CARBOHYDRATES improving physical performance.

In
Reported By: Addih, Leah L. recent years, however, with the
advent of techniques that better
Carbohydrates are the sugars, allow scientists to measure the
starches and fibers found in metabolism of key nutrients such
fruits, grains, vegetables and as proteins/amino acids, and
milk products. Though often studies on alternative feeding
maligned in trendy regimens such as ketogenic diets
diets, carbohydrates — one of the and periodized nutrition, our
basic food groups — are important knowledge of sports nutrition
to a healthy diet. The four principles has expanded at the
primary functions of carbohydrates same time that a consensus on what
in the body are to provide energy, constitutes the most appropriate
store energy, build diet for an active person has been
macromolecules, and spare protein clouded. The Alliance for Potato
and fat for other uses. Research and Education (APRE)
convened a panel of experts to
discuss the latest science on the
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
macronutrient needs for physical
Simple carbohydrates contain activity.
just one or two sugars, such as
fructose (found in fruits) and
Athletes and other physically
galactose (found in milk
active people are always searching
products).
for an edge– a new technique, a
Complex carbohydrates training regimen, or an article of
(polysaccharides) have three or clothing that might help them
more sugars. They are often shave minutes or seconds off their
referred to as starchy foods and personal best time, lead to
include beans, peas, lentils, strength gains necessary to
peanuts, potatoes, corn, parsnips, compete at a higher level, or
whole-grain breads and cereals. hasten recovery after a difficult
training bout. Among the most
often-cited and frequently
THEORY OF PRACTICE
misunderstood ergogenic aids that
Numerous studies conducted over athletes use to enhance
the past 40 to 50 years have performance is their diet.
consistently pointed to
carbohydrate as the primary
macronutrient for sustaining and

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 1

 Although dietary protein and nutrients. It’s still a popular
fat can provide necessary energy choice across the board.
to perform physical activity,
Wild rice
carbohydrate is the substrate most
efficiently metabolized by the Total carbs: 35 grams (one
body and the only macronutrient
cup, cooked)
that can be broken down rapidly
enough to provide energy during Wild rice is actually the grain
periods of high-intensity exercise of four different species of
when fast-twitch muscle fibers are grass. Though technically it’s not
primarily relied upon. a rice, it’s commonly referred to
as one for practical purposes. Its
chewy texture has an earthy, nutty
The Different Types of Rice flavor that many find appealing.
Wild rice is also rich in
Brown rice
nutrients and antioxidants.
Total carbs: 52 grams (one cup,
Black rice
long-grain cooked rice)
Total carbs: 34 grams (one
Brown rice is the go-to rice in
some health food circles since cup, cooked)
it’s considered to be more
Black rice has a distinct
nutritious. Brown rice is a whole
texture and sometimes turns purple
grain and has more fiber than
once cooked. It’s full of fiber
white rice. It’s also a great
and contains iron, protein, and
source of magnesium and selenium.
antioxidants. It’s often used in
It may help to reduce the risk of
dessert dishes since some types
type 2 diabetes, lower cholesterol
are slightly sweet. You can
White rice experiment using black rice in a
variety of dishes.
Total carbs: 53 grams (one
Red rice
cup, short-grain, cooked)
Total carbs: 45 grams (one
White rice is the most popular
type of rice and might be the one cup, cooked)
most used. The processing white
Red rice is another nutritious
rice undergoes depletes it of some
choice that also has a lot of
of its fiber, vitamin, and
fiber. Many people enjoy its nutty
minerals. But some types of white
taste and chewy texture. However,
rice are enriched with additional
the flavor of red rice can be

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 2

 quite complex. You may find its When Does an Athlete’s needs to
color an aesthetic enhancement to intake more Carbohydrates?
certain dishes. On or before the competition
Before the Exercise or Training

The consumption of
high carbohydrate meals is HOW MUCH CARBS DOES THE ATHLETES
important for NEED?
the swimmer because carbohydrates  According To the "USADA"
replete muscle glycogen, which is
Depending upon the training
the primary fuel used by swimmers.
routine, athletes should consume
Without muscle glycogen, the
anywhere from 3-12 grams of
athlete's performance gradually
carbohydrates per kilogram of
decreases and even an easy workout
bodyweight throughout the day.
causes fatigue.

In the hours immediately post- HOW MUCH CARBS DOES AN INVIDUAL

exercise, research indicates that NEEDS?
nutritious, carbohydrate-rich
Depending on your age, sex,
foods that can be quickly
activity level, and overall
digested, absorbed, and
health, your carbohydrate
transported in the blood can most
requirements will vary. According
readily alter the hormonal milieu
to the Mayo Clinic, 45 to 65
to speed glycogen resynthesis, a
percent of your daily calories
key factor when performing
should come from carbohydrates.
strenuous exercise on consecutive
That's equal to about 225 to 325
days or, sometimes, during the
grams of carbs if you eat 2,000
same day.
calories a day.

Beginning at the age of 1 year,

DOING THE MATH/CALCULATION
and continuing throughout their
teens, children need to consume The following example shows how
130 grams of total carbohydrates to calculate the recommended grams
daily. The majority of their carbs of carbohydrates needed per pound
should come from whole grains, of body weight.
fruits, vegetables and beans.
Weight in Kilograms ×
Carbohydrates in Grams = Daily
Carbohydrates Intake

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 3

 Example: 68 × 4 = 272 Grams A low-carb diet limits
carbohydrates — such as those
found in grains, starchy
HOW TO CALCULATE NET CARBS vegetables and fruit — and
emphasizes foods high in protein
Total Crabs - Dietary Fiber -
and fat. Many types of low-carb
Sugar Alcohol = Net Carbs
diets exist. Each diet has varying
Example: 13grams of carbs -3 grams restrictions on the types and
of Dietary Fiber - 6 grams of amounts of carbohydrates you can
Sugar Alcohol = 4 Net Carbs. eat.

RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Purpose

According to: Mitch Kanter, PhD A low-carb diet is generally used
for losing weight. Some low-carb
Although studies dating back
diets may have health benefits
more than 50 years have
beyond weight loss, such as
demonstrated the benefits of
reducing risk factors associated
carbohydrate intake for improving
with type 2 diabetes and metabolic
physical performance, the experts
syndrome.
closed the session by discussing
future research needs regarding
the impact of high-quality
LOW-CARBOHYDRATE DIETS AMONG
carbohydrate sources on
ATHLETES
performance and recovery from
strenuous exercise, as well as on
general health (e.g., the The training-low concept
interaction of chronic high- generally requires an athlete to
quality carbohydrate diets and conduct heavy exercise training
exercise on indices of diabetes, bouts after skipping a meal or
cardiovascular disease, obesity, meals to reduce carbohydrate
etc). availability and train the muscles
to more readily use fat as
substrate, thereby conserving
CURRENT TRENDS
limited glycogen stores and
Low-carb diet: Can it help you
promoting greater responses in the
lose weight
molecular signals that lead to
Definition adaptation

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 4

 If your workouts are low to [Link]
moderate intensity — especially if [Link]

you're eating most of your

day's carbs around the time you
FIBERS
exercise — low carb Reported By: Alejandro, Al-John A.
diets may work OK and help
Fiber, a complex carbohydrate,
with fat loss, which is why
is generally defined as the part
many athletes generally
of a plant that cannot be
reduce carb intake when they're
digested. Thus, it adds virtually
trying to lose fat, as opposed to
no calories to the diet. This is
gain muscle and strength.
the reason some manufacturers
subtract fiber from the
CRITICAL THINKING/ JOURNAL OR carbohydrate content of foods.
ARTICLE ANALYSIS
Fiber is also known as “bulk”
Although it is generally
or “roughage,” and it can make
acknowledged that an athlete's
some noise as it passes through
need for protein may be a bit
the stomach and intestines.
higher than previously believed
and that issues regarding the
Types of dietary fiber
timing and make-up of meals
SOLUBLE FIBER is dissolved or
before, during, and after exercise
absorbed in water and slows down
can affect performance and
digestion. It can help lower the
recovery, one factor that remains
body’s cholesterol and blood sugar
as true today as it did decades
levels. The fiber forms a gel and
ago is the athlete's indispensable
binds to cholesterol and excretes
need for carbohydrate as a key
it from the body. Soluble fiber
component of the diet.
also delays the movement of food
into the small intestine, which
slows post-meal surges in blood
References:
sugar. This is of benefit to
[Link] diabetics and those of us who want
[Link] our food to be more slowly
[Link] absorbed into the blood stream in
Carb_Calculator.asp?toolsort=1500 order to avoid spikes in blood
sugar.
[Link]
Some good sources of soluble fiber
nces/nutrition/carbohydrates-the-
master-fuel/ include:
 Oatmeal and oat bran

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 5

  Apples, citrus fruits, to digestion and absorption in the
and strawberries human small intestine with
 Beans, peas, and lentils complete or partial fermentation
 Barley in the large intestine. Dietary

 Rice bran fiber includes polysaccharides,

oligosaccharides, lignin, and

INSOLUBLE FIBER does not associated plant substances.

completely dissolve in water. This Dietary fibers promote beneficial

type of fiber adds bulk and helps physiological effects including

satisfy appetites longer. laxation, and/or blood cholesterol

Insoluble fiber promotes attenuation, and/or blood glucose

regularity and keeps waste attenuation.”

products moving through the

digestive tract. Fiber for Athletes

Some good sources of insoluble An athlete’s approach to fiber

fiber include: should vary some from that of a

 Cereal brans person not actively training. The

recommended daily intake is 20 to
 Whole grains, like barley
35 grams, whereas 10 to 15 grams
 Whole-wheat breads, wheat
is what most individuals ingest on
cereals, and wheat bran
a daily basis.
 Vegetables like carrots,
The goal should always be to
cabbage, beets, and
obtain the recommended amount from
cauliflower
whole foods rather than
supplements. Many supplements are
THEORY OF PRACTICE
absent of key vitamins, minerals
“Dietary fiber…”-The term to be
and nutrients, making them an
defined. Since the term dietary
incomplete source of fiber.
fiber was coined by Hipsley (12)
in 1953, the exact definition of
An increase in soluble fiber is
the term has been controversial as
linked to blood glucose
scientists have studied various
stabilization, meaning less spikes
aspects of the food supply and
or drops in blood sugar and a more
dietary fiber’s impact upon
consistent energy supply. The
health.
short chain fatty acids making up
fiber also directly influence
“Dietary fiber is the edible
glycogen release in the liver.
parts of plants or analogous
Glycogen stores in the liver
carbohydrates that are resistant

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 6

 account for up to 14 percent of should ensure proper digestion
available energy stores, or 100 pre-workout.
grams of glycogen.
During increased training load,
Fiber is easy to acquire for or leading up to race day, you may
athletes looking to add more to want to consider decreasing fiber
their diet. Many athletes’ go-to intake as a whole. The greater
foods are great sources of soluble caloric needs of athletes during
and insoluble fiber as well as increased training load may lead
carbohydrates. to an unnecessary increase in
fiber as well.
Fiber for Training
To sum up the Benefits of Fiber:
One of the most important  Essentially non-caloric.
things to remember when fueling  Helps to fill you up on
for training is that fiber fewer calories.
provides no actual calories due to  Slows the absorption of
its indigestibility. Therefore, food by the body and
it’s critical that athletes obtain stabilizes blood sugar
the appropriate amount of calories levels.
for training from other key  Helps keep appetites
nutrients. satisfied longer.
 Helps the body absorb
While fiber is important and less fat and cholesterol
has many benefits for athletes, it from the foods you eat.
can also cause GI distress for  By lowering cholesterol
several reasons, one of which is absorption from food and
due to the fact that it slows the reducing cholesterol
emptying of the contents in the production by the body,
stomach. dietary fiber helps
protect the
Ingestion of too much fiber cardiovascular system.
close to a workout can cause  Promotes proper waste
issues during or after the removal
workout. Try to time your fiber
 Maintains gut and immune
intake so that it’s ingested a
system health by
minimum of two hours from your
promoting growth of
scheduled training session. This
friendly, healthy
bacteria in the gut.

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 7

  Found in foods rich in 2,000-calorie diet for adults.
vitamins, minerals, and This number may also depend on age
antioxidants. or sex:
 Women under 50: 21 to 25
RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS grams per day
According Harvard Study,  Men under 50: 30 to 38
Children and adults need at least grams per day
20 to 30 grams of fiber per day
for good health, but most Children between ages 1 and
Americans get only about 15 grams 18 should eat 14 to 31 grams of
a day. Great sources are whole fiber per day, depending on their
fruits and vegetables, whole age and sex. Even higher fiber
grains, and beans. intakes, seen in countries around
the world, may significantly
For Filipinos, its 38 grams for reduce chronic disease risk.
adult males, and 25 grams for
adult females, based on
the Recommended Energy Intake CRITICAL THINKING/ JOURNAL OR
(RENI) levels prescribed by the ARTICLE ANALYSIS
Food and Nutrition Research A large-scale 2016 study  led
Institute (FNRI). Unfortunately, by researchers at Harvard T.H.
many Filipinos are hardly getting Chan School of Public Health
enough fiber. According to FNRI showed findings that higher fiber
data from the 8th National intake reduces the risk of
Nutrition Survey, the average developing various conditions,
Filipino intake of vegetables, including heart disease, diabetes,
fruits, nuts, and corn products diverticular disease, and
are well below the recommended constipation, colon cancer, and
amounts. These food groups are breast cancer.
known sources of fiber.
Heart Disease
High intake of dietary fiber
has been linked to a lower risk of
heart disease in a number of large
studies that followed people for
many years. In a Harvard study of
over 40,000 male health
According to the American Heart
professionals, researchers found
Association, the daily value for
that a high total dietary fiber
fiber is 25 grams per day on a

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 8

 intake was linked to a 40 percent Other studies, such as the Black
lower risk of coronary heart Women’s Health Study and the
disease. A related Harvard study European Prospective Investigation
of female nurses produced quite into Cancer and Nutrition–Potsdam,
similar findings. have shown similar results.

Higher fiber intake has also Diverticular disease

been linked to a lower risk of
Diverticulitis, an inflammation
metabolic syndrome, a combination
of the intestine, is one of the
of factors that increases the risk
most common age-related disorders
of developing heart disease and
of the colon in Western society.
diabetes.
Among male health professionals in
a long-term follow-up study,
These factors include high
eating dietary fiber, particularly
blood pressure, high insulin
insoluble fiber, was associated
levels, excess weight (especially
with about a 40 percent lower risk
around the abdomen), high levels
of diverticular disease.
of triglycerides, and low levels
of HDL (good) cholesterol. Several
studies suggest that higher intake
of fiber may offer protective
benefits from this syndrome. Fiber and Constipation

Constipation is the most common

Type 2 Diabetes gastrointestinal complaint in the

Diets low in fiber and high in United States, and consumption of

foods that cause sudden increases fiber seems to relieve and prevent

in blood sugar may increase the constipation.

risk of developing type 2

Diabetes. Both Harvard studies—of The fiber in wheat bran and oat
female nurses and of male health bran is considered more effective
professionals—found that this type than fiber from fruits and
of diet more than doubled the risk vegetables. Experts recommend
of type 2 diabetes when compared increasing fiber intake gradually
to a diet high in cereal fiber and rather than suddenly, and because
low in high-glycemic-index foods. fiber absorbs water, beverage
A diet high in cereal fiber was intake should be increased as
linked to a lower risk of type 2 fiber intake increases.
diabetes.

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 9

 Colon cancer  diarrhea
Studies have largely failed  abdominal cramping
to show a link between fiber and
colon cancer. One of these—a There’s one other problem with
Harvard study that followed over fiber overload. Fiber can bind to
80,000 female nurses for 16 years— important minerals such as
found that dietary fiber was not calcium, iron, and zinc and
strongly associated with a reduced prevent your system from absorbing
risk for either colon cancer or these nutrients.
polyps (a precursor to colon
cancer). Pharmacies sell fiber
supplements such as Metamucil,
Breast cancer Citrucel, and FiberCon which can
A large-scale 2016 study led by help bridge the gap. Although
researchers at Harvard T.H. Chan these products do not provide the
School of Public Health showed same levels of vitamins and
findings that higher fiber intake nutrients as natural fiber-
reduces breast cancer risk, containing foods, they can be
suggesting that fiber intake useful for some people.
during adolescence and early CURRENT TRENDS
adulthood may be particularly High intake of dietary fiber and
important. whole grains associated with
reduced risk of non-communicable
diseases
Women who eat more high-fiber
foods during adolescence and young
adulthood, including vegetables
and fruit, may have significantly
lower breast cancer risk than
those who eat less dietary People who eat higher levels of
fiber when young. dietary fiber and whole grains
have lower rates of non-
communicable diseases compared
If you eat more than 70 grams a
with people who eat lesser
day, your body will begin to tell
amounts, while links for low
you to back off. Here are some
glycemic load and low glycemic
signs and symptoms:
index diets are less clear.
 gas
Observational studies and clinical
 bloating trials conducted over nearly 40
 constipation years reveal the health benefits

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 10

 of eating at least 25g to 29g or Scientific Advisory Committee on
more of dietary fiber a day, Nutrition recommended an increase
according to a series of in dietary fibre intake to 30 g
systematic reviews and meta- per day, but only 9% of UK adults
analyses published in The Lancet. manage to reach this target. In
the US, fibre intake among adults
The results suggest a 15-30% averages 15 g a day. Rich sources
decrease in all-cause and of dietary fibre include whole
cardiovascular related mortality grains, pulses, vegetables and
when comparing people who eat the fruit.
highest amount of fibre to those
"Previous reviews and meta-
who eat the least. Eating fibre-
analyses have usually examined a
rich foods also reduced incidence
single indicator of carbohydrate
of coronary heart disease, stroke,
quality and a limited number of
type 2 diabetes and colorectal
diseases so it has not been
cancer by 16-24%. Per 1,000
possible to establish which foods
participants, the impact
to recommend for protecting
translates into 13 fewer deaths
against a range of conditions,"
and six fewer cases of coronary
says corresponding author
heart disease.
Professor Jim Mann, the University
In addition, a meta-analysis of of Otago, New Zealand.
clinical trials suggested that
"Our findings provide
increasing fibre intakes was
convincing evidence for nutrition
associated with lower bodyweight
guidelines to focus on increasing
and cholesterol, compared with
dietary fibre and on replacing
lower intakes.
refined grains with whole grains.
The study was commissioned by This reduces incidence risk and
the World Health Organization to mortality from a broad range of
inform the development of new important diseases."
recommendations for optimal daily
The researchers included 185
fibre intake and to determine
observational studies containing
which types of carbohydrate
data that relate to 135 million
provide the best protection
person years and 58 clinical
against non-communicable diseases
trials involving 4,635 adult
(NCDs) and weight gain.
participants. They focused on
Most people worldwide consume premature deaths from and
less than 20 g of dietary fibre incidence of coronary heart
per day. In 2015, the UK disease, cardiovascular disease

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 11

 and stroke, as well as incidence in dietary fibre, which could
of type 2 diabetes, colorectal explain their beneficial effects.
cancer and cancers associated with
The study also found that diets
obesity: breast, endometrial,
with a low glycaemic index and low
esophageal and prostate cancer.
glycaemic load provided limited
The authors only included studies
support for protection against
with healthy participants, so the
type 2 diabetes and stroke only.
findings cannot be applied to
Foods with a low glycaemic index
people with existing chronic
or low glycaemic load may also
diseases.
contain added sugars, saturated
For every 8g increase of fats, and sodium. This may account
dietary fibre eaten per day, total for the links to health being less
deaths and incidence of coronary clear.
heart disease, type 2 diabetes and
"The health benefits of fibre are
colorectal cancer decreased by 5-
supported by over 100 years of
27%. Protection against stroke,
research into its chemistry,
and breast cancer also increased.
physical properties, physiology
Consuming 25g to 29g each day was
and effects on metabolism. Fibre-
adequate but the data suggest that
rich whole foods that require
higher intakes of dietary fibre
chewing and retain much of their
could provide even greater
structure in the gut increase
protection.
satiety and help weight control
For every 15g increase of whole and can favourably influence lipid
grains eaten per day, total deaths and glucose levels. The breakdown
and incidence of coronary heart of fibre in the large bowel by the
disease, type 2 diabetes and resident bacteria has additional
colorectal cancer decreased by 2- wide-ranging effects including
19%. Higher intakes of whole protection from colorectal
grains were associated with a 13- cancer." says Professor Jim Mann.
33% reduction in NCD risk --
While their study did not show
translating into 26 fewer deaths
any risks associated with dietary
per 1,000 people from all-cause
fibre, the authors note that high
mortality and seven fewer cases of
intakes might have ill-effects for
coronary heart disease per 1,000
people with low iron or mineral
people. The meta-analysis of
levels, for whom high levels of
clinical trials involving whole
whole grains can further reduce
grains showed a reduction in
iron levels. They also note that
bodyweight. Whole grains are high
the study mainly relates to

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 12

 naturally-occurring fibre rich factors is consistent with another
foods rather than synthetic and recent systematic review, caution
extracted fibre, such as powders, is needed when interpreting these
that can be added to foods. data, as the number of studies is
small and findings are
Commenting on the implications
heterogeneous. Third, the absence
and limitations of the study,
of quantifiable and objective
Professor Gary Frost, Imperial
biomarkers for assessing
College London, UK, says, "[The
carbohydrate intake means dietary
authors] report findings from both
research relies on self-reported
prospective cohort studies and
intake, which is prone to error
randomised controlled trials in
and misreporting. Improving the
tandem. This method enables us to
accuracy of dietary assessment is
understand how altering the
a priority area for nutrition
quality of carbohydrate intake in
research. The analyses presented
randomised controlled trials
by Reynolds and colleagues
affects non-communicable disease
provides compelling evidence that
risk factors and how these changes
dietary fibre and whole grain are
in diet quality align with disease
major determinants of numerous
incidence in prospective cohort
health outcomes and should form
studies. This alignment is seen
part of public health policy."
beautifully for dietary fibre
intake, in which observational Examples of Dietary Fiber
Food Item Grams Of
studies reveal a reduction in all-
Fiber
cause and cardiovascular 1 cup cooked dry 9-19 grams
mortality, which is associated beans
(navy, pinto,
with a reduction in bodyweight, red, pink, black,
total cholesterol, LDL garbanzo, etc.)
1 cup cooked lima 13 grams
cholesterol, and systolic blood beans
pressure reported in randomised 1 cup cooked peas 9 grams
1 cup raisin bran 8 grams
controlled trials... There are cereal
some important considerations that 1/2 cup soy 7 grams
tempeh
arise from this Article. First, 1 cup canned 7 grams
total carbohydrate intake was not pumpkin
1 cup cooked 7 grams
considered in the systematic spinach
review and meta-analysis... 1/2 cup whole 7 grams
wheat flour
Second, although the absence of
1/2 cup soy flour 6 grams
association between glycaemic 1/2 cup edamame 5 grams
(whole green
index and load with non-
soybeans)
communicable disease and risk 1 cup cooked 5 grams

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 13

 broccoli photosynthesis from water and
6 Brussels 5 grams carbon dioxide, using energy from
sprouts
1 baked sweet 5 grams sunlight.
potato
1 cup cooked 4 grams Blood Glucose serves various
brown rice
roles in the blood that include
1 cup cooked old 4 grams
fashioned rolled delivery of fuel and helping to
oats
maintain blood osmolality
1 medium apple 4 grams
1 medium orange 4 grams (concentration). Our brain,
1 cup carrot 4 grams central nervous system, and red
strips
1/2 cup 4 grams blood cells all depend on glucose
raspberries or as their primary fuel. In
blackberries
1 medium banana 3 grams fact, red blood cells lack
5 dried plums 3 grams mitochondria (organelles in which
(prunes)
1 ounce of nuts 3 grams aerobic respiration occurs) and
(almonds, only generate fuel anaerobically.
peanuts,
pistachios) Blood glucose are the main energy
1 baked 3 grams substrates for muscle contraction
potato(russet)
during exercise
1/4 cup dry 3 grams
roasted sunflower
seeds The brain accounts for 2% of
1 medium mango 3 grams our body weight, but uses 25% of
1 medium tomato 2 grams
1 cup pineapple 2 grams our blood glucose. Blood glucose
juice levels are maintained by the
1/2 cup 2 grams
blueberries liver. Carbohydrates located in
1 cup romaine 1.5 grams muscle tissue are essentially
lettuce
trapped within the cells and
1/2 cup tofu 1 gram
cannot be released into
circulation directly. It is the
GLUCOSE
Reported By: Alejandro, Al-John A. phosphorylation of glucose in
muscle cells (adding a phosphate
group to the molecule) that
Glucose is a simple sugar with
prevents it from being released
the molecular formula
into circulation. Carbohydrates in
C6H12O6. Glucose is the most
liver cells, however, can be
abundant monosaccharide, a
released into circulation.
subcategory of carbohydrates.
Other monosaccharides include How does the body process glucose?
fructose, galactose, and ribose.
When we eat, our body
Glucose is mainly made by plants
immediately starts working to
and most algae during

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 14

 process glucose. Enzymes start the
breakdown process with help from
What should you do if your levels
the pancreas. The pancreas, which
are too high or too low?
produces hormones including
insulin, is an integral part of A glucose level is considered
how our body deals with glucose. to be too low when it dips under
When we eat, our body tips the 70 mg/dL. This condition is also
pancreas off that it needs to known as hypoglycemia, and it has
release insulin to deal with the the potential to be very serious.
rising blood sugar level. Hypoglycemia can occur when people
with diabetes skip their
How do you test your glucose?
medication. It can also occur when
One of the most common ways people are eating less than normal
to test glucose at home involves a and exercising excessively. Eating
very simple blood test. A finger a meal or drinking juice can help
prick, usually using a small to increase glucose levels. People
needle called a lancet, produces a with diabetes also often take
drop that is put onto a test glucose pills, which can be
strip. The strip is put into a purchased over-the-counter at a
meter, which measures blood sugar pharmacy.
levels. It can usually give you a
reading in under 20 seconds.
What happens if your levels go
What are the normal levels for
unregulated?
glucose?
There are long-term consequences
for unregulated glucose levels. It
can lead to a variety of
conditions, including:

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 15

 workout, the sooner your muscles
start repairing themselves to
become stronger.

References:

The Lancet. "High intake of

• neuropathy
dietary fiber and whole grains
• heart disease associated with reduced risk of
non-communicable diseases."
• blindness ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 10

• skin infections January 2019.

<[Link]/releases/201
• problems in the joints and 9/01/[Link]>.
extremities, especially the
[Link]
feet
nsource/carbohydrates/fiber/

• severe dehydration [Link]
ber-intake-guidelines-for-endurance-
• coma
athletes/

[Link]
[Link]
RESEARCH HIGHLIGHT
[Link]
According to a study published
4913-the-benefits-of-glucose-when-
in the "Journal of the
working-out/
International Society of Sports
Nutrition," after working your
muscles, not only is protein FRUCTOSE
required to rebuild muscles, but Reported By: Atienza, John Michael U.

also glucose from carbohydrates.

Glucose is what provides the Fructose and Health although
muscles energy to repair fructose can be used by cells, the
themselves using protein. That body generally favors glucose as a
means it's important to eat carbs fuel. Consequently, fructose
as well as protein after your travels to the liver, where it
workout the reap the glucose undergoes metabolic processing for
benefits. In fact, the study found conversion to glucose. A growing
that the sooner you get glucose body of evidence is beginning to
into your bloodstream after a show strong correlations among

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 16

 fructose consumption, obesity, then mixed with pure corn syrup
health, and liver disease.13, 14 (100% glucose) to create various
in the liver, fructose may not alternative, and less expensive,
convert to glucose, but may commercial sweeteners than sugar.
actually convert to fats Commercially manufactured types of
(triglycerides [TGs]) that are HFCS are listed in Box 3-2. Sodas
stored within liver tissue. This and sweet beverages contribute
results in the development of a significant calories to the U.S.
fatty liver (as seen with diet and contribute to obesity. In
cirrhosis from excessive alcohol fact, 20% of children drink at
consumption) or increased levels least three sweetened beverages
of blood TGs that increase the each day, constituting almost one
risk for obesity and heart third of their total daily
disease. Furthermore, evidence calories (Fig. 3-7).11 Many of
shows that fructose may also these beverages are sweetened with
increase levels of uric acid in HFCS, so the question arises
the body (which increases the whether there is a correlation
potential for gout) and reduce between obesity and HFCS, or
circulating levels of leptin, an whether obesity rates would remain
essential hormone that helps unchanged if HFCS was replaced
control satiety and appetite.15, with regular sugar. In other
16 Researchers are beginning to words, would our obesity rates be
devote more attention to the any different if sucrose cost the
effects of excessive fructose same? Many experts agree that it
consumption on health. Table 3-3 is.
provides a breakdown of the
amounts of fructose in various
fruits and sweeteners.

High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)

is a sweetener derived from corn
that has also gained the attention
of researchers and the public,
most of it being negative. HFCS is
a group of corn starches (glucose
chains) that have undergone
enzymatic processing to increase
their sweetness to resemble sugar,
which consequently increases the
fructose content. This compound is

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 17

 RESEARCH HIGHLIGHT

Fructose Consumption as a Risk

Factor for Nonalcoholic Fatty
Liver Disease

As increases in nonalcoholic
fatty liver disease (NAFLD) appear Box [Link]
to parallel increases in obesity, Manufactured Types of High-
diabetes, and dietary fructose Fructose Corn Syrup
consumption in industrialized
•HFCS-90 (90% fructose, 10%
nations (primarily because of glucose) is used primarily to
increased consumption of sugar and produce HFCS-55 and HFCS-42. It is
sweeter than regular sugar
high-fructose corn syrup from soft (sucrose).
drinks), the study examined 73
•HFCS-55 (55% fructose, 45%
patients, comparing individuals glucose) is the most common form
with NAFLD without liver cirrhosis often used to sweeten drinks
(e.g., soft drinks, sports
against a control group. The drinks). It is comparable in
research demonstrated that sweetness and fructose-glucose
ratio to sucrose, and thus is
patients with NAFLD consumed two
often used as a cheap alternative
to three times more fructose than to sugar.
the control group (365 kcal from
•HFCS-42 (42% fructose, 58%
fructose vs. 170 kcal), leading
glucose) is used in a variety of
researchers to conclude that a key
other foods (e.g., baked goods).
pathogenic mechanism behind the
development of NAFLD may be The excessive consumption of

associated with excessive dietary sweetened beverages and not the

fructose consumption. Ouyang X, caloric sweetener that is to

Cirillo P, Sautin Y, et al. blame.11 However, research has

Fructose consumption as a risk also examined the potential health

factor for non-alcoholic fatty consequences of consuming sucrose

liver disease. J Hepatol. 2008; instead of HFCS. As mentioned

48:993–999. previously, studies link fructose

to increased risks for obesity and
heart and metabolic diseases
(e.g., diabetes), because it
stimulates liver production of
TGs. Because HFCS contains higher
levels of fructose than sucrose,

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 18

 do they increase these risks for liver (90–110 g) • Within muscle
disease? Furthermore, carbonyl tissue (250–600 g) The total
compounds, a substance derived amount stored within the body
from carbohydrates, are found in equals approximately 2,000 Kcal,
higher concentrations in increasing toward and beyond 3,000
individuals with diabetes and tend Kcal in trained athletes, given
to cause diabetic complications their capacity for increased
(e.g., foot ulcers and eye/nerve carbohydrate storage. For the
damage). Because these compounds average adult, this provides
are found in concentrations that adequate fuel for about 20 miles
are 10 times higher in HFCS than of running (at a 100 kcal/mile
in sugar, researchers are average for many adults). With the
expressing additional concerns appropriate training and eating
about the use of HFCS.17 strategies, liver and muscle can
temporarily double their stored
Storage in the Body
glycogen levels. The application
Once carbohydrates enter the of carbohydrate feeding strategies
body, they are either used for to improve performance is
immediate energy or transported to discussed in Chapter 20.1
the cells for storage as glycogen
in chains ranging from 100 to
30,000 glucose molecules. Once the
body’s immediate energy needs are
met, excesses are converted to
glycogen until this capacity is
maximized. Any additional
carbohydrates are then converted
to fats. This biochemical process
is discussed in Chapter 4.
Glycogen formation or
glycogenesistakes place inside
cells under the influence of the
enzyme glycogen synthetase, which
is most active immediately
following meals and exercise.
Carbohydrates are generally stored
in three primary regions of the
TRANS FATS
body (Fig. 3-8)1,6: • As glucose Reported By: Atienza, John Michael
in the blood (5–15 g) • Within the U.

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 19

 Trans (Hydrogenated) Fats transforms an unsaturated fat to a
Hydrogenation dates back to the saturated fat by breaking the
late 1800s, but it was not until unsaturated carbon atoms (double
the early 1900s that companies bonds), and then infusing hydrogen
began marketing the first atoms that bond with these carbon
hydrogenated shortening known as atoms in the hydrocarbon backbone.
Crisco, composed largely of Although the end product
partially hydrogenated cottonseed physically resembles and functions
oil. Although this shortening like a saturated fat, the
enjoyed its popularity, studies in molecule’s chemical configuration
the mid-1900s began to examine differs from naturally occurring
causal relationships between the fats. The terms trans-form and
consumption of trans fats and the cis-form reflect the chemical
incidence of diseases such as configuration of hydrogen ions
heart disease. The major negative located around the carbon double
health impact associated with bond. Whereas the cis-form
consuming trans fats is the represents the alignment of a fat
increased risk for coronary heart in its natural form, the trans-
disease because of its effect on form was created from the
elevating levels of “bad” LDL hydrogenation process. As
cholesterol and lowering levels of illustrated in Figure 3-14, the
“good” HDL cholesterol in the cis-form contains kinks within the
bloodstream.20 Although animal hydrocarbon chain, whereas the
fats were believed to contain trans-fat form appears more as a
greater quantities of saturated straight chain.6 this physical
fats, which improved their difference allows these trans fats
stability and consistency (i.e., to be more tightly packed into
being more solid), they also cell membranes, increasing an
contained higher levels of individual’s risk for coronary
cholesterol. Thus, scientists heart disease, cancer, and other
experimented with vegetable oils diseases. This fact has spurred
that contain lower levels of greater awareness to the harmful
saturation in the hopes of effects of these fats, to the
engineering a vegetable fat devoid point at which, in 2010, the USDA
of cholesterol, yet possessing the dietary guidelines recommended
same physical properties of an avoiding trans fats completely.9
animal fat (i.e., solid and Box 3-4 lists fats and oils that
stable). This process, called are good for you (A-list) and
hydrogenation, essentially those to avoid.

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 20

 acids and is found in various
plant sources such as flaxseed,
canola oil, chia seeds, and
walnuts. Although it can be
converted to EPA or DHA in the
body, it does so at low conversion
rates between 8% and 20% into EPA,
and between 0.5% and 9% into
DHA.21–24 DHA and EPA are
biologically active substances
that are responsible for many
beneficial processes such as blood
Omega-3 Fatty Acids Much has vessel and airway dilation,
been written about the health reduced blood clotting (blood
benefits associated with consuming thinning), improved blood lipid
additional quantities of omega3 profiles, reduced coronary vessel
fatty acids. Omega-3 and omega-6 inflammation and levels of
fatty acids are both essential to inflammatory agents in circulation
our health, but it is a balance (e.g., cytokines), improved cell-
between the two that is most wall permeability, and a gradual
important. Eicosanoids are slowing of cellular aging.25–27
signaling molecules made from EFAs
that exert complex control over
many physiological functions Omega-6 Fatty Acids The omega-6
within the body, in particular fatty acids (linoleic acid, gamma-
with regard to inflammation or linoleic acid, and arachidonic
immunity. Eicosanoids are derived acid), found in higher quantities.
from omega-3 or omega-6 EFAs, with
52 PART II: FUELING PHYSICAL
the omega-6 eicosanoids being
ACTIVITY
generally proinflammatory, whereas
the omega-3 eicosanoids are Box [Link] and Oils: A-List
generally anti-inflammatory. As and Avoid List
mentioned previously, the omega-3
fats EPA (20-carbon compound) and
DHA (22-carbon compound) are found A-list "Good" fats: •PUFAs—fish
primarily in cold water fish. oils, flaxseed (oil), canola oil,
Alpha-Linolenic acid, an 18-carbon chia seeds, almonds •MUFAs—olive
compound, is often labeled as or oil, canola oil •Saturated fats—
associated with omega-3 fatty coconut oil Avoid list: •Trans

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 21

 fats •PUFAs—excessive amounts of
corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower
oil, sesame oil, peanut oil, and
palm kernel oil •Saturated fats—
high-fat meats such as USDA prime
beef cuts (e.g., ribs), regular
ground beef, sausage, salami, and
bologna; whole milk; and regular
cheese

As research continues to shed

more light on the risks and
benefits of consuming various
quantities and types of fats and
oils, it is reasonable to assume
that some confusion will exist
with respect to what constitutes
healthy oils. The list in Box 3-4
In Your Own Words
provides several key A-list and
avoid-list items that may help You are given the opportunity
steer individuals toward making to present a 5-minute educational
better choices. session on “choosing healthy fats”
to first year college students who
have chosen to attend a series of
“Healthy Eating at College”
seminars. Your focus is to help
them make better dietary choices
and understand key differences
between the various types of fats
discussed in this chapter. How
would you present the information
in lay terms to increase their
awareness and encourage them to
make healthier choices? Don’t
forget to include food examples to
help illustrate your points.

Key Functions although fats are

most commonly known as a vast

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 22

 reserve of energy for the body, at the thoracic duct (above the
they serve numerous vital heart) via the left subclavian
functions that are critical to vein. This is a slow process that
physiological function and limits the availability of larger
survival. These functions include: fatty acids as a fuel after eating
• Manufacture of key hormones (it may take several hours before
(e.g., cortisol, testosterone) • entering the blood circulation).
Formation of cell membranes • In the liver and while in
Vital structural component in circulation, chylomicrons can be
brain and nerve cells (e.g., broken apart by lipoprotein
myelin sheath in neurons) • lipase, an enzyme located on the
Transport of substances within the cell membrane (e.g., fat or muscle
body (e.g., cholesterol, fat- cells) that facilitates the
soluble vitamins) • Insulation passage of fatty acids and
against the cold • Padding against glycerol into the cells for
potential trauma • Source of EFAs storage or for energy. The
needed by the body metabolism of fatty acids is
discussed in Chapter 4.

Storage The digestion of fats

occurs predominantly in the small The majority of TGs and fatty
intestine, although some digestion acids are stored in adipose cells
starts in the stomach. In the (fat cells) or within muscle and
small intestine, bile emulsifies liver cells, although small
fats into smaller droplets so that portions of each are also present
digestive enzymes (pancreatic in the circulation. As depicted in
lipases) can break TGs into fatty Figure 3-15, the average adult
acids and glycerol. The fatty stores between 7,500 and 12,000 g
acids then diffuse across the (approximately 265–420 oz.) of fat
intestinal wall, where small and in adipose tissue (subcutaneous
medium chain fatty acids pass into [under the skin] and visceral
the blood. Long chain fatty acids [around the organs]), about 150 to
are too big to pass into the 300 g (approximately 5–10 oz.) in
blood, and thus are repackaged muscle tissue, and about 5 g in
with other larger compounds into the blood.1,18
molecules called chylomicrons,
References:
composed of fats and proteins.
They pass to the lymphatic system
before slowly entering circulation

Physiology of Exercise and Physical Activity 23