Ch1: introduction

Cairo Oil Refining Company or CORC is a subsidiary of the Egyptian

oil sector , which was founded in 1982 , and keep track of the Egyptian
General Petroleum Corporation , and the company contributes about
25% of the refining capacity in Egypt
1.1 Production Company 
The company meets the production needs of the domestic market of
petroleum products (such as butane, gasoline types, kerosene, jet fuel,
diesel fuel ...) and are marketed and distributed by the Egyptian General
Petroleum Corporation. The company also manufactures some products
(such as propane, butane odorless ........) and are marketed through the
company's

1.2 products
 Propane: used as an intermediary for cooling devices in gas
liquefaction and separation
 LPG: for domestic use
 92,90,80 gasoline (unleaded) fuel for cars (Ttantj company
about 50% of the country's needs)
 Alterpaan: Fuel for aircraft (company contributes 37% of the
country's needs)
 Kerosene: household uses (company contributes 22% of the
country's needs)
 Diesel fuel: fuel for power plants and transport 12% of the
country's needs

1
 Diesel fuel: fuel fire (company contributes 37% of the country's
needs)
 Butane proprioceptive: used in the manufacture of perfumes and
pesticides
 Samar diesel: for private vehicles because it contains low sulfur
content

1.3 Activity Company

 Refining and Petroleum Processing
 Basic engineering design and detailed
 Local manufacturing of refining equipment (such as towers,
switches, furnaces, pressure vessels and warehouses. According to
BB Global (ASME, API, ASIM, ANSI)
 To execute projects ranging from civil works, until you start the
project
 Combinations of units petroleum production and industrial
facilities for the benefit of the company and its sister oil companies
and industrial companies
 Provide technical services to the petroleum and industrial
companies
 Engineering inspection work
 Carry out chemical analyzes own ore petroleum products,
water, etc.
 Marketing of petroleum products for the

1.4 Company laboratories

 Laboratory Mostorod: (Qalubia) card refining 8 million tons ore
per year

2
 Laboratory Tanta: (Western Province) card refining two million
tons ore per year

Chapter 2: heat exchangers

A heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer thermal energy

(enthalpy) between two or more fluids, between a solid surface and a
fluid, or between solid particulates and fluid, at different temperatures
and in thermal contact. Common examples of heat exchangers are shell-
and tube exchangers, automobile radiators, condensers, evaporators, air
heaters and cooling towers.

Fig 2.1: heat exchanger

3
 2.1Types of Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers can be classified in many different ways:

 According to the heat transfer process - the heat exchanger

may use an indirect contact or direct contact heat transfer method.
 In indirect contact heat transfer, the fluids in the system are
separated by a thermally conductive boundary layer which allows
heat energy to flow but prevents mixing or contamination.
 In direct contact heat exchangers, the fluids are immiscible (e.g.
gas and liquid) and therefore do not require physical separation when
transferring heat.
 According to the number of fluids - the heat exchanger may
incorporate two, three, or more than three heat transfer fluids in the
system.
 According to flow arrangements - the heat exchanger may be
either single pass or multi-pass. It may incorporate cross-flow,
counter-flow, or co-current flow. Typically heat exchangers utilize
combinations of these flow patterns to maximize thermal efficiency.
 In single pass heat exchangers, fluids flow by each other only
once in the system.
 Fluids in multi-pass heat exchangers are looped back to flow by
each other multiple times.
 In counter flow heat exchangers, fluids flow from opposite
directions towards each other.
 In cross flow heat exchangers, fluids flow perpendicular to each
other.
 In co-current flow heat exchangers, fluids flow parallel to each
other.

4
 According to heat transfer mechanism - the heat exchanger
uses single-phase convection, two-phase convection, and/or radiative
heat transfer on each side of the exchanger.
 According to construction - the heat exchanger
may incorporate shell & tube, plated, or air-cooled construction.
Users should keep these characteristics in mind when considering
different heat exchanger designs:
1. Clean ability - how easy the equipment is to clean.
2. Compactness - how small or large the equipment's footprint is.
3. Ease of repair - how easy the equipment is to maintain and repair.
4. Extension - how easily the equipment can be modified or extended.
5. Plugging risk - how susceptible the equipment is to fouling or
clogging

2.2Flow arrangements 
 illustrates an idealized counterflow exchanger in which the two fluids
flow parallel to each other but in opposite directions. This type of
flow arrangement allows the largest change in temperature of both
fluids and is therefore most efficient (where efficiency is the amount
of actual heat transferred compared with the theoretical maximum
amount of heat that can be transferred).

Fig 2.2: Countercurrent flow.
In concurrent flow heat exchangers, the streams flow parallel to each
other and in the same direction as shown in Figure 2, This is less
efficient than countercurrent flow but does provide more uniform wall
temperatures.

5
 Fig 2.3: Concurrent flow.
Cross flow heat exchangers are intermediate in efficiency between
countercurrent flow and parallel flow exchangers. In these units, the
streams flow at right angles to each other as shown in Figure 3.

Fig 2.4: Cross flow.
In industrial heat exchangers, hybrids of the above flow types are
often found. Examples of these are combined crossflow/counterflow
heat exchangers and multi pass flow heat exchangers. (See for
example Figure 4.)

Fig2.5: Cross/counter flow.
6
2.3Tubular Heat Exchangers

These exchangers are generally built of circular tubes, although

elliptical, rectangular, or round/flat twisted tubes have also been used in
some applications. There is considerable flexibility in the design because
the core geometry can be varied easily by changing the Tube diameter,
length, and arrangement. Tubular exchangers can be designed for high
pressures relative to the environment and high-pressure differences
between the fluids. Tubular exchangers are used primarily for liquid-to-
liquid and liquid-to-phase change(condensing or evaporating) heat
transfer applications. They are used for gas-to-liquid and gas-to-gas heat
transfer applications primarily when the operating temperature and/or
pressure is very high or fouling is a severe problem on at least one fluid
side and no other types of exchangers would work. These exchangers
may be classified as shell-and tube, Double-pipe, and spiral tube
exchangers. They are all prime surface exchangers Except for
exchangers having fins outside/inside tubes

2.3.1Shell-and-Tube Exchangers

7
 Fig 2.6:shell and tube exchangers
This exchanger is generally built of a bundle of round tubes mounted
in a cylindrical shell with the tube axis parallel to that of the shell.
One fluid flows inside the tubes, the other flows across and along the
tubes. The major components of this exchanger are tubes (or tube
bundle), shell, frontend head, rear-end head, baffles, and tube sheets,
and are described briefly later in this subsection Shell and tube Heat
Exchangers represent the most widely used vehicle for the transfer of
heat in industrial process applications. They are frequently selected
for such duties as:
 Process liquid or gas cooling
 Process or refrigerant vapor or steam condensing
 Process liquid, steam or refrigerant evaporation
 Process heat removal and preheating of feed water
 Thermal energy conservation efforts, heat recovery
 Compressor, turbine and engine cooling, oil and jacket water
 Hydraulic and lube oil cooling
 Many other industrial applications

2.3.2: Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers.

8
This exchanger usually consists of two concentric pipes with the inner
pipe plain or finned, One fluid flows in the inner pipe and the other fluid
flows in the annulus between pipes in counter flow direction for the
ideal highest performance for the given surface area. However, if the
application requires an almost constant wall temperature, the fluids may
flow in a parallel flow direction. This is perhaps the simplest heat
exchanger. Flow Distribution is no problem, and cleaning is done very
easily by disassembly. This configuration is also suitable where one or
both of the fluids is at very high pressure

Fig 2.7: double pipe heat exchanger

2.3.3: Spiral Tube Heat Exchangers.

9
Fig 2.8: spiral tube heat exchanger

consist of one or more spirally wound

coils fitted in a shell. Heat transfer rate associated with a spiral tube is
higher than that for a straight tube. In addition, a considerable amount of
surface can be accommodated in a given space by spiraling. Thermal
expansion is no problem, but cleaning is almost impossible.

Chapter 3: pumps
3.1 What is the pump?
Pump is a mechanical device used to force fluids, such as liquids
or gases, from one location to another. Gases and liquids are called
fluids (a fluid being any substance that flow.) in this unit, you will learn
about the two basic types of pumps that are commonly used to move
fluids:

3.2 The main types of pumps is

 Centrifugal pumps
10
  Positive Displacement pumps

3.2.1 Centrifugal pumps

[Link] Introduction

Centrifugal pumps basically consist of a stationary pump casing and an

impeller mounted on a rotating shaft. The pump casing provides a
pressure boundary for the pump and contains channels to properly
direct the suction and discharge flow. The pump casing has suction and
discharge penetrations for the main flow path of the pump and
normally has small drain and vent fittings to remove gases trapped in
the pump casing or to drain the pump casing for maintenance. i

That shows the relative locations of the pump suction, impeller, volute,
and discharge. The pump casing guides the liquid from the suction
connection to the center, or eye, of the impeller. The vanes of the
rotating impeller impart a radial and rotary motion to the liquid, forcing
it to the outer periphery of the pump casing where it is collected in the
outer part of the pump casing called the volute. The volute is a region
that expands in cross-sectional area as it wraps around the pump
casing. The purpose of the volute is to collect the liquid discharged
from the periphery of the impeller at high velocity and gradually cause
a reduction in fluid velocity by increasing the flow area. This converts
the velocity head to static pressure. The fluid is then discharged from
the pump through the discharge connection.

11
 Fig 3.1 Centrifugal Pump

Centrifugal pumps can also be constructed in a manner that results in

two distinct volutes, each receiving the liquid that is discharged from a
180o region of the impeller at any given time.

Pumps of this type are called double volute pumps (they may also be
referred to a split volute pumps). In some applications the double
volute minimizes radial forces imparted to the shaft and bearings due
to imbalances in the pressure around the impeller. A comparison of
single and double volute centrifugal pumps is shown on Figure 2.

12
 Fig 3.2 Single and Double Volutes

[Link] Diffuser
Some centrifugal pumps contain diffusers. A diffuser is a set of
stationary vanes that surround the impeller. The purpose of the diffuser
is to increase the efficiency of the centrifugal pump by allowing a more
gradual expansion and less turbulent area for the liquid to reduce in
velocity.

13
 Fig 3.3 Centrifugal Pump Diffuser

The diffuser vanes are designed in a manner that the liquid exiting the
impeller will encounter an ever increasing flow area as it passes
through the diffuser. This increase in flow area causes a reduction in
flow velocity, converting kinetic energy into flow pressure.

[Link] Impeller Classification

Impellers of pumps are classified

14
 Fig 3.4 Single-Suction and Double-Suction Impellers

Based on the number of points that the liquid can enter the impeller
and also on the amount of webbing between the impeller blades.

Impellers can be either single suction or double-suction. A single-

suction impeller allows liquid to enter the center of the blades from
only one direction. A double-suction impeller allows liquid to enter the
center of the impeller blades from both sides simultaneously. Figure 4
shows simplified diagrams of single and double-suction impellers.

Impellers can be open, semi-open, or enclosed. The open impeller

consists only of blades attached to a hub. The semi-open impeller is
constructed with a circular plate (the web) attached to one side of the
blades. The enclosed impeller has circular plates attached to both sides

15
of the blades. Enclosed impellers are also referred to as shrouded
impellers.

Figure 5 illustrates examples of open, semi-open, and enclosed

impellers.

Fig 3.5 Open, Semi-Open, and Enclosed Impellers

The impeller sometimes contains balancing holes that connect the

space around the hub to the suction side of the impeller. The balancing
holes have a total cross-sectional area that is considerably greater than
the cross-sectional area of the annular space between the wearing ring
and the hub. The result is suction pressure on both sides of the impeller
hub, which maintains a hydraulic balance of axial thrust.

[Link] Centrifugal Pump Classification by Flow

16
Centrifugal pumps can be classified based on the manner in which fluid
flows through the pump.

The manner in which fluid flows through the pump is determined by

the design of the pump casing and the impeller. The three types of flow
through a centrifugal pump are radial flow, axial flow, and mixed flow.

 Radial Flow Pumps

In a radial flow pump, the liquid enters at the center of the impeller and
is directed out along the impeller blades in a direction at right angles to
the pump shaft. The impeller of a typical radial flow pump and the flow
through a radial flow pump are shown in Figure 6.

 Axial Flow Pumps

Fig 3.6 Radial Flows Centrifugal Pump

17
In an axial flow pump, the impeller pushes the liquid in a direction
parallel to the pump shaft. Axial flow pumps are sometimes called
propeller pumps because they operate essentially the same as the
propeller of a boat. The impeller of a typical axial flow pump and the
flow through a radial flow pump are shown in Figure 7.

Fig 3.7 Axial Flow Centrifugal Pump

 Mixed Flow Pumps

Mixed flow pumps borrow characteristics from both radial flow and
axial flow pumps.

As liquid flows through the impeller of a mixed flow pump, the impeller
blades push the liquid out away from the pump shaft and to the pump
suction at an angle greater than 90o. The impeller of a typical mixed
flow pump and the flow through a mixed flow pump are shown in
Figure 8.

18
 Fig 3.8 Mixed Flows Centrifugal Pump

 Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump with a single impeller that can develop a differential
pressure of more than 150 psid between the suction and the discharge
is difficult and costly to design and construct.

A more economical approach to developing high pressures with a single

centrifugal pump is to include multiple impellers on a common shaft
within the same pump casing. Internal channels in the pump casing
route the discharge of one impeller to the suction of another impeller.

Figure 9 shows a diagram of the arrangement of the impellers of a four-

stage pump. The water enters the pump from the top left and passes
through each of the four impellers in series, going from left to right. The
water goes from the volute surrounding the discharge of one impeller
to the suction of the next impeller.

A pump stage is defined as that portion of a centrifugal pump consisting

of one impeller and its associated components. Most centrifugal pumps

19
are single-stage pumps, containing only one impeller. A pump
containing seven impellers within a single casing would be referred to
as a seven-stage pump or, or generally, as a multi-stage pump.

Fig 3.9 Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pump

[Link] Centrifugal Pump Components

20
Centrifugal pumps vary in design and construction from simple pumps
with relatively few parts to extremely complicated pumps with
hundreds of individual parts. Some of the most common components
found in centrifugal pumps are wearing rings, stuffing boxes, packing,
and lantern rings. These components are shown in Figure 10 and
described on the following pages.

[Link] Wearing Rings

Centrifugal pumps contain rotating impellers within stationary pump
casings. To allow the impeller to rotate freely within the pump casing, a
small clearance is designed to be maintained between the impeller and
the pump casing. To maximize the efficiency of a centrifugal pump, it is
necessary to minimize the amount of liquid leaking through this
clearance from the high pressure or discharge side of the pump back to
the low pressure or suction side.

Some wear or erosion will occur at the point where the impeller and
the pump casing

21
 Fig 3.10 Centrifugal Pump Components

nearly come into contact. This wear is due to the erosion caused by
liquid leaking through this tight clearance and other causes. As wear
occurs, the clearances become larger and the rate of leakage increases.
Eventually, the leakage could become unacceptably large and
maintenance would be required on the pump.

22
To minimize the cost of pump maintenance, many centrifugal pumps
are designed with wearing rings. Wearing rings are replaceable rings
that are attached to the impeller and/or the pump casing to allow a
small running clearance between the impeller and the pump casing
without causing wear of the actual impeller or pump casing material.
These wearing rings are designed to be replaced periodically during the
life of a pump and prevent the more costly replacement of the impeller
or the casing.

[Link] Stuffing Box

In almost all centrifugal pumps, the rotating shaft that drives the
impeller penetrates the pressure boundary of the pump casing. It is
important that the pump is designed properly to control the amount of
liquid that leaks along the shaft at the point that the shaft penetrates
the pump casing. There are many different methods of sealing the shaft
penetration of the pump casing. Factors considered when choosing a
method include the pressure and temperature of the fluid being
pumped, the size of the pump, and the chemical and physical
characteristics of the fluid being pumped.

One of the simplest types of shaft seal is the stuffing box. The stuffing
box is a cylindrical space in the pump casing surrounding the shaft.
Rings of packing material are placed in this space. Packing is material in
the form of rings or strands that is placed in the stuffing box to form a
seal to control the rate of leakage along the shaft. The packing rings are
held in place by a gland. The gland is, in turn, held in place by studs with
adjusting nuts. As the adjusting nuts are tightened, they move the gland
in and compress the packing. This axial compression causes the packing
23
to expand radically, forming a tight seal between the rotating shaft and
the inside wall of the stuffing box.

The high speed rotation of the shaft generates a significant amount of

heat as it rubs against the packing rings. If no lubrication and cooling
are provided to the packing, the temperature of the packing increases
to the point where damage occurs to the packing, the pump shaft, and
possibly nearby pump bearings. Stuffing boxes are normally designed to
allow a small amount of controlled leakage along the shaft to provide
lubrication and cooling to the packing. The leakage rate can be adjusted
by tightening and loosening the packing gland.

[Link] Lantern Ring

It is not always possible to use a standard stuffing box to seal the shaft
of a centrifugal pump. The pump suction may be under a vacuum so
that outward leakage is impossible or the fluid may be too hot to
provide adequate cooling of the packing. These conditions require a
modification to the standard stuffing box.

One method of adequately cooling the packing under these conditions

is to include a lantern ring. A lantern ring is a perforated hollow ring
located near the center of the packing box that receives relatively cool,
clean liquid from either the discharge of the pump or from an external
source and distributes the liquid uniformly around the shaft to provide
lubrication and cooling. The fluid entering the lantern ring can cool the
shaft and packing, lubricate the packing, or seal the joint between the

24
shaft and packing against leakage of air into the pump in the event the
pump suction pressure is less than that of the atmosphere.

[Link] Mechanical Seals

In some situations, packing material is not adequate for sealing the

shaft. One common alternative method for sealing the shaft is with
mechanical seals. Mechanical seals consist of two basic parts, a rotating
element attached to the pump shaft and a stationary element attached
to the pump casing. Each of these elements has a highly polished
sealing surface. The polished faces of the rotating and stationary
elements come into contact with each other to form a seal that
prevents leakage along the shaft.

[Link] Cavitation

The flow area at the eye of the pump impeller is usually smaller than
either the flow area of the pump suction piping or the flow area
through the impeller vanes. When the liquid being pumped enters the
eye of a centrifugal pump, the decrease in flow area results in an
increase in flow velocity accompanied by a decrease in pressure. The
greater the pump flow rate, the greater the pressure drop between the
pump suction and the eye of the impeller. If the pressure drop is large
enough, or if the temperature is high enough, the pressure drop may be
sufficient to cause the liquid to flash to vapor when the local pressure
25
falls below the saturation pressure for the fluid being pumped. Any
vapor bubbles formed by the pressure drop at the eye of the impeller
are swept along the impeller vanes by the flow of the fluid. When the
bubbles enter a region where local pressure is greater than saturation
pressure farther out the impeller vane, the vapor bubbles abruptly
collapse. This process of the formation and subsequent collapse of
vapor bubbles in a pump is called cavitation.

Cavitation in a centrifugal pump has a significant effect on pump

performance. Cavitations degrade the performance of a pump,
resulting in a fluctuating flow rate and discharge pressure.

Cavitations can also be destructive to pumps internal components.

When a pump cavities, vapor bubbles form in the low pressure region
directly behind the rotating impeller vanes. These vapor bubbles then
move toward the oncoming impeller vane, where they collapse and
cause a physical shock to the leading edge of the impeller vane. This
physical shock creates small pits on the leading edge of the impeller
vane. Each individual pit is microscopic in size, but the cumulative effect
of millions of these pits formed over a period of hours or days can
literally destroy a pump impeller. Cavitation can also cause excessive
pump vibration, which could damage pump bearings, wearing rings,
and seals.

A small number of centrifugal pumps are designed to operate under

conditions where cavitation

is unavoidable. These pumps must be specially designed and

maintained to withstand the small amount of cavitation that occurs
during their operation. Most centrifugal pumps are not designed to
withstand sustained cavitation.
26
Noise is one of the indications that a centrifugal pump is cavitating. A
cavitating pump can sound like a can of marbles being shaken. Other
indications that can be observed from a remote operating station are
fluctuating discharge pressure, flow rate, and pump motor current.
Methods to stop or prevent cavitation are presented in the following
paragraphs.

3.2.2 Positive Displacement pumps

[Link] Introduction

A positive displacement pump is one in which a definite volume of

liquid is delivered for each cycle of pump operation. This volume is
constant regardless of the resistance to flow offered by the system the
pump is in, provided the capacity of the power unit driving the pump or
pump component strength limits are not exceeded. The positive
displacement pump delivers liquid in separate volumes with no delivery
in between, although a pump having several chambers may have an
overlapping delivery among individual chambers, which minimizes this
effect. The positive displacement pump differs from centrifugal pumps,
which deliver a continuous flow for any given pump speed and
discharge resistance.

Positive displacement pumps can be grouped into three basic

categories based on their design and operation. The three groups are
reciprocating pumps, rotary pumps, and diaphragm pumps.

27
[Link] Principle of Operation

All positive displacement pumps operate on the same basic principle.

This principle can be most easily demonstrated by considering a
reciprocating positive displacement pump consisting of a single
reciprocating piston in a cylinder with a single suction port and a single
discharge port as shown in Figure 11. Check valves in the suction and
discharge ports allow flow in only one direction.

During the suction stroke, the piston moves to the left, causing the
check valve in the suction

Fig 9.11 Reciprocating Positive Displacement Pump Operation

line between the reservoir and the pump cylinder to open and admit
water from the reservoir.

During the discharge stroke, the piston moves to the right, seating the
check valve in the suction line and opening the check valve in the

28
discharge line. The volume of liquid moved by the pump in one cycle
(one suction stroke and one discharge stroke) is equal to the change in
the liquid volume of the cylinder as the piston moves from its farthest
left position to its farthest right position.

[Link] Reciprocating Pumps

Reciprocating positive displacement pumps are generally categorized in

four ways: direct-acting or indirect-acting; simplex or duplex; single-
acting or double-acting; and power pumps.

1) Direct-Acting and Indirect-Acting Pumps

Some reciprocating pumps are powered by prime movers that also
have reciprocating motion, such as a reciprocating pump powered by a
reciprocating steam piston. The piston rod of the steam piston may be
directly connected to the liquid piston of the pump or it may be
indirectly connected with a beam or linkage. Direct-acting pumps have
a plunger on the liquid (pump) end that is directly driven by the pump
rod (also the piston rod or extension thereof) and carries the piston of
the power end. Indirect-acting pumps are driven by means of a beam or
linkage connected to and actuated by the power piston rod of a
separate reciprocating engine.

2) Simplex and Duplex Pumps

A simplex pump, sometimes referred to as a single pump, is a pump
having a single liquid (pump) cylinder. A duplex pump is the equivalent
of two simplex pumps placed side by side on the same foundation.
29
The driving of the pistons of a duplex pump is arranged in such a
manner that when one piston is on its upstroke the other piston is on
its down stroke, and vice versa. This arrangement doubles the capacity
of the duplex pump compared to a simplex pump of comparable
design.

3) Single-Acting and Double-Acting Pumps

A single-acting pump is one that takes suction, filling the pump cylinder
on the stroke in only one direction, called the suction stroke, and then
forces the liquid out of the cylinder on the return stroke, called the
discharge stroke. A double-acting pump is one that, as it fills one end of
the liquid cylinder, is discharging liquid from the other end of the
cylinder. On the return stroke, the end of the cylinder just emptied is
filled, and the end just filled is emptied. One possible arrangement for
single-acting and double-acting pumps is shown in Figure 12.

30
 Chapter 4: compressors
4.1what are compressors?

Compressors are machines used to increase the total energy level of a

compressible fluid (either gas or vapor).
Molecular weights of compressed gas vary from 2 (Hydrogen) ~ 352
(uranium hexafluoride

Fig4.1 compressors types

Air compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure

of an air by reducing its volume.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a

fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As air is
compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of an air. Liquids

31
are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to
pressurize and transport liquids.

Compressors are used to impart energy to the air. They do this by

squeezing a given mass of air into a smaller space, and thus raising its
pressure. When the air is allowed to escape, under pressure, its releases
its energy. This compressed air is used to do work.

The principle of the air compressor run

Air compressors collect and store air in a pressurized tank, and use
pistons and valves to achieve the appropriate pressure levels within an
air storage tank that is attached to the motorized unit. There are a few
different types of piston compressors that can deliver even air pressures
to the user. Automotive compressors are combustion engine compressors
that use the up-and-down stroke of the piston to allow air in and
pressurize the air within the storage tank. Other piston compressors
utilize a diaphragm, oil-free piston. These pull air in, and pressurize it by
not allowing air to escape during the collection period. These are the
most common types of air compressors that are used today by skilled
workers and craftsmen. Before the day of motorized engines, air
compressors were not what they are today. Unable to store pressurized
air, a type of antique air compressor may be found in the blacksmith's
foundry bellows. Now the air compressor is capable of building extreme
pressures in storage tanks capable of storing enormous amounts of
pressurized air for industrial use.

32
4.2 The compressors are divided into two main types:

 Positive displacement: the compressor work by trapping a mass

of air and squeezing it into a smaller volume

 Dynamic compressor: work by accelerating the air, given it

energy that is converted to pressure when the air stream is slowed
down in controlled fashion

4.2.1 The types of the positive displacement compressors:

1) Reciprocating compressors

A reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a positive-

displacement compressor that uses pistons driven by a crankshaft to
deliver air at high pressure. The intake air enters the suction manifold,
then flows into the compression cylinder where it gets compressed by a
piston driven in a reciprocating motion via a crankshaft, and is then
discharged. We can categorize reciprocating compressors into many
types and for many applications. Primarily, it is used in a great many
industries, including oil refineries, air pipelines, chemical plants, natural
gas processing plants and refrigeration plants. One specialty application
is the blowing of plastic bottles made of Polyethylene Terephthalate

The advantages of reciprocating compressors:

 Simple design

 Low initial cost

 Easy to install

 Large range of horsepower

 No oil carryover

 To stage models offer the highest efficiency

33
  Special machines can reach extremely high pressure

The disadvantages of reciprocating compressors:

 Higher maintenance cost

 Many moving parts

 Potential for vibration problems

 Foundation may be required depending on size

 Many are not design to run by full capacity

Fig 4.2 reciprocating compressor

4.2.2Types of dynamic compressor

1) Centrifugal compressor

Centrifugal compressors are used throughout industry because they

have fewer rubbing parts, are relatively energy efficient, and give higher
airflow than a similarly sized reciprocating compressor (i.e. positive-
displacement). Their primary drawback is that they cannot achieve the
high compression ratio of reciprocating compressors without multiple
stages. Centrifugal fan/blowers are more suited to continuous-duty

34
applications such as ventilation fans, air movers, cooling units, and other
uses that require high volume with little or no pressure increase. In
contrast, multi-stage reciprocating compressors often achieve discharge
pressures of 8,000 to 10,000 psi (55 to 69 MPa). One example of an
application of centrifugal compressors is their use in re-injecting natural
gas back into oil fields to increase oil production.

Centrifugal compressors are often used in small gas turbine

engines like APUs (auxiliary power units) and smaller aircraft gas
turbines. A significant reason for this is that with current technology, the
equivalent flow axial compressor will be less efficient due primarily to a
combination of rotor and variable stator tip-clearance losses. There are
few single stage centrifugal compressors capable of pressure-ratios over
10:1, due to stress considerations which severely limit the compressor's
safety, durability and life expectancy.

Additionally for aircraft gas-turbines; centrifugal flow compressors

offer the advantages of simplicity of manufacture and relatively low
cost. This is due to requiring fewer stages to achieve the same pressure
rise. The fundamental reason for this stems from a centrifugal
compressor's large change in radius (relative to a multi-stage axial
compressor); it is the change in radius that allows the centrifugal
compressor to generate large increases in fluid energy over a short axial
distance.

The applications of centrifugal compressor

 pipeline transport of natural gas to move the gas from the

production site to the consumer.
 In oil refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical and
chemical plants.
 In air separation plants to manufacture purified end product gases.
 In refrigeration and air conditioner equipment refrigerant cycles:
see Vapor-compression refrigeration.
35
 In industry and manufacturing to supply compressed air for all
types of pneumatic tools.
 In gas turbines and auxiliary power units.
 In pressurized aircraft to provide atmospheric pressure at high
altitudes.
 In automotive engine and diesel engine turbochargers and
superchargers.
 In oil field re-injection of high pressure natural gas to improve oil
recovery.

Fig 4.3 centrifugal compressor

36
 Chapter 5: valves
5.1 Introduction

Valves are mechanical devices used to control the flow of fluids

(liquids and gases). In the plant piping system an open valve permits
flow through systems; closed valve shuts off the flow. Certain valves are
also designed to regulate the flow of a system product through the
system. This is accomplished by maintaining the valve in a partially
open position. Therefore, the three valve operating positions are:
I-fully open
II-throttled (Semi-open)
III-fully closed

5.2 Classifications of valves

Valves can be classified by many parameters such as

1) Shape
2) Function

37
3) Operating conditions (flow, level, temperature and pressure)
4) Disc arrangement
5) Way they attach to plant system (flanging, welding, threading)

5.3 Types of valves

5.3.1 Gate valves

A gate valve is a linear motion valve used to start or stop fluid flow;
however, it does not regulate or throttle flow. The name gate is derived
from the appearance of the disk in the flow stream. (Fig 8.1) illustrates a
gate valve.
The disk of a gate valve is completely removed from the flow stream
when the valve is fully open. This characteristic offers virtually no
resistance to flow when the valve is open. Hence, there is little pressure
drop across an open gate valve.
When the valve is fully closed, a disk-to-seal ring contact surface exists
for 360°, and good sealing is provided. With the proper mating of a disk
to the seal ring, very little or no leakage occurs across the disk when the
gate valve is closed

38
 Fig 5.1 gate valve

5.3.2 Globe valve

A globe valve is a linear motion valve used to stop, start, and regulate
fluid flow. A (Z, Y) body and angle globe valve is illustrated in (Fig
8.2). As shown in (Fig 8.2), the globe valve disk can be totally removed
from the flow path or it can completely close the flow path. The
essential principle of globe valve operation is the perpendicular
movement of the disk away from the seat. This causes the annular space

39
between the disk and seat ring to gradually close as the valve is closed.
This characteristic gives the globe valve good throttling ability, which
permits its use in regulating flow. Therefore, the globe valve may be
used for both stopping and starting fluid flow and for regulating flow.
When compared to a gate valve, a globe valve generally yields much
less seat leakage. This is because the disk-to-seat ring contact is more at
right angles, which
permits the force of closing to tightly seat the disk.
Globe valves can be arranged so that the disk closes against or in the
same direction of fluid flow. When the disk closes against the direction
of flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid impedes closing but aids opening
of the valve. When the disk closes in the same direction of flow, the
kinetic energy of the fluid aids closing but impedes opening. This
characteristic is preferable to other designs when quick-acting stop
valves are necessary.
Globe valves also have drawbacks. The most evident shortcoming of the
simple globe valve is the high head loss from two or more right angle
turns of flowing fluid. Obstructions and discontinuities in the flowpath
lead to head loss. In a large high pressure line, the fluid dynamic effects
from pulsations, impacts, and pressure drops can damage trim, stem
packing, and actuators. In addition, large valve sizes require
considerable power to operate and are especially noisy in high pressure
applications.
Other drawbacks of globe valves are the large openings necessary for
disk assembly, heavier weight than other valves of the same flow rating,
and the cantilevered mounting of the disk to the stem.

40
Fig 5.2 Types of globe valves

41
5.3.3 Ball valve
A ball valve is a rotational motion valve that uses a ball-shaped disk to
stop or start fluid flow.
The ball, shown in (Fig 8.3), performs the same function as the disk in
the globe valve. When the valve handle is turned to open the valve, the
ball rotates to a point where the hole through the ball is in line with the
valve body inlet and outlet. When the valve is shut, the ball is rotated so
that the hole is perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve body and
the flow is stopped.
Most ball valve actuators are of the quick-acting type, which require a
90turn of the valve handle to operate the valve. Other ball valve
actuators are planetary gear-operated. This type of gearing allows the
use of a relatively small hand wheel and operating force to operate a
fairly large valve.
Some ball valves have been developed with a spherical surface coated
plug that is off to one side in the open position and rotates into the flow
passage until it blocks the flow path completely.
Seating is accomplished by the eccentric movement of the plug. The
valve requires no lubrication and can be used for throttling service.

42
Fig 5.3 Ball valve

43
5.3.4 Plug valve
A plug valve is a rotational motion valve used to stop or start fluid flow.
The name is derived from the shape of the disk, which resembles a plug.
A plug valve is shown in (Fig 8.3). The simplest form of a plug valve is
the petcock. The body of a plug valve is machined to receive the tapered
or cylindrical plug.
The disk is a solid plug with a bored passage at a right angle to the
longitudinal axis of the plug.
In the open position, the passage in the plug lines up with the inlet and
outlet ports of the valve body. When the plug is turned 90from the
open position, the solid part of the plug blocks the ports and stops fluid
flow.
Plug valves are available in either a lubricated or non lubricated design
and with a variety of styles of port openings through the plug as well as
a number of plug designs.

44
 Fig 5.4 Plug valve
5.3.5Diaphragm valve
A diaphragm valve is a linear motion valve that is used to start, regulate,
and stop fluid flow. The name is derived from its flexible disk, which
mates with a seat located in the open area at the top of the valve body to
form a seal. A diaphragm valve is illustrated in Fig 8.4.
Diaphragm valves are, in effect, simple "pinch clamp" valves. A
resilient, flexible diaphragm is connected to a compressor by a stud
molded into the diaphragm. The compressor is moved up and down by
the valve stem. Hence, the diaphragm lifts when the compressor is
raised. As the compressor is lowered, the diaphragm is pressed against
the contoured bottom in the straight through valve illustrated in Fig 8.4
or the body weir in the weir-type valve illustrated in Fig 8.5.
Diaphragm valves can also be used for throttling service. The weir-type
is the better throttling valve but has a limited range. Its throttling
characteristics are essentially those of a quick opening valve because of
the large shutoff area along the seat.

Fig 5.5 Straight through diaphragm

45
A weir-type diaphragm valve is available to control small flows. It uses
a two-piece compressor component. Instead of the entire diaphragm
lifting off the weir when the valve is opened, the first increments of stem
travel raise an inner compressor component that causes only the central
part of the diaphragm to lift. This creates a relatively small opening
through the center of the valve. After the inner compressor is completely
open, the outer compressor component is raised along with the inner
compressor and the remainder of the throttling is similar to the throttling
that takes place in a conventional valve.

Diaphragm valves are particularly suited for the handling of corrosive

fluids, fibrous slurries, radioactive fluids, or other fluids that must
remain free from contamination.

46
 Fig 5.6 Weir diaphragm valve

5.3.6 Butterfly valve

A butterfly valve, illustrated in Fig 8.6 is a rotary motion valve that is
used to stop, regulate, and start fluid flow.
Butterfly valves are easily and quickly operated because a 90o rotation
of the handle moves the disk from a fully closed to fully opened
position. Larger butterfly valves are actuated by hand wheels connected
to the stem through gears that provide mechanical advantage at the
expense of speed.
Butterfly valves possess many advantages over gate, globe, plug, and
ball valves, especially for large valve applications. Savings in weight,
space, and cost are the most obvious advantages. The maintenance costs
are usually low because there are a minimal number of moving parts and
there are no pockets to trap fluids.
Butterfly valves are especially well-suited for the handling of large
flows of liquids or gases at relatively low pressures and for the handling
of slurries or liquids with large amounts of suspended solids.
Butterfly valves are built on the principle of a pipe damper. The flow
control element is a disk of approximately the same diameter as the
inside diameter of the adjoining pipe, which rotates on either a vertical
or horizontal axis. When the disk lies parallel to the piping run, the valve
is fully opened. When the disk approaches the perpendicular position,
the valve is shut.
Intermediate positions, for throttling purposes, can be secured in place
by handle-locking devices.

47
 Fig 5.7 Butterfly valve

5.3.7 Check valve

Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping
system. These valves are activated by the flowing material in the
pipeline. The pressure of the fluid passing through the system opens the
valve, while any reversal of flow will close the valve. Closure is
accomplished by the weight of the check mechanism, by back pressure,
by a spring, or by a combination of these means. The general types of
check valves are swing, tilting-disk, piston, butterfly, and stop.

48
[Link] Swing check valve
A swing check valve is illustrated in Fig 8.7. The valve allows full,
unobstructed flow and automatically closes as pressure decreases. These
valves are fully closed when the flow reaches zero and prevent back
flow. Turbulence and pressure drop within the valve are very low.
A swing check valve is normally recommended for use in systems
employing gate valves because of the low pressure drop across the
valve. Swing check valves are available in either Y-pattern or straight
body design. A straight check valve is illustrated in Fig 8.7. In either
style, the disk and hinge are suspended from the body by means of a
hinge pin. Seating is either metal-to-metal or metal seat to composition
disk. Composition disks are usually recommended for services where
dirt or other particles may be present in the fluid, where noise is
objectionable, or where positive shutoff is required

Fig 5.8 Swing check valve

49
Straight body swing check valves contain a disk that is hinged at the top.
The disk seals against the seat, which is integral with the body. This type
of check valve usually has replaceable seat rings. The seating surface is
placed at a slight angle to permit easier opening at lower pressures, more
positive sealing, and less shock when closing under higher pressures.
Swing check valves are usually installed in conjunction with gate valves
because they provide relatively free flow. They are recommended for
lines having low velocity flow and should not be used on lines with
pulsating flow when the continual flapping or pounding would be
destructive to the seating elements. This condition can be partially
corrected by using an external lever and weight

[Link] Tilting-disk check valve

The tilting disk check valve, illustrated in Fig 8.8, is similar to the swing
check valve. Like the swing check, the tilting disk type keeps fluid
resistance and turbulence low because of its straight-through design.
Tilting disk check valves can be installed in horizontal lines and vertical
lines having upward flow. Some designs simply fit between two flange
faces and provide a compact, lightweight installation, particularly in
larger diameter valves.
The disk lifts off of the seat to open the valve. The airfoil design of the
disk allows it to "float" on the flow. Disk stops built into the body
position the disk for optimum flow characteristics. A large body cavity
helps minimize flow restriction. As flow decreases, the disk starts
closing and seals before reverse flow occur. Backpressure against the

50
disk moves it across the soft seal into the metal seat for tight shutoff
without slamming. If the reverse flows pressure is insufficient to cause a
tight seal, the valve may be fitted with an external lever and weight.
These valves are available with a soft seal ring, metal seat seal, or a
metal-to-metal seal. The latter is recommended for high temperature
operation. The soft seal rings are replaceable, but the valve must be
removed from the line to make the replacement.

Fig 5.9 Swing check valve

[Link] Lift check valve

A lift check valve, illustrated in Fig 8.9, is commonly used in piping
systems in which globe valves are being used as a flow control valve.
They have similar seating arrangements as globe valves.
Lift check valves are suitable for installation in horizontal or vertical
lines with upward flow.

51
They are recommended for use with steam, air, gas, water, and on vapor
lines with high flow velocities. These valves are available in three body
patterns: horizontal, angle, and vertical.

Fig 5.10 Lift check valve

Flow to lift check valves must always enter below the seat. As the flow
enters, the disk or ball is raised within guides from the seat by the
pressure of the upward flow. When the flow stops or reverses, the disk
or ball is forced onto the seat of the valve by both the backflow and
gravity.
Some types of lift check valves may be installed horizontally. In this
design, the ball is suspended by a system of guide ribs. This type of
check valve design is generally employed in plastic check valves.
The seats of metallic body lift check valves are either integral with the
body or contain renewable seat rings. Disk construction is similar to the
disk construction of globe valves with either metal or composition disks.
Metal disk and seat valves can be reground using the same techniques as
is used for globe valves
52
[Link] Piston check valve
A piston check valve, illustrated in Fig 8.10, is essentially a lift check
valve. It has a dashpot consisting of a piston and cylinder that provides a
cushioning effect during operation. Because of the similarity in design to
lift check valves, the flow characteristics through a piston check valve
are essentially the same as through a lift check valve.
Installation is the same as for a lift check in that the flow must enter
from under the seat. Construction of the seat and disk of a piston check
valve is the same as for lift check valves.
Piston check valves are used primarily in conjunction with globe and
angle valves in piping systems experiencing very frequent changes in
flow direction. Valves of this type are used on water, steam, and air
systems.

Fig 5.11 Piston check valve

53
 [Link] Butterfly check valve
Butterfly check valves have a seating arrangement similar to the seating
arrangement of butterfly valves. Flow characteristics through these
check valves are similar to the flow characteristics through butterfly
valves. Consequently, butterfly check valves are quite frequently used in
systems using butterfly valves.
In addition, the construction of the butterfly check valve body is such
that ample space is provided for unobstructed movement of the butterfly
valve disk within the check valve body without the necessity of
installing spacers.
The butterfly check valve design is based on a flexible sealing member
against the bore of the valve body at an angle of 45o.
The short distance the disk must move from full open to full close
inhibits the "slamming" action found in some other types of check
valves. Fig 8.11 illustrates the internal assembly of the butterfly check
valve.
Because the flow characteristics are similar to the flow characteristics
of butterfly valves, applications of these valves are much the same.
Also, because of their relatively quiet operation they find application in
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. Simplicity of design
also permits their construction in large diameters - up to 72 inches.

54
 Fig 5.12Butterfly check valve

As with butterfly valves, the basic body design lends itself to the
installation of seat liners constructed of many materials. This permits the
construction of a corrosion-resistant valve at less expense than would be
encountered if it were necessary to construct the entire body of the
higher alloy or more expensive metal. This is particularly true in
constructions such as those of [Link] sealing members are
available in Buna-N, Neoprene, Nordel, Hypalon, Viton, Tyon,
Urethane, Butyl, Silicone, and TFE as standard, with other materials
available on special order. The valve body essentially is a length of pipe
that is fitted with flanges or has threaded, grooved, or plain ends. The
interior is bored to a fine finish. The flanged end units can have liners of
various metals or plastics installed depending upon the service
requirements. Internals and fasteners are always of the same material as
the liner.
55
Butterfly check valves may be installed horizontally or vertically with
the vertical flow either upward or downward.
Care should be taken to ensure that the valve is installed so that the
entering flow comes from the hinge post end of the valve; otherwise, all
flow will be stopped.
[Link] Stop check valve
A stop check valve, illustrated in Fig 8.12, is a combination of a lift
check valve and a globe valve. It has a stem which, when closed,
prevents the disk from coming off the seat and provides a tight seal
(similar to a globe valve).
When the stem is operated to the open position, the valve operates as a
lift check. The stem is not connected to the disk and functions to close
the valve tightly or to limit the travel of the valve disk in the open
direction.

Fig 8.13 Stop check valve

56
Conclusion

Mechanical engineering is a discipline of engineering that applies the

principles of engineering, physics and materials for analysis,
design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It is the
branch of engineering that involves the production and usage of heat and
mechanical power for the design, production, and operation
of machines and tools.[1] It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering
disciplines.
The engineering field requires an understanding of core concepts
including mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials, structural
analysis, and electricity. Mechanical engineers use these core principles
along with tools like computer-aided engineering, and product lifecycle
management to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial
equipment and machinery, heating and cooling
systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics,medical
devices, weapons, and others.

57
Reference

Pumps handbook
Mass and heat transfer
Valves handbook
Heat exchanger design

58
59