.

In a classic experiment, rats practiced a maze for several days. Then, the familiar path
they normally took was blocked. According to the behaviorist view, the rats had simply
formed associations about which behaviors were reinforced and which were not. Instead,
Tolman discovered that the rats had formed a mental map of the maze, allowing them to
choose a novel path to lead them to the reward.

His theory of latent learning suggests that learning occurs even if no reinforcement is
offered. Latent learning is not necessarily apparent at the time, but that appears later in
situations where it is needed.

Tolman's concepts of latent learning and cognitive maps helped pave the way for the
rise of cognitive psychology.

Biography of Bandura

Albert Bandura, (born December 4, 1925, Mundare, Alberta, Canada), Canadian-born

American psychologist and originator of social cognitive theory who is probably best known
for his modeling study on aggression, referred to as the “Bobo doll” experiment, which
demonstrated that children can learn behaviors through the observation of adults.

Early Life and Work

Bandura was the youngest of six children born to parents of eastern European
descent. His father was from Kraków, Poland, and his mother from Ukraine; both immigrated
to Canada as adolescents. After marrying, they settled in Mundare, Alberta, where Bandura’s
father worked laying track for the trans-Canada railroad.

62
 After graduating from high school in 1946, Bandura pursued a bachelor’s degree at
the University of British Columbia and in 1949 graduated with the Bolocan Award in
psychology, annually awarded to the outstanding student in psychology. He then did graduate
work at the University of Iowa, where he received a master’s degree in psychology (1951) and
a doctorate in clinical psychology (1952).

In 1953 Bandura accepted a one-year instructorship at Stanford University, where he

quickly secured a professorship. In 1974 he was named the David Starr Jordan Professor of
Social Science in Psychology, and two years later he became chairman of the psychology
department. He remained at Stanford, becoming professor emeritus in 2010.

Later Life and Work

Bandura was the first to demonstrate (1977) that self-efficacy, the belief in one’s own
capabilities, has an effect on what individuals choose to do, the amount of effort they put into
doing it, and the way they feel as they are doing it. Bandura also discovered that learning
occurs both through those beliefs and through social modeling—thereby originating social
cognitive theory (1986), which holds that a person’s environment, cognition, and behaviour
all interact to determine how that person functions, as opposed to one of those factors
playing a dominant role.

Bandura received numerous awards for his contributions to the field of psychology,
including the American Psychological Association (APA) Award for Outstanding Lifetime
Contribution to Psychology (2004), the American Psychological Foundation’s Gold Medal
Award for distinguished lifetime contribution to psychological science (2006), and the
University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for Psychology (2008; carrying a $200,000 prize)
for his groundbreaking work in self-efficacy and cognitive theory. In 2016 he received the
National Medal of Science. Bandura also held many organizational memberships and
positions, including APA president (1974) and American Academy of Arts and Sciences (AAAS)
fellow (1980).

Bandura was associated for many years with a variety of academic journals, including
the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Applied Psychology, Media Psychology, Cognitive
Therapy and Research, Behavior Research and Therapy, and Social Behavior and Personality.
He also authored, coauthored, or edited a number of books, including Adolescent Aggression
(1959), Principles of Behavior Modification (1969), Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis
(1973), and Social Learning Theory (1977). In 2002 the Review of General Psychology ranked
Bandura as the fourth most eminent psychologist of the 20th century, following B.F. Skinner,
Jean Piaget, and Sigmund Freud.

Introduction

With new researches, explanations provided by the basic principles of behaviorism

appeared not to satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came into view which maintained
some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded others, and added new ideas which later came

63
to be associated with the cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorists, then, were a
transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.

NEO BEHAVIORISM

Tolman's Bandura's
Purposive Behaviorism Social-Learning Theory

Goal Directedness Principles

Cognitive Maps Modeling

Latent Learning Four Conditions For

Effective Modeling
Intervening Variables
MAZE A MAZE B

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often
seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman’s theory was founded on
two psychological views: those of the Gestalt psychologists and those of John Watson, the
behaviorist.

64
 Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs
and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through
purposeful and goal-directed behavior.

Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal,
i.e.., learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized aspect of
learning. “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one
switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over
and elaborated in the central control room into a cognitive-like map of the environment. And
it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which
finally determine what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.”

Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between stimuli rather than
stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with
already meaningful stimuli (the significate) through a series of pairings; there was no need for
reinforcement in order to establish learning. In your maze activity, the new stimuli or “sign”
(maze B) became associated with already meaningful stimuli, the significate (maze A). So you
may have connected the two stimuli, maze A and maze B; and use your knowledge and
experience in maze A to learn to respond to maze B.

Tolman Key Concepts

Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.

Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion
that an organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do
more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and
they strived toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic, purposive and cognitive.

Cognitive maps in rats.

In his most famous experiment, one group of rats was placed at random starting
locations in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats had
the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same pattern of turns
from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location performed
much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the
location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is tendency to “learn location” signified
the rats somehow formed cognitive maps that help them perform well on the maze. He also
found out that organisms will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.

Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route going to school
every day, he requires cognitive map of location of his school. So when transportation re-
routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to school the shortest or
easiest way.

Latent Learning

65
 Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed.
It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even
without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently
learned the maze by forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of
the maze only when they needed to.

Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the T.V.
remote control and observes how the T.V. is turned on or how channel is changed, and
volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are surprised that on the first time that their
daughter holds the remote control, she already knows which buttons to press for what
function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills beforehand, even though she has
never done them before.

The concept of intervening variable.

Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen but serve as
determinants 'of behavior, Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by
expectations perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental
variables. Example, in his experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening
variable.

Reinforcement, not essential for learning.

Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an
incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire
knowledge of the way through a maze, .i.e., to developa cognitive map, even in the absence
of reinforcement.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers
that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning,
imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam’s execution on
TV and then must have imitated it.

Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory.

General principles of social learning theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.

2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that learning has to be
represented by a permanent change' in behavior, in contrast social learning theorists say that

66
because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be
shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior change.

3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning theory has become
increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning Awareness and expectations of
future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people
exhibit

4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist

learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

How the Environment Reinforces and Punishes Modelling

People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested
that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several possible ways: ' e

1. The observer is reinforced by the model. For example a student who changes dress to
fit in with a certain group of students has a strong likelihood of being accepted and
thus reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be modeling the
actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class leader or student. The
teacher notices this and compliments and praises the observer for modeling such
behavior thus reinforcing the behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Man, behaviors that
we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcement results. For example, a
student in my multimedia class could observe how the extra work a classmate does is
fun. This student in tins would do the same extra work and also experience
enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer‘s behavior l vicariously.
This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a
response and then the observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura
illustrated this by having students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown
doll. One group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without
being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll.

Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have

indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a
behavior that has been learned.

67
 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote
learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning, and attention is
influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example would be, when the
teacher tells a group of students that what they will study next is not on the test.
Students will not pay attention because they do not expect to know the information
for a test.

Cognitive Factors in Social Learning

Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually
operant factors).

1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning

through observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned. This is similar
to Tolman’s latent learning.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists contend that attention
is a critical factor in learning:
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the
consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors
to bring reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs to be
aware, however, of the response reinforcements and response punishment.
Reinforcement increases a response only when the learner is aware of that
connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the
environment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the person, the
behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual
person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can
be a person or action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape,
computer programs.

Behaviors that can be learned through Modeling

Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling. Examples that can be cited
are, students can watch parents read, students can watch the demonstrations of mathematics
problems, or see someone act bravely in a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned
through models. Research indicates that children become more aggressive when they
observed aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by
observation and modeling. This includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong which
can, in part, develop through modeling.

Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur

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 Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else:

1. Attention- The person must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention- The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of 1ncreasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction- The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that
the model has just demonstrated. This means that the observer has to be able to
replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready
developmentally to replicate the action. For example, little children have difficulty
doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation- The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation.
Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since
these four conditions vary among individuals, different people will reproduce the
same behavior differently.

Effects of Modeling on Behavior

1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.

2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example a student might
see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in football because he is not tall
enough for basketball.

Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. '
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with learners
about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead of
using shaping, which is operant conditioning; modeling can provide a faster, more
efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling, a teacher
must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor
reproduction, and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they do
not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is
especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

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 Guide Questions

1. What is Neo behaviorism?

2. What is the connection between Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism and Bandura’s
Social Learning Theory?
3. Why did Tolman conclude that reinforcement is not essential for learning?
4. What are the factors in social learning?

Activity 1

Form a group with five members and discuss about the two theories of Tolman and Bandura.
After discussing it in your group, formulate at least 5 questions that will be answered by the
other groups. Each group should not throw questions that are relevant to the questions of
other group. This question and answer challenge is for you to master the overview of Neo
Behaviorism.

Evaluation

Multiple Choice. Read the following questions below and choose the best answer that
corresponds to the questions.

1. These were the transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive theories of learning.
a. Existentialists b. Psychologists c. Behaviorists d.
Behaviorists
2. Tolman’s theory was founded on these two psychological views. One of these is the
Gestalt psychologists and those of ____________?
a) Those of Bandura’s theories
b) Those of John Locke’s view of formal discipline

c) Those of John Watson, the behaviorist

d) Those of John Dewey, the pragmatist
3. Why does Tolman believe that learning is a cognitive process?
a. Because learning requires intelligent mind
b. Because it involves active awareness of cognitive development
c. Because it involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge
d. Because learning is individual’s power to survive
4. These were the transitional group, bridging the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive theories of learning.

70
 a. Existentialists b. Psychologists c. Behaviorists d.
Behaviorists
5. Tolman’s theory was founded on these two psychological views. One of these is the
Gestalt psychologists and those of ____________?
a. Those of Bandura’s theories
b. Those of John Locke’s view of formal discipline
c. Those of John Watson, the behaviourist
d. Those of John Dewey, the pragmatist
6. Why does Tolman believe that learning is a cognitive process?
a. Because learning requires intelligent mind
b. Because it involves active awareness of cognitive development
c. Because it involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge
d. Because learning is individual’s power to survive
7. Purposive behaviorism is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive
theory and is also referred to as ___________?
a. Social learning theory
b. Cognitive theory
c. Gestalt theory
d. Sign learning theory
8. Where does social learning theory focus?
a. Environment b. Family c. Friends and peers d. Social context

True or False. Write true if the statement is correct and write false if it’s not, then underline
the word/s that are incorrect and write the correct answer through the given space before
each number.

__________1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have
direct effects on learning.

__________2. Neo behaviorism has aspects of behaviorism but it also reaches out to the
cognitive perspective.

__________3. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual
until needed.

__________4. “Modeling may discourage previously forbidden behaviors” is one of the

effects of modeling on behavior.

__________5. On educational implications of Bandura’s theory, students often learn a great

deal simply by learning other people

References

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing

71
B. Website
 [Link]
andura_INRODUCTION. . Retrieved November 17, 2019.

Module 9: Cognitive
Perspective

Learning Outcomes

1. Describe the different gestalt principles.

2. List ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teaching–learning process
3. Demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of gestalt principles in the teaching–
learning process

Description

Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the
foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic
focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental processes and products of perception.

GESTALT THEORY

Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the
importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt
means “form” or “configuration.” Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt
Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but
rather active. They suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they
actively process and restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process.
Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experience, needs,
attitude and one’s present situation can affect their perception.

According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided
by certain principles or laws. These principles or laws
determine what we see or make of things or situations we
meet.

Gestalt Principles

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(1) Law of Proximity. Elements that are close together will be perceived as a coherent object.
On the left there appears to be three columns, while on the right, there appears to be three
horizontal rows. When objects we are perceiving are near each
other, we perceive them as belonging together.

(2) Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will

be perceived as part of the same form. There seems
to be a triangle in the square. We link similar
elements together.

(3) Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we
perceive. We enclose a space by completing a contour and ignoring
gaps in the figure.

(4) Law of Good Continuation. Individuals have the tendency to

continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern
establish an implied direction. People tend t draw a good
continuous line.

(5) Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as

good a figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry,\
simplicity and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square
overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several
complicated shaped. Based on our experiences with perception,
we “expect” certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern.

(6) Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay attention

and perceive things in the foreground
first. A stimulus will be perceived as separate from
its ground. (Figures designed by jenny Fultz of
Anderson University)

Insight Learning

Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or

insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he
described experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve
problems. In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top of a chimpanzee’s cage. The

73
banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing on and jumping from a box. Only one
of Kohler’s apes (Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more difficult problem which
involved the stacking of boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to
stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler
also gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage. Sultan, Kohler’s very
intelligent ape, was able to master a two-stick problem by insetting one stick into the end of
the other in order to reach the food In each of these problems, the important aspect of
learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations
(of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning.

Kohler proposed the view that might follows from the characteristics of objects under
consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when the individual perceived
the relationships of the elements before him and reorganizes there elements and comes to a
greater understanding or insight. This could occur without reinforcement, and once it occurs,
no review, training, or investigation is necessary. Significantly, insight is not necessarily
observable by another person.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process

The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also impact on
learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on Gestalt psychology. His theory
focusing on “life space” adhered to Gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner
and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his learning. Inner forces include his own
motivation, attitudes and feelings. Outer forces may include the attitude and behavior of the
teacher and classmates. All these forces interact and impact on the person’s learning. Maria
Polito, an Italian psychologist, writes about the relevance of Gestalt psychology to education.

Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and
now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as students. It takes interest in
the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying all
that emerge. It stimulates learning as experience and the experience as a source of learning.
It appreciates the affections and meaning that awe attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is
conceived as a continuous organization and rearrangement of information according to
needs, purposes and meanings. It asserts that learning is not accumulation but remodelling or
insight. Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The time
necessary for assimilation and for cognitive and existential remodelling is respected. The
contact experience between teachers and students is given value: an authentic meeting based
on sharing ideas and affections.

Guide Questions

1. What are gestalt principles?

2. What are Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process?

74
 Activity 1

Do you sense good or evil? What was your experience in figuring out the picture?
(easy, took time, etc.) What helped you perceived the interesting picture? How did
you go about examining the picture (focus on the background, the foreground, the
shape, etc.)?

Evaluation

True or False. Write T if the statement is correct and F if it is false.

_____1. The law of proximity explained that similar lessons should be grouped together to
make learners develop understanding more effectively.
_____2. Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to essentialism.
_____3. The law of good continuation explained that lessons should be taught closely to each
other.
_____4. According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our perceptions are guided
by certain principles.
_____5. The law of closure tends to fill the gaps to the figure we perceive.

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

75
Module 10: Information
Processing
Learning Outcomes

1. Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving knowledge.

2. Cite educational implications of the theory on Information processing

Description

Information Processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how

knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most
significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the
teaching-learning process.

Information Processing Theory (IPT)

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The terms used
in the Information Processing Theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In fact, those who program
and design computers aim to make computers solve problems through processes similar to
that of the human mind.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what
is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior
change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and
retrieve information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what he/she

76
receives shapes what she/he will learn. All those notions comprise what is called the
information processing theory.

IPT describes how the learners receives information or (stimuli) from the
environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the
information continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and
long-term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be
retrieve or “remembered” when the learner needs it.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

“Types” of Knowledge

 General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or
only in one.
 Declarative: This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things
are. They maybe in the form of a word or an image.
 Procedural: This includes knowledge on how to do things.
 Episodic: This includes memories of life events.
 Conditional: This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative or
procedural strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short term
memory, and the long term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the
progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive
structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc).

These three primary stages in IPT are:

 Encoding - Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

 Storage - The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
 Retrieval - the information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for
use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could described in a stage-like
model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the

77
memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theorist of information
processing revolved around three main stages in the memory process:

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information to a very brief time.

 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what
our minds can hold or perceive
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief
period- the order of one to three seconds.
 There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more
persistent than visual.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

 Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information, sometimes described
as 7 + /-2. It is called working memory because it is where new information is
temporarily placed while it is mentally processed. STM maintains information for a
limited time, until the learner has adequate researches to process the information or
until the information is forgotten.
 Duration: around 18 seconds or less.
 To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance
rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information active on STM.

Long- Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the
stored information until needed again.
 Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
 Duration: duration in the LTM is indefinite.

Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred
to as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system
help the learner make informed decisions about how to categorize, organize or interpret
information.

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Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

 Decay: information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’ away. Very prevalent in
working memory.
 Interference: New or old information 'blocks' access to the information in question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval for Information

1. Rehearsal: This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or allowed.

2. Meaningful Learning: This is making connections between new information and prior
knowledge.
3. Organization: It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that
is organized efficiently should be recalled.
4. Elaboration: This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one
already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
5. Visual Imagery: This means forming a “teacher” of the information.
6. Generation: Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear’.
7. Context: Remembering the situation helps recover information.
8. Personalization: It is making the information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods

1. Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy): You will remember the beginning and
end of a ‘list’ more readily.
2. Part Learning: Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk” information to increase memorization.
3. Distributed Practice: Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in
at once (Massed Practice).
4. Mnemonic Aids: These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help
them retain and retrieve information more effectively.

79
The Information Processing Model

Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory memory for a
brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may decay. It goes to the STM and if
given attention and is perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM. If not properly
encoded, forgetting occurs. Different cognitive processes applied to the information will then
determine if information can be retrieved when needed later.

Guide Questions

1. What is the importance of IPT or Information Processing Theory?

2. What is the difference between long term and short term theory?
3. What are some methods that can increase your retrieval of information?

Activity 24

As a small group, cite a teaching implication of the information process given in the
below. One is done for you.

Process Teaching Implication/s

1. Information is received through the 1.1 Be sure that the learners’ senses are
senses. functioning well.
1.2

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 2. If information is not relevant, it decays. 2.1

2.2

3. If information goes to the Short Term 3.1

Memory and if given attention and is found
to be relevant, it is sent to the Long Term 3.2
Memory.

4. If information is not properly encoder, 4.1

forgetting occurs.
4.2

5. There are methods to increase retrieval of 5.1

information when needed.
5.2

Evaluation

Essay. Answer the following questions briefly.

1. As a student, how are you going to use the different techniques to make information
processing more effective?
2. How will you apply this theory in your daily life?
3. What do you think is the importance of the of the IPM in your learning/

Reference:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing

81
Module 11: Gagne's
Conditions of
Learning
Learning Outcomes

1. Explain Gagne's conditions of learning

2. Make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne's instruction events.
3. Articulate the benefits of using Gagne's principles in teaching.

Description

This module stipulates that there are several different types of or levels of learning.
The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of
instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual
skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external
conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be
learned, there ,must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn
attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Introduction

In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning. He stressed
that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his
theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided nine instruction events that serve as
basis for the sequencing of instruction.

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Gagne's Conditions of Learning

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne's theory

asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning. Futhermore, the
theory implies that each different type of learning calls for different types of
instruction. Gagne named five categories of learning; verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Distinct internal
and external conditions are required for each type of learning. For instance, for
cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be an opportunity for problem solving;
to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to credible role model or arguments
that are convincing and moving. Below are the categories of learning worth
corresponding learning outcomes and conditions of learning.

Category of Examples of Learning Conditions of Learning

Learning Outcome
Verbal Stating previously 1. Draw attention to distinctive
Information learned materials such features by variations in print and
as facts, concepts, speech.
principles and
produces, e.g. listing 2. Present information so that it
the 14 learner-centered can be made into chunks.
psychological principles.
3. Provide a meaningful context for
effective encoding of information.

4. Provide cues for effective recall

and generalization of information.
Intellectual Discriminations: 1. Call attention to distinctive
Skills: Distinguishing objects, features.
Discrminations, features or symbols,
Concrete e.g., distinguishing an 2. Stay within the limits of working
Concepts, even and an odd memory.
Defined number.
Concepts, 3. Stimulate the recall of previously
Rules, Higjer Concrete Concepts: learned component.
Order Rules Identifying classes of
concrete objects, 4. Present verbal cues to the
features or events e. g., ordering or combination of
picking out all the red components skills.
beads from a bowl of
beads. 5. Schedule occasions for practice
and spaced review.
Defined Concepts:
classifying new 6. Use a variety of contexts to

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 examples of events or promote transfer.
ideas by their
definition, e.g., nothing
"she sells sea shells" as
alliteration.

Rules: Applying a single

relationship to solve a
class of problems, e.g.,
computing average
monthly income of a
company.

Order Rules: Applying a

new combination of
rules to solve a comples
problem, e.g.,
generating a balanced
budget for a school
organization.
Cognitive Employing personal 1. Describe or demonstrate the
Strategies ways to guide learning, strategy.
thinking, acting and
feeling, 2. Provide a variety of occasions for
e.g.,constructing practice using the strategy.
concept maps of
topucs being studied. 3. Provide informative feedback as
to the creativity or origibality of
the strategy or outcome.

Attitudes Choosing personal 1. Establish an expectancy of

actions based pn success associated with the desired
internal states of attitude.
uderstanding and
feeling, e.g., decidimg 2. Assure student identification with
to avoid soft drinks and an admired human model.
drinking atleast 8
glasses of water 3. Arrange for communication or
everyday. demonstration of choice of
personal action.

4. Give feedback from successful

performance; or allow observation
of feedback in the human model.
Motor Skills Executing prformances 1. Present verbal or other guidance

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 involving the use of to cue the executive subroutine.
muscles, e.g., doing the
steps of thr singkil 2. Arrange repeated practice.
dance.

[Link] immediate feedback as to

the accuracy of performance.

4. Encourage the use of mental

practice.

2. Learning hierachies define what intellectual skillss are to be learned and as a

sequence of instruction. Gagne suggest that learning tasks for intellectual skills can
be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity; stimulus recognition, response
generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept,
formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary sighificance of the
hierarchy is to identify prerequistes that should be completed to facilitate learning at
each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training
task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for tje sequencing of ininstruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of
learning. These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning
and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media. The
theory includes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes.

(1) gaining attention (reception)

(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy)

(3) stimulating recall of prior (selective perception)

(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception)

(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

(6) eliciting performance (responding)

(7) providing feedback (reinforcement)

(8) assessing performance ( retrieval)

(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)

Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events of instruction.

85
Example: Lesson: Equilateral Triangles
Objective: For students to create equilateral triangles

Target group: Grade 4 pupils

1. Gain attention- show variety of computer generated triangles

2. Identify objective - pose question: "What isa an equilateral tiangle?"
3. Recall prior learning-review definition of equilateral triangle
4. Present stimulus- give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning-show example of how to create an equilateral triangle
6. Elicit performance- ask students to create 5 different examples
7. Provide feedback- check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Asses performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer- show pictures of objects and ask students to
identify equilaterals

Guide Questions

1. What are the different instructions required for different learning outcomes?
2. What ways constitute the conditions of learning?
3. Define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction?

Activity 1

After reading the entire module, see if you can arrange the nine steps in lesson presentation
(instructional events) in their proper order. Read and arrange the steps by numbering them.
Form groups of 5 for this activity.

1. Guidance of student's performance

2. Recall prior learning
3. Enhance retention and transfer
4. Gain attention
5. Provide feedback
6. Assess performance
7. Present stimulus
8. Elicit performance
9. Identify the objective

Evaluation

86
Enumerate the categories of learning in Gagne's conditions of learning and give your insight
about it using any kind on graphic organizer.

Reference:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing

Module 12: Ausubel’s

Meaningful Verbal Learning/
Subsumption Theory

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory

2. Determine the use of graphic organizers
3. Apply advance graphic organizers for a topic presentation

Description

Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or presentational

manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major role in learning as providers
of information, while students remain as passive receivers of information. David Ausubel’s,
instead of criticizing this manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested
the use of advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his Theory of Meaningful Verbal
Learning.

Introduction to Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory

The main theme of Ausubel’s theory is that knowledge is hierarchically organized;

that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored)
to what is already known. It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful
material from verbal / textual presentations in a school setting. He proposed the use of
advance organizers as a tool for learning.

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Basic Assumptions to Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory:

One of the strongest criticisms of the information processing model was that it did
not account for variation in the effort necessary to acquire knowledge of different content
types or by different learners. Ausubel was formally referring to his theory
as assimilation theory in order to “emphasize a major characteristic; the important interactive
role that existing cognitive structures play in the process of new learning” (Ausubel et al.,
1978). To contextualize his theory, Ausubel et al. distinguished between two types of
learning, rote and meaningful, and argued that contrary to some popular claims. Most school
learning was not rote, but meaningful.

The rote learning of lists of nonsense syllables and arbitrarily paired adjectives is
representative of few defensible learning tasks in modern classrooms. Like memorization of
representational equivalents (lists of vocabulary in foreign language study, the values of
various constants in mathematics and science) tends to form a very small portion of the
curriculum, especially beyond the elementary school years, once children have mastered the
basic letter and number symbols. While Meaningful learning of verbally presented materials
constitutes the principal means of augmenting the learner’s store of knowledge, both within
and outside the classroom. Hence, no research program purporting to advance this objective
can avoid coming to grips with the fundamental variables involved in meaningful learning.

According to Ausubel et al. (1978) both rote and meaningful learning could occur in
two different modes, reception and discovery. Though not completely against them, Ausubel
et al. felt that “discovery methods of teaching hardly constitute an efficient primary means of
transmitting the content of an academic discipline. This inefficiency was due to the extra
effort required by the learner. Where in reception learning “the entire content of what is to
be learned is presented to the learner in its final form” (Ausubel, 1961), discovery learning
requires a much greater effort in which learners must “rearrange a given array of information,
integrate it with existing cognitive structure, and reorganize or transform the integrated
combination in such a way as to create a desired end product or discover the missing means-
end relationship”. In the end “the discovered content is internalized just as in reception
learning”.

In verbal reception learning, presented material is merely “internalized,” i.e., made

available (functionally reproducible) for future use. Reception learning is meaningful provided
that the learner adopts a set to relate the material to cognitive structure, and that the
material itself is logically, i.e., non-arbitrarily, relatable thereto. In other words, pupils do not
independently have to discover concepts or generalizations before they can understand or
use them meaningfully. (Ausubel, 1962)

Ausubel assumed a model of cognitive organization that supposed “the existence of a

cognitive structure that is hierarchically organized in terms of highly inclusive conceptual
traces under which are subsumed traces of less inclusive sub-concepts as well as traces of

88
specific informational data”. Ausubel et al. (1978) later described three learning processes by
which new knowledge is assimilated into existing cognitive structure.

Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory

Focus of Ausubel’s Theory

1. The important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of
the learner’s present knowledge. This present knowledge consists of facts, concepts,
propositions, theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to
his/her cognitive structure.

2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some

sensible way to ideas that the learner already possess. Ausubel believed that before
new material can be strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of
new information is facilitated (assimilation). The way to strengthen the student’s
cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow students to already
have a bird’s eye view or to see the “big picture “of the topic to be learned even
before going to the details.

Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of

subsumption. He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process by
which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Likewise,
Ausubel pointed out, that what is learned is based on what is already known. This signifies
that one’s own prior knowledge and biases limit and affect what is learned. Also retention of
new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts.

Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:

Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new information
you learn is an example of a concept that you already learned. Let’s say you have acquired a
basic concept such as “bird”. You know that a bird has feathers, a beak, lays egg (schema).
Now you learn about a kind of that you have never seen before, let’s says an Isabela oriole
(assimilation), that conforms attached to your previous understanding of bird. Your new
knowledge of Isabela oriole is attached to your concept of bird, without substantially altering
that concept in any way (accommodation). So in Ausubel’s theory, you had learned about
Isabela oriole through the process of derivative subsumption.

Correlative subsumption. Examine this example. Now, let’s say you see new kind of
bird that has a really big body and long strong legs. It doesn’t fly but can run fast. In order to
accommodate this new information, you have to expand your concept of bird to include the
possibility of being big and having long legs. You now include your concept of an ostrich to
your previous concept of what a bird is. You have learned about this new kind of bird through

89
the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense you might say that this is more “valuable”
learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the higher-level concept.

Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with passion
pomegranate, strawberry, grapes, apple etc., but the child did not know, until he or she was
taught, that these were all examples of fruits. In this case, the child already knew a lot of
examples of the concept, but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to him/her.
This is Superordinate learning.

Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior
knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts. The first three learning processes
all include new information that relates to a hierarchy at a level that is either below or above
previously acquired knowledge. Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by
which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the
hierarchy, but at the same level (in a different, but related, “branch”). It is a lot like as learning
by analogy. For example, to teach someone how plants “breathe” you might relate it to
previously acquired knowledge of human respiration where man inhales oxygen and exhales
carbon dioxide.

Advance Organizers.

The advance organizer is a major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. The

advance organizer gives you two benefits:

1. You will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about
the topic.

2. You can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other.

As you go about learning and go through the four learning processes, the advance
organizers helps you link the new learning to your existing scheme. As such, advance
organizers facilitate learning by helping you organize and strengthen your cognitive structure.

Ausubel stressed that advance organizers are not the same with overviews and
summaries which simply emphasize key ideas that presented at the same level of abstraction
and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers acts as a subsuming bridge between
new learning material and existing related ideas.

Types of Advance Organizers:

1. Expository - describes the new content.

90
2. Narrative – presents the new information in the form of a story to students.

3. S
kimming – is done by looking over the new content to gain abasic overview.

91
 4. Graphic Organizer – visual set up or outline the new information. This may include
pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns and concept maps.

Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning /Subsumption Theory.

Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of

meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast to
theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments). According to Ausubel, learning
is based upon the kinds of superordinate, representational, and combinatorial processes that
occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in
which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a
substantive, non-verbatim basis. Cognitive structures represent the residue of all learning
experiences; forgetting occurs because certain details get integrated and lose their individual
identity.

Furthermore Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from

overviews and summaries which simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same

92
level of abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming
bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.

Ausubel’s theory has commonalities with Gestalt theories and those that
involve schema (e.g., Bartlett) as a central principle. There are also similarities with Bruner’s
“spiral learning” model , although Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves
reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of new structures as
constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on
cognitive development.

Guide Questions

1. How do advance organizers hasten the learning of the students?

2. As a future educator, how would you apply Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/
Subsumption Theory?
3. How does Ausubel’s theory, Gestalt psychology and Bruner’s theory are interrelated
and explain how their concepts and principles complement each other.

Activity 12

Directions: Choose any topic in this module and present your output using a graphic
organizer. Work individually.

Evaluation

Name:__________________________ Course & Year level:___________

Directions: Give your answer on the following questions. Write it on a sheet of paper.

1. Discuss the implications of four meaningful learning processes?

2. How can the advance organizer help the students?
3. How it important is that advance organizer is presented prior to the discussion?

References:

A. Books

93
  Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:
Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 Underwood, B. J. (1959). Verbal learning in the educative processes. Harvard
Educational Review. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 Ebbinghaus (1913). Individual differences in retention and acquisition, as well as
differences based on different content types were noted at least as early as 1913.
Retrieved November 18, 2019
 [Link]
2/the-cognitive-perspective/subsumption-theory-david-p-ausubel-1962/. Retrieved
November 18, 2019

Module 13: Bruner’s

Constructivism
Theory
Learning Outcomes

1. Describe the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge.

2. Explain how the spiral curriculum works.

Description

94
 Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major theme in
the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new
ideas or concepts based upon their current or past knowledge. The outcome of cognitive
development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience "generic coding
systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions"
(Bruner, 1957, p. 234). Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of representing the
"recurrent regularities" in their environment.

So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts,
categories, and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture, but also the
ability to "invent" these things for oneself.

Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and

"culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities." These
culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as computers and
television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes phenomena,
and language itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky that language serves to mediate
between environmental stimuli and the individual's response.

The Bruner’s main concepts

Representation of Knowledge

Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These three
stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge.

1. Enactive representation (action-based)

This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our
memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might
remember the action of shaking a rattle.

The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e. an infant will “shake a
rattle” which has just been removed or dropped, as if the movements themselves are
expected to produce the accustomed sound. And this is not just limited to children.

Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a
lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word)
form.

2. Iconic representation

This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in
the mind’s eye). For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may

95
explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or
illustrations to accompany verbal information.

3. Symbolic representation

This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol,
such as language. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images
have a fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single
class.

Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc., so the
user isn’t constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored
primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.

Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to
follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even
for adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner
even of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is
organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.

Spiral curriculum

Bruner stressed that teaching should always lead to boosting cognitive development.
Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan to teach it using only the teacher’s
level of understanding. Instruction needs to be anchored on the learners ‘cognitive
capabilities. The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format
appropriate to the learner’s current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized
in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already
learned.

THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning“. Bruner
believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fits the
child's cognitive abilities. This feature specifically states the experiences which move the
learner toward a love of learning in general or of learning something in particular.

 Motivational cultural and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner emphasized

social factors and early teachers and parental influence on this.
 He believed that learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of
the task of a teacher is to maintain and direct a child a spontaneous explorations.

2. Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body of Knowledge can be
structured so that it can be most readily gasped by the Leaner. Bruner emphasized the role of

96
structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure refers to
relationships among factual elements and techniques.

a. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it more

comprehensible.

b. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other context, fundamental

principles or patterns are best suited.

c. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge in a subject area is

diminished when instruction centers on I structure and principles of orientation.

3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner, but in general, the lesson
can be presented in increasing difficulty. Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning easier or
more difficult Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas 'over and over,
building upon them and elaborating to the level of hill understanding and mastery.

4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected and paced appropriately. He

investigated motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the
best stimulus for learning. Brunet did not like external competitive goals such as grades or
class making

Categorization
Bruner gave much attention to categorization information in the construction of
internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception, conceptualization, learning, decision
making inferences all involved categorization. Categories are “rules" that specify four things
about objectives. Four things are given below:

1. Criteria attribute required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a category.

2. The second rule prescribes how the criteria attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties.
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes.

There are several kinds of categories:

1. Identity categories include objects based on their attributes or features.

2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories).

Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects ' equivalent
by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions (for example, “car",
“truck”. “van" could all be combined in an inclusive category called “motor vehicle"), or by
formal criteria.

3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input.

97
 They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning. Going beyond
immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the basis of related categories.
Related categories form a “coding system.” These are hierarchical arrangements of related
categories. The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world
mostly in terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to how
individuals construct their own models or View of the world.

Guide Questions

1. How can we apply Bruner’s theory to teaching learning?

2. How learning occur in constructivism?
3. How does constructivism influence learning?

Activity 13

Directions: In the class room, divide the class from four group answer and do the following
task and questions. Encircle the missing word in the puzzle bellow.
W E R G Y G N J O S E K L O
C O N S T R U C T I V I S M
O N E Y E S L E G C I A A
M L U M A A O D G O T L R H
E Y J B C N V A S N C O I A
C F I O H A E A D I A Y S L
Q O R L E O X E R C N A T D
S H N I R I L G G E E L O S

P E R C E P T I O N H E T G
P L A T O J K L D A G G L E

1. Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of _________________.

2. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory.

3. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have
diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information.

4. This is the most adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a fixed
relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.

98
 5. Bruner’s believed that____________, ______________, learning, decision making
inferences all involved categorization. Categories are “rules" that specify four things about
objectives.

Evaluation

Multiple Choice. Encircle the correct answer.

1. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for learning“

a. Vygotsky
b. Aristotel
c. Bruner
2. This are “rules" that specify four things about objectives.
a. Representation
b. Reinforcement
c. Categories
3. If baby Ana might remember the action of shaking a rattle, what is the representation of
knowledge is done.
a. Symbolic representation
b. Enactive representation
c. Iconic representation
4-10. Essay
 How does constructivism influence learning?
 How can you apply constructivism in a real situation of your life?

References:

A. Books
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:
Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 Saul McLeod ([Link]). Retrieved November 18, 2019
 Bruner, J.S. (1957). Going beyond the information given. New York :Norton

Module 14: Constructivism:

Knowledge
Construction/
Concept Learning

99
 Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning.

2. Describe strategies to promote knowledge construction.

Description

The module discusses constructivism which was mentioned in the previous modules
of Piaget and Bruner. It is the distillation of most of the principles of cognitive psychologist.

Introduction

So far, you have studied about both the behaviouristic and cognitive views of
learning. Behaviourism focused on the external, observable behaviour. Learning is explained
as a connection between the stimulus and the response. Reinforcement is the key to learning.
Behaviourists saw learning as a change in behaviour brought about by experience with little
acknowledgement of the mental or internal aspects of learning. 0n the other hand, the
cognitive view focuses on the internal processes. Learning is an active process. Learners
initiate experiences, search for information to solve problems, and reorganize what they
already know to come up with new insights. . In the quotation above, “filling up the pail” is
more linked to rote learning and behaviourism. It connotes that teaching is dominated by the
teacher and the learners are passive receivers of knowledge. “Lighting the fire” is related to
the cognitive perspective and constructivism. It signifies that teaching involves giving
opportunities for learners to explore and discover. Learners construct 'their own meaning.
Learners generate insights and are “enlightened”.

More associated with cognitive psychology than behaviourism, constructivism

focuses on knowledge construction. You were introduced to constructivism in Module 14 on
Bruner’s theory. Just as there are different views within cognitive psychology, constructivism
also has different “versions”.

Two Views of Constructivism

1. Individual Constructivism.

This is also called cognitive constructivism. It emphasizes individual, internal

construction of knowledge. It is largely based on Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this type
choose child-centered and discovery learning. They believe the learners should be allowed to
discover principles through their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the
teacher.

2. Social Constructivism.

This View emphasizes that “knowledge exists in a social context and is initially shared
with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual.” It is based 011

100
Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of (know1edge is shared by two or more people.
According to social constructivists, the opportunity to interact and share among learners
helps to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction becomes social, not individual.

Characteristics of Constructivism

Whether one takes the individual or social view of constructivism, there are four
characteristics that these two views have in common. According to Eggen and Kauchak, these
are:

1. Learners construct understanding. As discussed earlier, constructivists do not View

learners as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They see learners as active thinkers who
interpret new information based on what they already know. They construct knowledge in a
way that makes sense to them.

2. New learning depends on current understanding. Background information is very

important. It is through the present views or scheme that the learner has that new
information will be interpreted.

3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction. Constructivists believe in creating a

“community of learners” within classrooms. Learning communities help learners take
responsibility for their own learning. Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate and
collaborate to solve problems and discover things. Teachers play the role of a facilitator rather
than an expert who has all the knowledge.

4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An authentic task is one that
involves a learning activity that involves constructing knowledge and understanding that is so
akin to the knowledge and understanding needed when applied in the real world. Example, 3
writing activity where six-year olds prepare a checklist of things they need to do in school is a
more an authentic activity than for them to be working only on tracing worksheets with
dotted lines.

ORGANIZING KNOWLEDGE

Concepts. A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects of events in our mind. A

concept ,of “teach” includes a group of tasks Such as model, discuss, illustrate, explain, assist,
etc. In your life as a student you would learn thousands of concepts, some simple ones,
others more complicated that may take you to learn them more gradually. The concepts you
learn are also revised as you learn more and experience more.

Concepts as Feature Lists. Learning a Concept involves learning specific features that
characterize positive instance of the concept, Included here are defining features and
correlational feature. A defining feature is a characteristic present in ALL instances. Example,
a triangle has three sides. Having three sides is a defining feature of a triangle because ALL
triangles should have three sides. If one doesn’t, then it is not a triangle. A correlational

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feature is one that is present in many positive instances but not essential for concept
membership. For example, a mother is loving. Being loving is a feature commonly present in
the concept mother. But a mother may not be loving. So “being loving” is only a correlational
feature, not a defining one.

Concepts as Prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a “typical” example. It is

usually formed based on the positive instances that learners encounter most often. Example,
close your eyes now and for a moment think of a cat. Picture in mind what it looks like. You
probably thought of the image of the common cat we see, rather than some rare breed or
species. Once learners have their own concept prototypes, the new examples that they see
are checked against this existing prototype.

Concepts as Exemplars. Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It allows learners to know

that an example under a concept may have variability. Example, a learner’s concept of
vegetable may include a wide variety of different examples like cauliflower, kangkong,
cabbage, string beans, squash, corn, potatoes. When he encounters a new type of vegetable
like “bitsuelas”, he would search from the exemplars he knows and looks for one that is most
similar, like string beans.

Making Concept-learning Effective. as a future teacher, you can help students learn
concepts by doing the following:

 Provide a clear definition of the concept. Make the defining features very
concrete and prominent
 Give a variety of positive instances.
 Give negative instances
 Cite a “best example” or a prototype
 Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative instances
 Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept
 Point out how concepts can be related to each other

Schemas and scripts. A Schema is an organized body of knowledge about something. It is like
a file of information you hold in your mind about something. Like a schema of what a teacher
is. A script is a schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity.

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning

Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner, rather than
taking up so many topics superficially.
 Give varied examples.
 Provide opportunities for experimentation.
 Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction. . Have lots of hands-on activities.
 Relate your topic to 'real life situations.
 Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.

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 Guide Questions

1. What is Constructivism theory?

2. What is constructivism in teaching and learning?

Activity 14

Directions: Arrange the words below and give your own understanding about it.
JUMBLE WORDS GIVEN DEFINITION YOUR OWN OPINION
1. IDIDUANVIL This is also called cognitive
TSMRCOUCTNSIVI constructivism. It emphasizes
individual, internal
construction of knowledge.
2. CIOSAL CUCTITRVISOSMN This View emphasizes that
“knowledge exists in a social
context and is initially shared
with others instead of being
represented solely in the
mind of an individual.”

3. VEHIRISOBAUTS They saw learning as a

change in behaviour brought
about by experience with
little acknowledgement of the
mental or internal aspects of
learning
4. OCCPTNSEI way of grouping or
categorizing objects of events
in our mind
5. MCHASE an organized body of
knowledge about something.

Evaluation

Essay. Answer the following questions.

1. What are two views of constructivism? Give your own understanding about it and site
simple application on reality.
2. How does constructivism help the learners and facilitators in the field of education?

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 3. As a future educator how can you apply constructivism in educating learners?

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

Module 15: Transfer of

Learning
Learning Outcomes

1. Explain how transfer of learning occurs

2. Identify the factors that affect transfer of learning
3. Apply principles of transfer in facilitating transfer of learning.

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 Description

Transfer of learning happens when learning in one context or with one set of
materials affects performance in another context or with other related materials. Simply put,
it is applying to another situation what was previously learned. For example, learning to use
roller skates later helps a person to learn more quickly to ice skate. Learning to get along with
classmates in preschool helps the child adjust and relate well with classmates in the "big” ;
school, or even playing highly competitive on-line computer games might it even make one a
better strategic thinker in politics or business.

Transfer is a very significant concept in education and learning theory because most
those concerned in education aim to achieve transfer. Frequently, the circumstance of
learning (classrooms, workbooks, tests, drills) differs significantly from the situations when
what is learned is to be applied (in the home, on the job, within complex tasks). As a result,
the educational goals are not: met until transfer occurs. This makes transfer a wry important
aspect of instruction. It may be true that in most cases the goa1 of transfer of learning from
classroom to real life situations is not achieved So it is vital that as a future teacher you have a
clear understanding of how best to teach your learners so that transfer of learning is
facilitated. After all what good is there in providing your learners with tons of knowledge and
a multitude of skills if they cannot apply them when they need to.

Different Levels and Types of Learners

The levels of transfer are often referred to as positive and negative. In addition, there
are both subtle and marked differences in types of transfer. Many of the differences lead to
distinctions in how transfer is classified depending on the level of complexity of the transfer.

1. Positive Transfer

When learning in one context improves learning or performance in another context

this is called positive transfer. For example, if someone learning a new database package has
background knowledge of databases or has used a different database package they are likely
to benefit in terms of time taken to learn the new package. Or, for example, the previous
experience of learning algebra facilitates learning statistics.

2. Negative Transfer

Negative transfer occurs when previous learning or experience inhibits or interferes

with learning or performance in a new context. For instance, a person for whom schooling
was and unpleasant experience may avoid ‘classroom’ situations. It is common for tourists
accustomed to driving on the right hand side of the road to experience difficulty adjusting to
driving on the left hand side in New Zealand and Australia. Bransford, Brown and Cocking
(2000) suggest that previous experiences or learning can hinder the learning of new concepts.

105
They provide the example of where the prior experience of learning to walk upright, on what
appears to be a flat earth, hinders the learning of concepts in physics and astronomy. Simple
versus complex transfer. Simple transfer happens when little or no effort is required to apply
what has been learned in one situation to a new situation. In class, students are taught how
to use a spread sheet to create a budget. Later they need to create a budget for a club trip,
and set up a spread sheet for this. This is an example of simple transfer. However, if the same
students were engaged in gathering data for a research project and thought about the ways
in which the spread sheeting program could assist with the data management and analysis,
this would be an example of more complex transfer.

3. Near and Far Transfer

Another distinction used is between near and far transfer. Usually these terms
distinguish the closeness or distance between the original learning and the transfer task, for
example, learning to shift gears in a truck is an example of near transfer for someone who has
already learned to shift gears in a car. Near transfer has also been seen as the transfer of
learning within the school context, or between a school task and a very similar task. For
example, when students answer similar questions in tests to those they have practised in
class. Far transfer is used to refer to the transfer of learning from the school context to a non-
school context. For example, skills learned in mathematics such as taking care and checking
all alternatives, when used in making investment decisions is an example of far transfer.

4. Automatic and Mindful Transfer

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 When an individual responds spontaneously within a transfer situation, which is very
similar to the learning situation then this is automatic transfer. For instance, learning to read
English in one class, results in the learner automatically reading English language in another
context. Perkins and Salomon (1996b) use the terms low and high road transfer to
differentiate the mechanisms of automatic and mindful transfer. Gradually, with time and
practice, the automatic transfer effect will extend or ‘reach out’ over the low road. For

example, the school student who is reading and writing in diverse subjects is slowly and
gradually gaining expertise in reading English. In contrast, mindful, high road transfer is
deliberate and involves conscious thought and intellectual effort, and occurs in situations
where there are significant gaps or differences between the original and the transfer
situations. In an education or training course participants learn about a process in a
controlled environment. The problems encountered in the educational setting tend to be well
defined. In the workplace it may not always be obvious when, or even desirable to use the
procedure. For example, there tend to be lengthy delays when a key person is absent, and a
substantial backlog of work. The surface question is what could be done to speed up the
process, and to automate it as much as possible. However, in real life other problems could
arise: the staff member is proud of their existing system; the existing system is not
documented; does the operating system used by the company support the software required;
what about the compatibility between branches; what about staff training; is there money in
the budget and will a transition period be required?

Guide Questions

1. How does transfer of learning affect individual?

2. Why is it important to have a conditions and principles of transfer of learning?
3. When do positive and negative transfer of learning occur?

Activity 15

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Directions: Write the factors affecting transfer of learning and cite your own implication.

FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSFER OF OWN IMPLICATION

LEARNING

Similarity between two learning situation

Degree of meaningfulness/relevance of
learning

Length of instructional time

Variety of learning experiences

Context for learner's experience

Focus on principles rather than tasks

Emphasis on metacognition

Evaluation

Multiple choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which of the following is a near transfer scenario?

a. using a mathematical procedure on a similar problem with different problems.
b. applying study skills learned in school to job performance.
c. using problem solving learned in the real world to school problems.
d. remembering how to solved problem that you've already solved before.
2. Angel is learning new language, and she is using many the same skills she used when
learned other languages. This is an example of:
a. transfer of learning
b. linguistic aptitude
c. modeling instruction
d. specific feedback
3. Using a problem solving strategy that you learned in math class to help you when you are
out shopping is an example of _____ transfer
a. far
b. near
c. real-world
d. true

ESSAY. Answer the following questions in your own understanding.

1. What is the importance of transfer of learning?

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2. Give at least 3 methods a teacher can use to facilitate transfer of learning.
3. What are the educational implications of transfer of learning? Explain the importance of
each implication.
4. How can you promote transfer of learning in the classroom?

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

B. Websites

 [Link]
sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=[Link]
Leberman-et-al.-transfer-of-
[Link]&ved=2ahUKEwjL_5H7oOzlAhVJHKYKHYpDBosQFjAKegQIARAB&usg=AOv
Vaw2RXMNtNp9oZmvQkA-_3RxP. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 [Link] › Written...Web results(PDF) Written Report on 'Transfer
of Learning' - Theories of Learning | Fritz . Retrieved November 18, 2019

109
Module 16: The Revised
Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Education
Objectives

Learning Outcomes

1. Formulate learning outcomes reflecting the different levels of revised taxonomy

2. Explore the use of technology apps in applying the revised taxonomy.

Description

Imagine that you are already working as a teacher. How would you feel when you
enter your classroom without specific learning outcomes? How would you proceed without
clear and specific targets? Being sure about your learning outcomes will help you to facilitate
learning effectively. With appropriate, clear and specific learning outcomes, you do not need
to guess nor grope in the dark on what to accomplish.

This Module will present the original and the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. Although the revised taxonomy came out years ago, ' it is important
to still present both the old and the revised to have a complete understanding and better
appreciation of the taxonomy’s use in education.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

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 Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification system used to define and distinguish different
levels of human cognition—i.e., thinking, learning, and understanding. Educators have
typically used Bloom’s taxonomy to inform or guide the development of assessments (tests
and other evaluations of student learning), curriculum (units, lessons, projects, and other
learning activities), and instructional methods such as questioning strategies.

Original Taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy was originally published in 1956 by a team of cognitive

psychologists at the University of Chicago. It is named after the committee’s chairman,
Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999). The original taxonomy was organized into three domains:
Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor. Educators have primarily focused on the Cognitive
model, which includes six different classification levels: Knowledge, Comprehension,
Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. The group sought to design a logical
framework for teaching and learning goals that would help researchers and educators
understand the fundamental ways in which people acquire and develop new knowledge,
skills, and understandings. Their initial intention was to help academics avoid duplicative or
redundant efforts in developing different tests to measure the same educational objectives.
The system was originally published under the title Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The
Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain. Some users of the
taxonomy place more emphasis on the hierarchical nature of the framework, asserting that
the first three elements—Knowledge, Comprehension, and Application—represent lower
levels of cognition and learning, while Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation are considered
higher-order skills. For this reason, the taxonomy is often graphically represented as a
pyramid with higher-order cognition at the top.

While Bloom’s taxonomy initially received little fanfare, it gradually grew in popularity
and attracted further study. The system remains widely taught in undergraduate and graduate
education programs throughout the United States, and it has also been translated into
multiple languages and used around the world.

DOMAINS IN BLOOM’S ORIGINAL TAXONOMY

DOMAIN OVERVIEW ABILITIES

COGNITIVE Content and intellectual • Knowledge
knowledge: • Comprehension
What do I want learners to • Application
know? • Evaluation
• Synthesis
AFFECTIVE Emotional knowledge: • Receiving
What do I want learners to • Responding
think or care about? • Valuing
• Organizing
• Characterizing
PSYCHOMOTOR Physical/mechanical • Perception

111
 knowledge: What action(s) do • Simulation
I want learners to be able to • Conformation
perform? • Production
• Mastery

THE SIX LEVELS OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN OF BLOOM’S ORIGINAL TAXONOMY

The knowledge level, at the bottom of the hierarchy, is defined as remembering or

retrieving previously learned material. Learning objectives at this level often include defining
key terms, listing steps in a process, or repeating something heard or seen. For example, an
objective for an orientation session might include new hires recognizing a correct description
of how employees become vested in the company’s retirement plan. In this case, knowledge-
level objectives are clearly critical, as they are foundational to understanding additional
materials. However, designers tend to write too many knowledge-level objectives because
they find it so easy to pick out definitions and details.
Comprehension represents the largest category of cognitive skills and abilities. The
key skill at this level is processing new information. For example, after orientation new hires
might be asked to use the benefits information they were given to answer basic questions
such as, if a person starts in the middle of the month, when do medical benefits begin?
At the application level, a learner should be able to solve a new problem by applying
information without having to be prompted. Objectives at this level might require learners to
interpret information, demonstrate mastery of a concept, or apply a skill learned. At an
orientation, for example, participants might be asked to apply time-off calculations to their
own schedules.
Analysis requires learners to recognize relationships among parts. Objectives at this
level of the hierarchy often include verbs such as differentiate, compare and contrast,
criticize, or experiment. At an employee orientation, participants might be asked to classify
workers into different categories according to eligibility for unpaid leave
Synthesis calls for creative behavior because learners produce newly constructed
and, many times, unique products. At this level, objectives might have learners create a plan,
propose an idea, design a product, or organize information. During an employee orientation,
for example, participants might plan the best way to maximize use of the 401K plan.
Evaluation involves making judgments about value. Learning objectives at this level
require learners to measure, value, estimate, choose, or revise something, perhaps

112
information, a product—or solve a problem. A newly hired employee, for example, might
need to evaluate which insurance plan provides the most appropriate coverage.

REVISED TAXONOMY

In 2001, another team of scholars—led by Lorin Anderson, a former student of

Bloom’s, and David Krathwohl, a Bloom colleague who served on the academic team that
developed the original taxonomy—released a revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy called A
Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. The “Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy,” as it is commonly called, was
intentionally designed to be more useful to educators and to reflect the common ways in
which it had come to be used in schools.

In the revised version, three categories were renamed and all the categories were
expressed as verbs rather than nouns. Knowledge was changed to Remembering,
Comprehension became Understanding, and Synthesis was renamed Creating. In addition,
Creating became the highest level in the classification system, switching places with
Evaluating. The revised version is now Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing,
Evaluating, and Creating, in that order.

Uses of Revised Taxonomy

The revised taxonomy provides a framework that helps educators in the following ways:
1. It provides educators with a common set of terms and levels about learning
outcomes that help in planning across subject matter and grade levels.
2. It helps in the drafting of learning standards across levels.
3. It serves as a guide in evaluating the school’s curriculum objectives, activities and
assessment.
4. It guides the teacher in formulating learning outcomes that tap higher –order
thinking skills

The Revised Taxonomy with Two Dimensions of the Cognitive Domain

113
Practical Guided in Using the Revised Taxonomy
BLOOM’S DIGITAL TAXONOMY VERBS

114
 Guide Questions

1. Why is the knowledge of Bloom’s taxonomy important in education?

2. How does Bloom’s taxonomy used in the classroom?
3. What are the implications of Bloom’s taxonomy in teaching and learning activities?
4. What is the basic purpose of Bloom’s taxonomy?

115
 Activity 16

Directions: Using Venn diagram, compare and contrast the original and the revised taxonomy.

ORIGINAL BLOOM’S REVISED BLOOM’S

TAXONOMY TAXONOMY

Evaluation

Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. At the knowledge level students will
a. argue the point
b. recall information
c. categorize topics
d. calculate
2. Which type of question is a sample of Evaluation?
a. do you agree with the actions of Sam?
b. why was it better than.....
c. what sources can you use to support your opinion?
d. all of the above
3. What can you invent or design is a sample of?
a. knowledge
b. comprehension
c. application
d. synthesis
4. What questions would you ask Nelson Mandela in an interview? What level of Bloom's
Taxonomy is this question?
a. application

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 b. evaluation
c. analysis
d. none of the above
5. What ways could you change the plot of the story? Is this a question...
a. synthesis
b. comprehension
c. knowledge
d. application
6. Defend the actions of the main character. What level of Bloom's Taxonomy is this?
a. evaluation
b. comprehension
c. analysis
d. none of the above
7. Infer, follow, interpret, summarize, demonstrate, cite and interpolate are all verbs
representing what level of Bloom's taxonomy
a. application
b. knowledge
c. synthesis
d. comprehension
8. If students construct a model to show how something works they are
a. evaluating
b. applying
c. synthesizing
d. don't know
9. If a student does a visual presentation on a updated version or angle connected to a topic,
he or she is
a. comprehending
b. applying
c. synthesizing
d. analysizing
10. First the students will make a prediction of what will happen in the story. The, the
students must make a list of the main events in the story. Lastly, they write a review of the
story. What skills are being used?
a. application, synthesis and evaluation
b. comprehension, knowledge and analysis
c. comprehension, knowledge and synthesis
d. evaluation, knowledge and synthesis

117
References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

B. Websites
 [Link]
sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=[Link]
taxonomy-whats-old-is-new-
again/&ved=2ahUKEwj1u87j7O3lAhVNA4gKHQoVB3wQFjABegQIDxAH&usg=AOvVaw
1LSpbq6ppSHZ2wJ62x6Qfy. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 [Link]
sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=[Link]
ahUKEwjZ_76p7e3lAhXL7WEKHTKPASIQFjAAegQIAhAB&usg=AOvVaw3BGgm3a0cGfe
go-aJ7-rhU. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 [Link]
sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=[Link]
nomy_action_verbs.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjZ_76p7e3lAhXL7WEKHTKPASIQFjAMegQIBBA
B&usg=AOvVaw2iqZ-XV5jJWBkm76SGYcd1. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 [Link]
sa=t&source=web&rct=j&url=[Link]
/assesments/Blooms
%[Link]&ved=2ahUKEwjZ_76p7e3lAhXL7WEKHTKPASIQFjAOegQIChAB&usg=
AOvVaw1TmVNekpPzumEahYd_f8oD. Retrieved November 18, 2019

118
Module 17: Sternberg's
Successful Intelligence
Theory and WICS Model

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model

2. Demonstrate enjoyment of working on WICS-based tasks and activities
3. Prepare a lesson guide that is based on WICS model

Description

Robert Sternberg did an extensive work in the field of intelligence. He had difficulty
with intelligence tests that might have fuelled his interest in the field. This module will tackle
about how his theory of successful intelligence may help in achieving success and will
introduce to you their model.

What is Robert Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory?

Augmented from his Triarchic Theory, Successful Intelligence Theory contends that
intelligent behavior arises from a balance between analytical, creative and practical abilities,
and that these abilities function collectively to allow individuals to achieve success within
particular sociocultural contexts. In other words, it is the ability to succeed a life, given one's
own goals, within one's environmental context. There are four skills included in the theory:

1. Memory skills help us recall facts and pieces of information and retain the knowledge
we acquire.
2. Analytical skills help us determine if a certain idea is good.
3. Creative skills allow a person to come up with new idea, usually answer a need or
solve a problem.
4. Practical skills enable a person to apply what one has learned.

The theory points "that some students who do not do well in conventional courses may, in
fact, have the ability to succeed, if they are taught in a way that better fits their pattern of
abilities.

Why WICS Model?

In the WICS model, intelligence is viewed as a set of fluid abilities to learn from experience
and to adapt to one's surroundings. It is a more recent model of how humans think and

119
reason that can help us understand how students will learn most effectively. It aims to
develop basic abilities to true expertise.

WICS stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, and Synthesized. Sternberg (2010)
described the model as follows:

"The basic idea is that citizens of the world need creativity to form a vision of where
they want to go and cope with changes in the environment, analytical intelligence to
ascertain whether their creative ideas are good ones, practical intelligence to implement
their ideas and to persuade others of the value of their ideas, and wisdom in order to ensure
that the ideas will help achieve some ethically-based common good, over the long and short
terms, rather than just what is good for them and their families and friends."

Application of WICS Model

The uses of the model include admission, instruction and assessment.

To teach analytically, make students use critical thinking. Design tasks and activities that
provide opportunity for your learners to

1. Analyze
2. Critique
3. Judge
4. Compare and contrast
5. Evaluate
6. Assess

To teach creatively, encourage and sustain student's creative ideas. Think out of the box. Help
your students to:

1. Create
2. Invent
3. Discover
4. Imagine if..
5. Suppose that..
6. Predict

To teach practically, have in mind real life situations where students can use what they learn
to meet their own and also other's practical needs. Let your students:

 Apply
 Use
 Put into practice
 Implement
 Employ
 Render practical what they know

120
To teach for wisdom, make your students learn to see and understand other's perspectives.
You teach for wisdom when you are able to move your students to:

9. try to find a common good

10. see things from other's point of view
11. balance your own interests with those of others and of institutions
12. look at the long term as well as the short term
13. reflect about how one can base his every decision on positive ethical values
14. appreciate that in life what is seen as true and effective may vary over time and place.

Based on Sternberg and his colleague’s studies, the WICS model was successful for
teachers and theory learners because it:

5. celebrated the differences of learners through a supportive learning environment

6. made students remember better what they learned
7. build on the strengths of the learners
8. strengthened the motivations of the learners

Guide Questions

1. What is the relevance of the successful intelligence theory to you as a learner?

2. As a future educator, how will you apply WICS model?

Activity 17

Directions:
Form a group of five, compare and contrast the successful intelligence theory and Gardner's
Multiple Intelligences. Explain how their concepts and principles oppose or complement each
other.

Evaluation

True or False. Write T in the black provided if the answer is correct and F if otherwise.

___1.Triarchic theory is augmented from Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory.

___2. Because of individual differences, memory skills should be given importance than any
of the other skills proposed by Sternberg.

121
___3. Practical skills allow a person to use one's learning into action.

___4. WICS stands for wisdom, intelligence, creativity and strength.

___5. The role of a teacher is not just to educate the mind but also the soul.

Reference:
A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

122
Module 18: Problem Solving
and
Creativity

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the four criteria of creativity by Torrance.

2. Practice creative thinking
3. Apply problem solving skills

Description

Edward Paul Torrance known around the world as the father of creativity for his
nearly 60 years of research that became the framework for the field of gifted education. His
test of creative thinking helped shater the theory that IQ test alone were sufficient to gauge
real intelligence. The test solidified what heretofore was only conceptual-namely that creative
levels can be scaled and then increased through practice.

Torrance Framework for Creative Thinking

A common framework for creative thinking processes is described by Torrance (1979). Each
aspect is defined below, along with ways to facilitate the respective aspect by using key words
and application activities.

Fluency

Fluency refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions to a

problem. Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering formation that is learned.

Key words:

mare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list, match,

came outline, paraphrase, predict, summarize.

Application activities:

Trace a picture and label the parts.

Outline an article you find on your topic.

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How many uses can you think of for a clothes hanger?

List 15 things that are commonly red or contain red.

Example: Apple, blood, brick, caboose, cherry, Christmas stocking, exit sign,

fire alarm, flag, heart, red nose reindeer, rose, tomato, wagon.

Flexibility

Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities or realms of
thought. It involves the ability to see things from different points of view, to use many
different approaches or strategies.

Key words:

Change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpolate, interpret, predict

Application ideas:

What would happen if there were no automobiles?

How would... a dog look to a flea?

How is ______ like?

Would you feel if ... you were invisible for a day?

How would you group the ideas about "red" into categories?

Example: Fruit, safety features, vehicles.

Once categories are identified, fluency may be further demonstrated by generating more
ideas about the idea red within categories. Even a modest attempt could result in the
following lists, recognizing that the creative thinking process shift the mind in a spiral way
between all four aspects of creativity.

Elaboration

Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by providing more details. Additional detail and
clarity improves interest in, and understanding of the topic.

Key words:

Appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test,

Application ideas:

Tell your neighbor about your last family trip using as many details as

possible.

What can you add to to improve its quality or performance?

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Describe all the possible characteristics of the red quality in a wagon.

Example: Shade, finish, texture, uniformity.

Originality

Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual. It involves synthesis or
putting information about a topic back together in a new way.

Key words:

Compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct, reorganize,

revise.

Application ideas:

Find an original use for _______.

What would be the strangest way to get out of bed?

Design a new _______ that is better than the one you have.

Write an unusual title for the ideas about red.

Example: Revolutionary "Red" Representation.

Creative Problem Solving (CPS)

Creative Problem Solving (CPS) is an intentional process for solving problems and
discovering opportunities. It espouses the use of creativity in coming up with solutions which
are not only novel but practical as well. In the 1950's Alex Osbom described this process in his
book, Applied Imagination. Osbom opened the process in the public domain which meant
anyone can use it. Over the years countless people have utilized the CPS in various fields and
endeavors.

Osborn's Checklist, the origin of Classical Brainstorming is the root of creative problem
solving (CPS). There are a variety of general structures; 'define problem, generate possible
solutions, select and implement the best' which can be found extensively, in several different
academic traditions.

In its most extended and formalized form it has the six stages shown below each with a
divergent and a convergent phase. However, more recent publications seem more interested
in focusing on procedure and technique issues with less weight on the full elaboration of this
structure.

The following, based on Van Gundy (1988's) description, is a very brief skeleton of a very
rich process, showing it in its full 6 x 2 stages' form:

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1. Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitise yourself (scan, search) for issues (concerns, challenges,
opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled.

• Divergent techniques include 'Wouldn't It Be Nice If...' (WIBNI) and "Wouldn't It Be

Awful If...' (WIBAI) brainstorming identify desirable outcomes and obstacles to be overcome.

• Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots (Highlighting), expressed

as a list of IWWMs ("In What Ways Might...'), and selection in terms of ownership criteria
(e.g. problem owner's motivation and ability to influence it) and outlook criteria (e.g. urgency,
familiarity, stability).

2. Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the problem.

• Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H (Who, Why, What, When, Where and
how) and listing of wants, sources and data: source, list what you found. List all your
information 'wants' as a series of question, for each.

• Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots list possible sources of

answers; then follow these up and for each (Highlighting); Mind-mapping to sort and classify
the information gathered and also restating the problem in the light of your richer
understanding of it.

Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement of the problem into a broad statement
more suitable for idea finding.

• Divergent techniques include asking 'Why?' the repeatable questions and Five W’s
etc. and H.

Convergent techniques include highlighting again, reformulation of problem-statements to

meet the criteria that they contain only statement one problem and no criteria, and selection
of the most promising (but NB that the mental "stretching that the activity gives to the
participants can be as important as the chosen).

Stage 4. Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as possible

• Divergence using any of a very wide range of in techniques. The general rules of
Classic Brainstorming deferring judgement) are likely to underpin all of these.

• Convergence can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the combining of different

ideas, and the shortlisting of the most promising handful, perhaps with some thought for the
more obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-restrictively.

5. Stage 5: Solution finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation criteria (using an
expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which may include combining) the short-listed
ideas from Idea Finding as much as you can in the light of these criteria. Then opt for the best
of these improved ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables).

6. Stage 6: Acceptance finding: How can the suggestion you have just started elected be made
up to standard and put into practice? Shun negativity and continue to apply deferred

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judgment problems are exposed to be solved, not to dishearten progress. Action plans are
better developed in small groups of 2 3 rather than in a large group (unless you particularly
want commitment by the whole group). Particularly for "people problems it is often worth
developing several alternative action plans. Possible techniques include Five W's and H.

Guide Questions

1. What is mess finding?

2. Why creative problem solving important?
3. What is data finding?

Activity

Formulate questions under the 4 Aspects of Creative Thinking - Fluency, Flexibility,

Elaboration and Originality.

Evaluation

ESSAY

1. Explain in your own words Torrance's four criteria of creativity.

RUBRICS

Content - - - - - - - - - 50%
Organization - - - - - 50%
TOTAL - - - - - - - - - - 100%

Reference:
A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

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Module 19: Motivation

Learning Outcomes

[Link] extrinsic motivation from intrinsic motivation

[Link] the role of extrinsic motivation in view of the development of intrinsic
motivation
[Link] the importance of motivation in learning

Description

The module focuses on motivation and its types that are already expose and used by
some teachers to their students. The students will be given examples that can clearly explain
what the differences of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are.

WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

Motivation is one of the most frequently used words in psychology. According to

Johnson (1999), motivation consider as a stimulant for achieving a specific target. Crump
(1995) says that, believes that excitement, interest, keenness and enthusiasm towards
learning are the main constituents of motivation.

Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere at

something. It energizes you to do something. It is the strength of the drive toward an action.
While ability refers to what children can do, motivation refers to what these children will do.

Motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior.

When we get motivated to do something, it is enough that we start working at the thing but
that we get attracted on it.

Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, directs, and sustains goal oriented
behaviors. Sometimes, these processes are nurtured by drives and needs within ourselves
and the outside forces that direct them (Shalaway, 2005).

TYPES OF MOTIVATION

There are two types of motivation and it is classified as:

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Intrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from
within. The individual has the desire to perform a specific task, because its results are in

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accordance with his belief system or fulfills a desire and therefore importance is attached to
it.

Intrinsic motivation is associated with internal drives and needs. It is fuelled by a

student’s natural curiosity. It also refers to one’s desire for mastery, success, and a sense of
accomplishment. It is interest for its own sake: a satisfaction derived directly from
understanding a concept or learning a skill. It is also associated with one’s confidence in one’s
abilities,

Intrinsic motivation is associated with internal drives and needs. It is fuelled by a

student’s natural curiosity. It also refers to one’s desire for mastery, success, and a sense of
accomplishment. It is interest for its own sake: a satisfaction derived directly from
understanding a concept or learning a skill. It is also associated with one’s confidence in one’s
abilities, sense of ownership, or choices as well as other innate factors. Simply expressed,
intrinsic motivation is a natural love for learning

Our deep-rooted desires have the highest motivational power. Below are some examples:

Acceptance: We all need to feel that we, as well as our decisions, are accepted by our co-
workers.

Curiosity: We all have the desire to be in the know.

Honor: We all need to respect the rules and to be ethical.

Independence: We all need to feel we are unique.

Order: We all need to be organized.

Power: We all have the desire to be able to have influence.

Social contact: We all need to have some social interactions.

Social Status: We all have the desire to feel important.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Extrinsic motivation means that the individual's motivational stimuli are coming from
outside. In other words, our desires to perform a task are controlled by an outside source.
Note that even though the stimuli are coming from outside, the result of performing the task
will still be rewarding for the individual performing the task.

Extrinsic motivation is external in nature. The most well-known and the most debated
motivation is money. Below are some other examples

Employee of the month award

Benefit package

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Bonuses

Organized activities

Switch Roles

This is one work at all levels. Taking the role of a teacher helps college students to
know the pain and dedication needed to carry out the job.

Even after they get back to the role of a student, the motivation they gained during
the activity helps them to study with more responsibility.

GIVE REWARDS FOR ACHIEVEMENTS

Recognizing their achievements and appreciating it in a timely manner is important to

keep their spirit up.

So it would be good to give some rewards to students for what they achieve in their
academic phase as a token of appreciation.

It will be a motivation for them to perform well every next time and inspires other
students to perform well too.

THE CHANCE TO LEAD

A good leadership role comes with lots of responsibility and commitment. It can even
alter their personality and can mold them as a better person. So it would be a good idea to
give every student a chance to lead during the course.

This will improve their sense of responsibility and motivate them to take risky and
challenging roles in life.

Effective Teaching Strategies on Motivation

 Experiential Learning. Teachers provide opportunities for real-world experiences.

Students may expand upon their prior knowledge and apply what they already know.
Examples include field trips, role playing, simulations, drama, and laboratory
experiments. Students who engage in real-world experiences will attain and
assimilate information effectively because the activities are meaningful in their day-
to-day life experiences.
 Direct Instruction. This is a highly structured, teacher-centered information delivery
method. Many teachers routinely follow this strategy. It includes: objectives, a
materials list, warm-up, presentation, guided practice, independent practice, closure,
appraisal, and evaluation. This strategy provides the teacher with a framework for
imparting information.
 Social Learning. Teacher-guided cooperative learning that facilitates student
interaction. This strategy is based on the belief that information will be learned and
remembered if there are social interactions about the information. This strategy

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 strengthens students’ ability to retain information through social interaction involved
with cooperative learning within socially appropriate norms.
 Constructivist Instruction. The teacher encourages students to construct hypotheses,
make decisions, and discover principles by themselves. The instructor’s task is to
“translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s
current state of understanding” and organize it so that the student continually builds
upon what he/she has already learned. The context in which an idea is taught as well
as students’ beliefs and attitudes affects learning.
 Problem-Based Learning. This strategy promotes critical thinking by presenting
students with interesting and puzzling problems to solve. The problem-solving
process involves observing, developing, and testing predictions, collecting and
organizing data, and formulating concepts and explanations.

Guide Questions

1. What is Extrinsic and Intrinsic motivation?

2. As a future educator, why this motivations are important?
3. What is the difference between these two types of motivation?

Activity 7
Charades. This simple but classic game is a great way to encourage your student to get out of
their seats and participate in the lesson.

Resources: a list of people, actions or concepts related to the subject you are teaching.

Game: Select a student to stand at the front of the room and act out a word from your list (no
speaking allowed). The rest of the class must then guess what the student is attempting to
portray. Other students can shout out their guesses or put their hands up – depending on
your teaching preference! Whoever guesses correctly can act out the next word.

Alternative: A more challenging version involves the student describing a subject-specific

word but restricted by a list of forbidden words, e.g. describing ‘habitat’ without using the
words ‘home’ or ‘animals’.

Evaluation

Essay. Give your understanding of the following question.

1. How do you motivate yourself to get work done after trying many things and failing over
and over again? Why intrinsic motivation is important in the work place?

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Reference:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

Module 20: Theories on Factors

Affecting
Motivation
Learning Outcomes

1. Differentiate each theory on factors affecting motivation.

2. Discuss how each theory can be applied in learning.

Description

This module discusses what is meant by the term ‘motivation’ and the situational and
trait-centred views of motivation.

What is the Attribution Theory?

This explains that we attribute our successes or failures or other events to several factors.
Example, you attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling
academic performance. According to Ormrod (2004), these attributes can be classified as:

 Locus (place): Internal vs external. If your student traces his good grade to his ability
and to his hard work, he attributes his good grade to internal factors (within one's
self). External factor therefore is when one attributes his good grade to others such
as his teachers’ effective teaching.
 Stability: Stable vs unstable. If you attribute your poor performance to what you have
inherited from your parents, then you are attributing the cause of your performance
to something stable, something that cannot change because it is in your genes. But if
attribute it to excessive watching of tv, and you claim that your poor eyesight is
caused by an unstable factor. (You can prolong or shorten your period of watching tv.
 Controllability: Controllable vs uncontrollable. If your student claims his poor
academic performance is due to his teacher's ineffective tracing strategy, he
attributes his poor performance to a factor beyond control. If however, admits that
his poor class performance is due to his poor study habits, he attributes the event to
factor which are very much within his control.

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How does attribution affect motivation?

If your student attributes his/her success or failure to internal, unstable and uncontrollable
factors, s/he is more likely to be motivated. If, however, s/he traces his/her success to
external factor and therefore is beyond his/her control, s/he is likely to be less motivated.

Motivation tends to increase when students attribute failure to lack of effort since it can be
controlled. On the other hand, it tends to decrease when students attribute failure to
uncontrollable causes (Weinstock, 2007).

People tend to attribute their successes to internal causes and their failures to external
cause (March, 1990). When students do poorly, for example, they commonly attribute their
failure to poor teaching, boring topics, poor tests.

What is Self-efficacy?

A sense of high self-efficacy means a high sense of competence. Self-efficacy is the belief
that one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task, fulfill role expectations, or meet a
challenging situation successfully. The secret to enhancing intrinsic motivation is enhancing
our students' sense of self-efficacy. A self-efficacy-enhancing strategy includes:

 Make sure students master the basic skills.

 Help them make noticeable progress on difficult tasks.
 Communicate confidence in students' abilities through words and actions.
 Expose them to successful peers.

Other recommendations from motivation theorists are:

 Provide competence-promoting feedback.

 Promote mastery on challenging tasks.
 Promote self-comparison rather than comparison with others.
 Be sure errors occur within an overall context of success.

Self-determination and self-regulation theories

Students are intrinsically motivated when they have a sense of self-determination- when
they believe that they have some choice and control regarding the things they do and the
directions their lives take. It is demonstrated in one's capacity for self-regulation. Self-
regulation refers to a person's ability to master himself. He is the "I am the captain of my
soul" type of person. He is capable of directing himself.

Indicators of self-regulation are the abilities to:

 set standards for oneself

 monitor and evaluate one's own behavior against such standards
 impose consequences on oneself for one's successes or failures. (Ormrod, 2004)

How does self-regulation relate to motivation?

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 A student with self-regulation is more likely to be more intrinsically motivated because he
setshis goals and standards, he monitors his progress, and evaluates his own performance.

He is not only capable of regulating his behavior but also his own learning. Omrod (2004)
cites the following processes involved in self-regulated learning:

 Goal-setting. They know what they want to accomplish.

 Planning. They determine ahead of time how best to use their available time for
learning.
 Attention control. They try to focus their attention on the subject matter at hand and
clear their minds of distracting thoughts and emotions.
 Application of learning strategies.
 Self-monitoring.
 Self-evaluation.

Here are some suggestions from motivation theorists to enhance students' sense of self-
determination about school activities and assignments:

9. Present rules and instructions in an informational manner rather than controlling

manner. Here are examples on how to present rules in an informational manner:

"We can make sure everyone has an equal chance to speak and be heard if we listen
without and if we raise our hands when we want to contribute to the discussion."

"I'm giving you a particular format to follow when you do your Math homework. If you use
this format, it will be easier for me to find your answers and to figure out how I can help you
improve."

15. Provide opportunities for students to make choices. A particular lesson objective can
be reached by the use of varied strategies. Students will be more likely to be
intrinsically motivated to attain the objective when they are given the freedom to
choose how to attain it, of course, within the set parameters. An example is when we
allow our students to choose their manner of group work presentation to the class
after the group activity.
 Evaluate student performance in a non-controlling fashion Communicate evaluation
results to inform your students of their progress without passing judgment of some
sort but to make them See that they are strong in some points but not so in other
items. The practice of self-evaluation especially with the use of scoring rubrics will be
of great help. Says renowned author, consultant and speakerAlfie Kohn, "rewards for
learning undermines intrinsic motivation."Kohn Alfie (1993)

What is Choice Theory?

Bob Sullo (2007) writes

The choice theory is a biological theory that suggests that we are with specific needs that
we are genetically instructed to satisfy. All of behaviors represent our best attempt at any
moment to satisfy our basic or genetic instructions.

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In addition to the physical need for survival healthy:

 Belonging or or connecting
 Power or competence
 Freedom
 Fun

We therefore have to come up with a need-satisfying environment. To motivate our

students for learning we should satisfy their need to belong, their need to have power by
being competent, the need to have a free choice, and the need to enjoy learning and have
fun.

To satisfy our students' need for power, let us help them acquire making them achieve, by
making them master their lessons and end up competent. As a result of their competence
and excellent achievement get recognized and experience genuine power.

We should teach our students that the source of authentic power is not bullying and other
irresponsible behaviors. When our students are made to feel that they have of free choices,
they are driven to satisfy this need for freedom. On the other hand, when our students
perceive themselves to be so suffocated by impositions and limits, they are most likely to
behave in ways, even responsible ways, to get them the freedom they believe is not satisfied.

"What happens outside of us has a lot to do with what we choose to we ever get from the
outside is information: how we choose to act on that do but the outside event does not cause
our behavior. What we get, and all information is up to us. William Glasser, 1990 quoted by
Bob Sulle, p. 6)

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A student's lower-order needs must first be met before she works for the satisfaction of
his/her higher-order needs. The lower-order needs include first-level needs and second-level
needs. The first-level needs are basic survival and physiological needs for food, air, water and
sleep. The second level needs are bodily safety and economic security.

The third level (which happen to be the first level of the 3 level of higher needs) needs are
love and belonging. The fourth level needs include esteem and status such as one's feelings of
self-worth and of competence. The fifth level need is self-actualization which means
becoming all that one is capable of becoming.

Based on Maslow's theory, a satisfied need is not a strong motivator but an unsatisfied
need. Research proves that unless the two lower-order needs (physiological and security) are
basically satisfied, employees or our students will not be greatly concerned with higher-order
needs. (Newstrom, 1997)

For teachers and as future ones, this means that we cannot teach students with hungry
stomachs. We cannot teach students when they feel afraid and insecure.

Our students' need for love and belonging is satisfied in a class where they feel they belong
and are accepted regardless of their academic standing in class, economic status or ethnic

135
background. Their need for self-esteem is satisfied when we help them satisfied when we
help them succeed, recognize their effort and contribution no matter how insignificant and
praise their achievement. Doing so propels them to self-actualization.

The Goal Theory.

Learning goals versus performance goals. The goals we set ourselves affect our level of
motivation. There are several types of goals relation to learning we can speak of learning
goals and performance goals. How do they differ?

A learning goal is a desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills" while a
performance goal is a "desire to look good and receive favorable judgments from others or
else look bad and receive unfavorable judgments." (Ormrod, 2004) Between these two goals,
with which type of goal is the intrinsically-motivated student occupied? Obviously, the ideal
student is the student with a learning goal. The student with a learning goal focused is
mastery focused while the student with a performance goal is performance-focused.

Self-determined goals. Personally-relevant and self-determined goals enhance a student's

motivation. When lesson objectives are relevant to the life of students, then they turn out to
be more motivated to learn. When the lesson objectives are owned by the students because
they find them relevant to their life, most likely they become highly motivated for learning.
This departs from de-contextualized teaching that happens when all we do is deposit
information into the minds of our students, students memorize, and we withdraw what we
taught every periodic examination.

Goal setting. As a motivational tool, goal setting is effective when the following major
elements are present: 1) goal acceptance, 2) specificity, 3) challenge, 4) performance
monitoring, and 5) performance feedback. Thus it is necessary that our students accept and
own our lesson objectives and that our lesson objectives must be SMART (specific,
measurable, attainable, result-oriented and time-bound) and challenging. It is equally
important that we monitor our students' learning. However, simply monitoring results is not
enough. We have to give our students feedback about their performance.

Evaluation

1. Develop a game to test if each one in class can explain the 6 theories on the sources of
motivation and cite at least one application of each.

2. Essay. Choose at least one theory and explain how you can apply it to your learning style.

Reference:

A. Book

136
  Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:
Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

Module 21: Students’

Diversity in
Motivation
Learning Outcomes

1. Determine the factors influence student’s motivation,

2. Discuss the principles regarding leaners diversity in motivation,
3. Name the facts that affect students’ motivation with regard to their study.

Description

Students, who by themselves are already as diverse, also differ in motivation. This
diversity in motivation may be traced to differences in age, developmental stage, gender,
socio-economic and cultural background. How these factors influence student’s motivation is
the concern of this module.

Introduction

Our students’ motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural,

socioeconomic background and special education needs. Our class is a conglomerate of
students with varying ages and gender and most especially cultural background and
socioeconomic status. Our students’ motivational drives reflect the elements of the culture in
which they grow up- their family, their friends, school, church, and books. To motivate all of
them for learning, it is best to employ differentiated approaches. “Different folks, different
strokes”. What is medicine for one may be poison for another.

Two principles to consider regarding social and cultural influences on motivation are:

1. Students are most likely to model the behaviors they believe are relevant to their
situation.

2. Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like themselves
performing the task successfully. (Ormrod, 2004) What conclusion can be derived from the
two principles? “Students need models who are similar to themselves in terms of race,

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cultural background, socioeconomic status, gender, and (if applicable) disability. (Ormrod,
2004)

Then it must be good to expose our students to models of their age and to models
who come from similar cultural, socioeconomic backgrounds.

Diversity is a complicated subject to draw upon, although it is a very important one.

Diversity is everywhere. We all come from different backgrounds and we all learn and grow in
our own ways.

It is hard for teachers to create lessons that are relevant to all students. As teachers,
we sometimes make assumptions about students’ knowledge and experiences. We
sometimes assume that all students live and act like the general Western culture we live in.
teachers need to think of ways to make learning relevant and motivational upon equality and
not assume that everyone is on the same level of learning. Teachers need to find relevance by
touching base on the different backgrounds that our students are coming from. Motivation is
extremely important for these students so that they can thrive in their learning and feel
included in the school community and among their peers.

Students from Families of low Socioeconomic Status

It is sometimes considered that poverty does not exist in our nation or even
continent. Some refuse to accept that that there are individuals who are living in poverty all
around us. Children coming from low-income families may not obvious to a teacher. You may
be able to identify these students as sometimes the ones having difficulty in class in terms of
academic achievement. High-SES students show higher average levels of achievement and
stay in school longer than low- SES students (Berliner, 2005).

As teachers we must come up with some ways in order to change this. Foremost, in
order to change the way we motivate these students, we must begin by understanding who
these students are in our classrooms and what are the greatest ways of motivating them in
order to keep these children in school. Help take down the barrier that sometimes restricts
children from low income families and to guide them to a bright future.

Here are some facts about school children of low-socioeconomic status (Low SES):

Students in Low SES are at least twice as likely to be held back in school compared to
students who are not living in Low SES.

The longer the child is in poverty, the stronger the impact is on achievement. For
example, even when we take into account parents’ education, the chance that children will
be retained in grades or placed in special education classes increases by 2 to 3 percent for
every year the children live in poverty

Low SES students are usually seen as not being bright by other students and even
teacher as they may be seen as wearing old clothes and not as familiar with books and class
activities as the other students may be.

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 Some teachers may not want to ask them for the answer in front of the class because
they fear of embarrassing them for giving an incorrect answer.

This may lead to the students to believe that they do not belong or not good enough
to be in school

Economically disadvantaged students (or any students who fail continually) may come
to believe that doing well in school is impossible.

About one- fourth of children from poor families drop out of school

Poor children read less and spend more time watching television as they have less
access to books, computers, libraries, trips, and museums

Over the past decade, evidence has been mounting that students in poverty begin
school about six months behind in reading compared to students from wealthier homes, but
the difference between the groups grows to almost three years by grade 6.

All these facts have been taken from the Educational Psychology 5 edition textbook
(Woolfolk, A., Winnie, P., & Pery, N. (2012). Educational Psychology (Fifth ed., p. 624). Pearson
Education Canada.)

After reading these facts one may want to simply go out and help every child living in
low SES but one thing that we must consider as teachers is that we must take care of every
student in the class and no single any students out.

We need to emphasize on teaching the class as a whole but motivate every student
when doing so. Here are some ways of motivating low SES students.

Giving access for all students to go to the library (if your school does not have one,
create your own inside your classroom) give a time during class to go chose a book and
encourage all students to bring it home and read. When parents of any SES level support and
encourage their children— by reading to them, providing books and educational toys, taking
the children to the library, making time and space for learning.

Guide Questions

1. What are the effective strategies in order to motivate the learners in terms of
diversity?
2. How to approach the learners during discussion despite of their differences?

Activity 21

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Make a role play showing on how to motivate learners with regard to gender equality and
cultural differences.

Rubrics:

Content------------------------------------30%
Relevance to the topic-----------------30%
Originality-------------------------------- 20%
Creativity (mastery and props) ------20%
TOTAL 100%

Evaluation

Write EQUAL if the statement showing fairness among students and UNEQUAL if it is not.

1. Avoid female students to perform the same jobs as male students typically do.
2. For classroom activities, mix the teams up when doing group work.
3. Speak more neutrally such as "everybody" rather than "boys or girls".
4. Isolate students with different sex in terms of seating arrangement.
5. Encourage both sexes to participate in school activities/clubs.
6. Encourage the male students to join sport teams/activities.
7. Let the female students to clean the classroom.
8. Maintain a zero tolerance policy for sexual harassment.
9. Avoid gender stenotypes ( e. g. pink is not for female only but for male also).
10. Having posters or talking about equal male and female careers.

Reference:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

140
Module 22: Human
Environmental
Factors Affecting
Motivation

Learning Outcomes

1. Identify Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation

2. Describe the teacher’s affective traits,

3. Determine the behavioral traits of parents who are supportive of learning.

Description

If environment is defined as the total of one’s surroundings then environmental

factors that affect students’ motivation include human as well as non-human factors. The
immediate human factors that surround the learners are teachers, the other students and
his/her parent.

Introduction

Environment is defined as the total of one’s surroundings.

Environmental factors that affects’ students are:

Human factor Non-human factor

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The immediate human factors that surround the learner are:

The other
The teachers students His/her parents

Teacher’s Affective Traits

Emphasizes the his/her affective characteristics or social and emotional behaviors

more than pedagogical practice.

Classmates-bullying and the need to belong

The need to belong is basic human need. Furthermore, sense of belongingness

enhances students’ learning and performance. Thus, the teachers should monitor their
students in order to strengthen or reinforce DepEd Order No. 40 s.2012 or DepEd’s Child
Protection Policy and also to avoid bullying inside and outside the classroom.

Parents as part of the learners’ human learning environment

 Follow up status of their children’s performance.

 Supervise their children in their homework or project.

 Check their children’s notebooks.

 Review their children’s corrected seat works and test papers.

 Attend conferences for Parents, Teachers and Community Association (PTCA).

 Are you willing to spend on children’s projects and to get involved in school activities.

 Participate with their children’s projects.

 Confer with their children’s the teachers when necessary.

 Are aware of their children’s activities in school.

Studies suggest that management and instructional are key to facilitating learning,
emphasize the teacher’s affective characteristics or social and emotional behaviors, more

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than pedagogical practice. Some of your teachers were motivating and inspiring, others were
not.

You are grateful to those who motivated and inspired you. You must also be grateful
to those whose were not as motivating and inspiring. In a way, they also helped you become
better persons in the sense that you strived to become better than them.

Researches cite the following affective characteristics of effective teachers (James H.

Stronge, 2002)

 Caring – Specific attributes that show caring are:

- Sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside the classroom but
more about students’ lives in general.

- Understanding of students’ questions and concerns

 Fairness and Respect – these are shown in specific behaviors like:

-treating students as people

-avoiding the use of ridicule and preventing situations in which students love
respect in front of their peers

-practicing gender, racial and ethnic fairness

-providing students with opportunities for them to participate and to succeed

 Social interactions with students- the specific behaviors of a facilitative social

interaction are:

-consistently behaving in a friendly, personal manner while maintaining

professional distance with students

-working with students not for the students

-interacting productively by giving students responsibility and respect

-allowing students to participate in decision making

-willing to participate in class activities and demonstrating a sense of fun

-having a sense of humor and is willing to share jokes

 Enthusiasm and motivation for learning shown in:

-encouraging students to be responsible for their own learning

-maintaining an organized classroom environment

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 -setting high standards

-assigning appropriate challenges

-providing reinforcement and encouragement during tasks

 Attitude toward the learning profession

-having dual commitment to personal learning and to students’ learning

anchored on the belief that all students can learn

-helping students succeed by using differentiated instruction

-working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff

-serving as an example as a lifelong learner to his/her students and colleagues

 Positive expectations of students manifested in:

-striving to make all students feel competent

-communicating positive expectations to students, i.e., they will be successful

-having high personal teaching efficacy shown in their belief that they can cause
all students to learn

 Reflective Practice

-reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process

-eliciting feedback from others in the interest of teaching and learning

-Knowing students individually, their likes and dislikes, and personal situations
affecting behavior and performance.

Guide Questions

1. As a student, what do you think other human environmental factors that may affect
the motivation of a learner?
2. Can you give some characteristics of an affective teacher towards motivation?

Activity 22

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Create a slogan with regard to affective characteristics of a teacher toward learners’
motivation.

Rubrics:
Content------------------------------------ 30%
Relevance to the topic------------------30%
Originality--------------------------------- 20%
Creativity (mastery and props) ------ 20%
TOTAL 100%

Evaluation

Directions: Enumerate the following based on the topic that are being discussed.

1-2. Two environmental factors that may affect the students.

3-5. The immediate human factors that surround the learner.
6-10. Cite the affective characteristics of effective teachers based on the research of James
H. Stronge.

Reference:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

Module 23: The Classroom

Climate
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 Learning Outcomes

1. Describe the characteristics of a positive and negative classroom climate.

2. Discuss the four aspects of classroom climate.
3. Identify how can an educator promote a facilitative learning in his/her classroom?

Description

Students experience the classroom as not just an intellectual space, but also as a
social, emotional, and physical environment. Classrooms that subtly or indirectly exclude
certain groups of students tend to be common from the students’ perspectives; students
have a particularly negative reaction to instructors who fail to acknowledge consequential
local or national events. This module will discuss the factors to be considered for a classroom
to transform into a positive classroom environment.

What is a Classroom Climate?

 Classroom climate refers to the prevailing mood, attitudes, standards, and tone that
you and your students feel when they are in your classroom.
 Classroom climate sometimes is referred to as the learning environment, as well as by
terms such as atmosphere, ambience, ecology, and milieu.
 Classroom climate is more product of the interaction between and among teachers
and students than that of the physical condition of the classroom.

Negative Classroom Climate

- A negative classroom climate can feel hostile, chaotic, and out of control.

Positive Classroom Climate

A positive classroom climate feels safe, respectful, welcoming, and supportive of student
learning.

Four Aspects of Classroom Climate

1. Intellectual
- The lesson develops knowledge, skills and attitudes.
- Performance expectations are explicit.
- Students regularly present disciplinary skills.
- Tasks are challenging, important and authentic.
- Students receive prompt and specific feedback.

2. Social

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 - Behavior expectations are explicit
- Students have opportunities to work together
- The instructor ensures equitable and respectful student interactions
- The instructor is approachable, resourceful and proactive
- The instructor solicits and responds to student feedback

3. Emotional
- The atmosphere is non-competitive and motivating and productively addresses
stereotypes
- Students’ backgrounds and identities are valued
- Students are allowed to make low-risk mistakes

4. Physical
- Students can interact with and see each other
- Students have equal access to physical and online materials
- The classroom is free from distraction

Two Factors Influencing the Classroom

1. Physical Environment
- Physical classroom condition
- Furniture arrangement
- Seating arrangement
- Temperature and lighting

2. Psychological Climate
- Safety
- Relationships
- Teaching and learning

The Positive Classroom Climate

1. Specific classroom rules and procedures are clear

2. These classroom rules are discussed on the first day of class

3. Students are involved in rule-making

4. Reinforce acceptable behavior and provide negative consequences employed

5. Establish clear limit for unacceptable behavior

6. Healthy balance between dominance and cooperation

7. The teacher is aware of the different needs of students

8. The teacher has wittiness

9. Enhance student’s responsibility for their own behavior

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 10. Encourages active learning

11. Promotes and facilitates the individual’s discovery of personal meaning of idea

12. Emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of learning

13. Respect for diversity

14. Recognizes people’s right to make mistakes

15. Tolerates ambiguity

16. Evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on self-evaluation

17. Encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self

18. Encourage learners to trust in themselves as well as external sources

19. Makes people feel respected

20. Makes people feel accepted

21. Permits confrontation

22. Develops the cognitive and affective faculties of the learners

Guide Questions

1. If you would be given a chance to add some factors of a positive classroom

environment, what will you add? Why?
2. As a student, what do you think will be your contribution to promote a positive
classroom climate?
3. Why is there a need to know the aspects or factors to be considered to turn
classroom a positive classroom?

Activity 23

MESSAGE RELAY

Instructions: This activity will be played by the two opponents (2 groups). The teacher will be
the one to lead the said activity and will be the one to give the game mechanics. This activity
itself will compose the topic “LEARNING STRATEGIES” and expected to have questions to be
answered related to the given topic.

Evaluation

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Write CLASSROOM if the statement is correct and CLIMATE if the statement is incorrect then
underline the term or terms that makes the statement incorrect and change it into correct
term/terms.

________________ 1. The lesson develops knowledge, skills and attitudes is under

intellectual aspect.
________________ 2. Performance expectations are explicit belongs to emotional aspect.
________________ 3. The atmosphere is non-competitive, motivating and productively
addresses stereotypes is categorized under social aspect.
________________ 4. Behavior expectations are explicit is belongs to social aspect.
________________ 5. Students have opportunities to work together is under physical aspect.
________________ 6. The instructor ensures inequitable and respectful student interactions.
________________ 7. Students are not allowed to make low-risk mistakes.
________________ 8. Students can interact with and talk to each other.
________________ 9. Students have equal access to physical and online materials.
________________ 10. The classroom is free from distraction.

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

B. Websites
 [Link]
classrooms/[Link]. Retrieved November 18, 2019
 [Link]
 [Link] Retrieved November 18, 2019

Module 24: The Physical

Learning
Environment
Learning Outcomes

1. Define what learning environment is

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 2. Enumerate the importance of the learning environment
3. Identify the elements of the learning environment
4. List the effects of good and a bad learning environment

Description

In this module, you will get to know the elements of learning environment. It also
presents you the importance and effects of the learning environment.

What is Learning Environment?

 “Learning environment refers to a space or a place where learners and teachers

interact with each other and use a variety of tools and information resources in their
pursuit of learning activities.” Khine and Chiew (2001) from Wilson (1996)

 Learning Environment refers to the whole range of components and activities within
which learning happens.

 Learning environments are typically constructivist in nature, engaging learners in

"sense-making" or reasoning about extensive resource sets.

Importance of the Learning Environment

 The nature of the Learning Environment and psycho-social interactions can make a
difference in how the students learn and achieve their goals (McRobbie, Roth &
Lucus, 1997).

 Most learning process takes place there

 They learn through exploration and discovery using their senses

 To support their natural curiosity and desire to learn

 Providing the feeling of security and pleasure

Elements of the Learning Environment

 The Classroom Climate

 The temperature,

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  Lightings

 Colours and

 Noise level

 The Classroom Space

 Space for the Teacher

 Space for the Students

 Space for Emergency Situations

 The Relationship In The Classroom

 Teacher – Student

 Student – Student

 The Classroom Materials

 Desks

 Chairs

 Whiteboard

 Bulletin/Notice Board

 Others

 The Cleanliness of the classroom

 Duty Roster

EFFECTS OF GOOD AND BAD LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Effects
Elements of Learning Environment Good Bad

The classroom climate Less distractions More irritations

and distractions
The classroom space More student Less student
Participation participation
The relationship in the classroom Strong rapport Weak rapport and

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 more discipline
problem
The classroom materials More creativity Less creativity
The cleanliness of the classroom Contented Unpleasant

If the student feels uncomfortable of the classroom conditions, then they will have less
concentration on the lesson and so they get a little information only, from the teacher, and
thus, affecting their grades.

Students in a positive learning environment do not have to think of any hurtful

comments from the teacher. Students thrive in environments where they feel safe, nurtured
and respected. All students, even those who have learning difficulties and extraordinary
personal challenges, can do well when they are physically comfortable, mentally motivated
and emotionally supported.

Guide Questions

1. As a future teacher, how will you prepare for a comfortable learning environment?
2. As a student, in what ways can you consider a comfortable classroom?

Activity 1

Charade. This activity is a guessing game in which the player will guess whatever action is
being portrayed. The class will be divided into 5 groups and each group should prepare an
action inclined to the topic given by the teacher. The teacher will be the one to choose what
group will perform first.

Evaluation

Essay. In your own understanding, explain the following:

1. What is a learning environment?
2. What are the elements of a learning environment?

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

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B. Website
 [Link] Retrieved
November 18, 2019

Module 25: Assessment

Strategies that
can Increase
Motivation
Learning Outcomes

1. Cite ways to make assessment more motivating for students

2. Demonstrate appreciation of assessment as a process to evaluate and
facilitate learning.

Description

An indispensable part of the teaching-learning process is assessment. It is usually at

the end of a lesson plan termed “evaluation”. A lesson plan is not complete without an
assessment. The instructional cycle indeed is not complete without assessment.

Assessment is at service of learning, thus the phase assessment for learning.

Assessment is meant to ensure that learning takes place. This is possible only when the
assessment process motivates students to learn. Unfortunately, in many instances,
assessment as a process does not motivate, instead threatens. How can we make assessment
a motivating and a facilitating experience is the concern of this Module.

Assessment Strategies that can Increase Motivation

How can we make assessment a palatable menu for our students?

Experiences in classroom assessment and principles of assessment tell us the following:

1. Make clear your learner’s objectives everytime. It is good if students are clarified on
the objectives they are working on and the criteria that will be used in evaluating
their leraning.
2. Make your students own the lesson objective. Allow them to set their own personal
learning targets based on the lesson objective. Initially their personal target maybe
lower than the learning target set for the class but with the expectation that they will

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 gradually bring them up according to their pace until their personal targets coincide
with the class target. This will make them feel unthreatened and comfortable.

3. Engage your students in self- assessment. They have established their own targets
against clearly set lesson objectives. They are in the best position and to determine if
they have met their own targets and the class targets or objective.

When learners are given the opportunity to evaluate their own performance, they bring to
mind the personal task and strategy variables applicable to them. They reflect on their
personal characteristics that affect their learning. The tasks they need to work on and the
strategies that can help them. In this way, assessment empowers the students to take a more
activity role in their own learning process.

1. Practice criterion- referenced assessment rather than norm-referenced assessment.

Make your students compare their performance against established criterion i.e... the
learning objective or target and not against other students performance. Comparing a
student’s performance with the latter makes assessment threatening.

2. If you are indeed criterion-referenced, then your assessment is certainly based on

established criterion, your learning target or objective. It has been observed,
however, that a number of teachers set learning objectives but assess another. This
leads to student’s confusion and discouragement.

3. Inspire your students to have mastery- focus rather than performance focus. Set
their hearts on lesson mastery for the love learning rather than on scores, grades,
and performance. If they fail to get an item or items in a test, tell them not to worry
and assure them that they will be taught again until mastery.

4. Have a “growth mindset”. Believe that your students can improve failure or wrong
answer is welcome. Assure your students that they are not made less of themselves
by a wrong answer or mistakes. What is most important is that they learn from their
mistakes and continuously grow and improve.

5. Your assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive because assessment

has an emotional impact. Bear in mind that your comments, marks and grades, as
well as the manner you communicate them to students, can affect their self-
confidence. Assessment should be constructive as much as possible. Judging students
harshly to the point that they feel belittled or insulted will kill their spirit and may
lead them to have a negative view both of themselves and the subject.

6. Inspire your students to have mastery- focus rather that performance- focus. Set
their hearts on lesson mastery for the love of learning rather than on scores, grades

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 and performance. If they fail to get an item or items in a test, tell them not to worry
and assure them that they will be taught again until mastery.

7. Have a “Great-mind-set”. Believe that your students can improve. Failure or wrong
answer is welcome. Assure your students that they are not made less of themselves
by a wrong answer or a mistake. What is most important is that they learn from their
mistakes and continuously grow and improve.

8. Your assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive because assessment

has an emotional impact. Bear in mind that your comments, marks, and grades, as
well as the manner you communicate them to students, can affect their self-
confidence. Assessment should be constructive as much as possible. Judging students
harshly to the point that they fell belittled or insulted will kill their spirit and may lead
them to have a negative view both of themselves and the subject.

9. Don’t make the test too difficult to discourage students nor too easy to make them
complacent. An extremely easy test is not challenging while an extremely difficulty
test is discouraging

10. Communicate results/feedback. A teacher facilities learning by providing students

with important feedback on their learning areas.... ( Bloom Madaus and Hasting,
Stiggins as cited Guskey, 2003, p.7

Self-Assessment
Self-Assessment

Tests,
Tests, Clear
Clear
challenging, not
challenging, not objectives as
objectives as
too
too easy,
easy, not
not bass of
bass of
too difficult
too difficult assessment
assessment

Assessment
Assessment Focus on
Focus on
Sensitive and
Sensitive and
constructive
constructive
Strategies that progress
progress
can Increase
can Increase rather
rather than
than
assessment
assessment
Motivation on failure
on failure

True
True purpose
purpose “Growth-
“Growth-
of
of assessment
assessment mindset”
mindset”

Criterion-
Criterion-
referenced
referenced

Guide Questions

1. How do you compare your scores in the pre-test and in the post-test?
2. What may have contributed to the improved scores?

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 3. Did the exercise on the pre-test and post-test help you improve your scores? How?
4. Did you like the idea of checking your own answers? Why?
5. Did checking your own paper help you improve your score? How
6. Did your errors help you improve your score? How?

Activity 1

From the activity, you have seen that assessment does not take place only at the end of the
lesson, helped you determine how much you knew and didn’t know about the professional
teacher. With the pre-test results, your learning became more focused (particularly on the
items you did not get). You learned to the point of mastery, thus your scores improved
considerably.

That’s the reason why the title of this module is “Assessment of learning” We chose the
latter because it emphasizes the role that assessments plays in facilitating learning. It is not
just done at the end of the teaching-learning process. Instead, it is an integral part of the
teaching-learning process, such that assessment not just evaluates the learning but becomes
a tool to facilitate and enhance learning.

The practice of checking your own answers in both pre-test and post -test helped you
learned better, too. It challenged you to compete with yourself. Is there a proof of learning
better than improved scores?

Assessment is something that students frown upon. It is a scarecrow for students. Nobody
wants test and quizzes. The usual bargain of students with teachers is “no more, tests”.

Why this negative connotation of test? Perhaps test has always been associated with
grades and consequently with passing and failing that is why they have become threatening.

How can we make it motivating and facilitating and so non- threatening?

Evaluation

Do this True-False Pre-test on the professional teacher based on the Code of Ethics for
professional Teachers. If you are not sure of your answer, DON’T WORRY! You may guess.
What is important is that you give an answer.

Directions: Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong. You may write your
answer on the blank provided before the number.

In the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers:

____1. The professional teacher may be licensed or not licensed.

____2. Pre-school teachers are excluded in the term teacher.
____3. Only those who teach in the elementary and secondary schools are referred to as
teachers.

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____4. The teachers in the private schools are not part of the term “teacher”.
____5. The college instructor/professor is not classified as teacher.
____6. The principal is included in the word “teacher”.
____7.The word “teacher” also includes the District Supervisor and the School
Superintendent.
____8. “Teacher” refers also to industrial art or vocational teachers.
____9. Only the public school teachers in all levels, including tertiary, are classified as
teachers.
____10. A professional teacher is required only of technical and professional competence.
____11. “Teacher” refers only to full-time teachers.

Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers

PREAMBLE

Teachers are duly-licensed professionals who possess dignity and reputation with high
moral values as well as technical and professional competence. In the practice of their noble
profession, they strictly achieve to, observe, and practice this set of ethical and moral
principles, standard and values.

ARTICLE 1

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

Section 2. This code covers all public and private school teachers in all educational institutions
at the preschool, primary, elementary and secondary levels whether academic, vocational ,
special, technical or non-formal. The term “teacher” shall include industrial art or vocational
teachers and all other persons performing supervisory and for administrative functions in all
school at the aforesaid levels, whether on full-time or part-time basis.

Direction. This is Post-test. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong. You
may write your answer on the blank provided before the number.

In the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers:

____1. The teachers in the private schools are not part of the term “teacher”.
____2. Pre-school teachers are excluded in the term teacher.
____3. Only those who teach in the elementary and secondary schools are referred to as
teachers.
____4. “Teacher” refers also to industrial art or vocational teachers.
____5. The college instructor/professor is not classified as teacher.
____6. A professional teacher is required only of technical and professional competence.
____7. “Teacher” refers only to full-time teachers.
____8. The professional teacher may be licensed or not licensed.

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____9. Only the public school teachers in all levels, including tertiary, are classified as
teachers.
____10. The principal is included in the word “teacher”.
____11. The word “teacher” also includes the District Supervisor and the School
Superintendent.

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:

Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 18, 2019

158