4

Transport of CO2

Coordinating Lead Authors

Richard Doctor (United States), Andrew Palmer (United Kingdom)

Lead Authors
David Coleman (United States), John Davison (United Kingdom), Chris Hendriks (The Netherlands),
Olav Kaarstad (Norway), Masahiko Ozaki (Japan)

Contributing Author
Michael Austell (United Kingdom)

Review Editors
Ramon Pichs-Madruga (Cuba), Svyatoslav Timashev (Russian Federation)
180 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage

Contents
Executive Summary 181 4.4 Risk, safety and monitoring 187
4.4.1 Introduction 187
4.1 Introduction 181 4.4.2 Land pipelines 187
4.4.3 Marine pipelines 188
4.2 Pipeline systems 181 4.4.4 Ships 188
4.2.1 Pipeline transportation systems 181
4.2.2 Existing experience 182 4.5 Legal issues, codes and standards 189
4.2.3 Design 184 4.5.1 International conventions 189
4.2.4 Construction of land pipelines 184 4.5.2 National codes and standards 189
4.2.5 Underwater pipelines 185
4.2.6 Operations 185 4.6 Costs 190
4.6.1 Costs of pipeline transport 190
4.3 Ships for CO2 transportation 186 4.6.2 Costs of marine transportation systems 190
4.3.1 Marine transportation system 186
4.3.2 Existing experience 186 References 192
4.3.3 Design 186
4.3.4 Construction 186
4.3.5 Operation 187
Chapter 4: Transport of CO2 181

Executive Summary (liquefied petroleum gas) and LNG (liquefied natural gas).
This existing technology and experience can be transferred to
Transport is that stage of carbon capture and storage that links liquid CO2 transport. Solidification needs much more energy
sources and storage sites. The beginning and end of ‘transport’ compared with other options, and is inferior from a cost and
may be defined administratively. ‘Transport’ is covered by energy viewpoint. Each of the commercially viable technologies
the regulatory framework concerned for public safety that is currently used to transport carbon dioxide.
governs pipelines and shipping. In the context of long-distance Research and development on a natural gas hydrate carrying
movement of large quantities of carbon dioxide, pipeline system intended to replace LNG systems is in progress, and the
transport is part of current practice. Pipelines routinely carry results might be applied to CO2 ship transport in the future. In
large volumes of natural gas, oil, condensate and water over pipeline transportation, the volume is reduced by transporting
distances of thousands of kilometres, both on land and in the at a high pressure: this is routinely done in gas pipelines, where
sea. Pipelines are laid in deserts, mountain ranges, heavily- operating pressures are between 10 and 80 MPa.
populated areas, farmland and the open range, in the Arctic and A transportation infrastructure that carries carbon dioxide
sub-Arctic, and in seas and oceans up to 2200 m deep. in large enough quantities to make a significant contribution
Carbon dioxide pipelines are not new: they now extend to climate change mitigation will require a large network of
over more than 2500 km in the western USA, where they carry pipelines. As growth continues it may become more difficult
50 MtCO2 yr-1 from natural sources to enhanced oil recovery to secure rights-of-way for the pipelines, particularly in highly
projects in the west Texas and elsewhere. The carbon dioxide populated zones that produce large amounts of carbon dioxide.
stream ought preferably to be dry and free of hydrogen sulphide, Existing experience has been in zones with low population
because corrosion is then minimal, and it would be desirable to densities, and safety issues will become more complex in
establish a minimum specification for ‘pipeline quality’ carbon populated areas.
dioxide. However, it would be possible to design a corrosion- The most economical carbon dioxide capture systems
resistant pipeline that would operate safely with a gas that appear to favour CO2 capture, first, from pure stream sources
contained water, hydrogen sulphide and other contaminants. such as hydrogen reformers and chemical plants, and then from
Pipeline transport of carbon dioxide through populated areas centralized power and synfuel plants: Chapter 2 discusses this
requires attention be paid to design factors, to overpressure issue in detail. The producers of natural gas speak of ‘stranded’
protection, and to leak detection. There is no indication that the reserves from which transport to market is uneconomical. A
problems for carbon dioxide pipelines are any more challenging movement towards a decentralized power supply grid may make
than those set by hydrocarbon pipelines in similar areas, or that CO2 capture and transport much more costly, and it is easy to
they cannot be resolved. envision stranded CO2 at sites where capture is uneconomic.
Liquefied natural gas and petroleum gases such as propane A regulatory framework will need to emerge for the low-
and butane are routinely transported by marine tankers; this greenhouse-gas-emissions power industry of the future to guide
trade already takes place on a very large scale. Carbon dioxide investment decisions. Future power plant owners may find the
is transported in the same way, but on a small scale because of carbon dioxide transport component one of the leading issues in
limited demand. The properties of liquefied carbon dioxide are their decision-making.
not greatly different from those of liquefied petroleum gases,
and the technology can be scaled up to large carbon dioxide 4.2 Pipeline systems
carriers. A design study discussed later has estimated costs
for marine transport of 1 MtCO2 yr-1 by one 22,000 m3 marine 4.2.1 Pipeline transportation systems
tanker over a distance of 1100 km, along with the associated
liquefaction, loading and unloading systems. CO2 pipeline operators have established minimum specifications
Liquefied gas can also be carried by rail and road tankers, for composition. Box 4.1 gives an example from the Canyon
but it is unlikely that they be considered attractive options for Reef project (Section [Link]). This specification is for gas for
large-scale carbon dioxide capture and storage projects. an enhanced oil recovery (EOR) project, and parts of it would
not necessarily apply to a CO2 storage project. A low nitrogen
4.1 Introduction content is important for EOR, but would not be so significant
for CCS. A CO2 pipeline through populated areas might have a
CO2 is transported in three states: gas, liquid and solid. lower specified maximum H2S content.
Commercial-scale transport uses tanks, pipelines and ships for Dry carbon dioxide does not corrode the carbon-manganese
gaseous and liquid carbon dioxide. steels generally used for pipelines, as long as the relative humidity
Gas transported at close to atmospheric pressure occupies is less than 60% (see, for example, Rogers and Mayhew, 1980);
such a large volume that very large facilities are needed. Gas this conclusion continues to apply in the presence of N2, NOx
occupies less volume if it is compressed, and compressed and SOx contaminants. Seiersten (2001) wrote:
gas is transported by pipeline. Volume can be further reduced “The corrosion rate of carbon steel in dry supercritical CO2
by liquefaction, solidification or hydration. Liquefaction is is low. For AISI 1080 values around 0.01 mm yr-1 have been
an established technology for gas transport by ship as LPG measured at 90–120 bar and 160°C–180°C for 200 days. Short-
182 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage

term tests confirm this. In a test conducted at 3ºC and 22°C at below, and the reader is referred to Annex I for a discussion of
140 bar CO2, and 800 to 1000 ppm H2S, the corrosion rate for the physical properties of CO2.
X-60 carbon steel was measured at less than 0.5 µm yr-1 (0.0005
mm yr-1). Field experience also indicates very few problems 4.2.2 Existing experience
with transportation of high-pressure dry CO2 in carbon steel
pipelines. During 12 years, the corrosion rate in an operating Table 4.1 lists existing long-distance CO2 pipelines. Most of the
pipeline amounts to 0.25-2.5 µm yr-1 (0.00025 to (0.0025 mm projects listed below are described in greater detail in a report by
yr-1)”. the UK Department of Trade and Industry (2002). While there
The water solubility limit in high-pressure CO2 (500 bar) is are CO2 pipelines outside the USA, the Permian Basin contains
5000 ppm at 75°C and 2000 ppm at 30°C. Methane lowers the over 90% of the active CO2 floods in the world (O&GJ, April
solubility limit, and H2S, O2 and N2 may have the same effect. 15, 2002, EOR Survey). Since then, well over 1600 km of new
Corrosion rates are much higher if free water is present; CO2 pipelines has been built to service enhanced oil recovery
hydrates might also form. Seiersten (2001) measured a corrosion (EOR) in west Texas and nearby states.
rate of 0.7 mm yr-1 corrosion rate in 150 to 300 hours exposure
at 40°C in water equilibrated with CO2 at 95 bar, and higher [Link] Canyon Reef
rates at lower pressures. She found little difference between The first large CO2 pipeline in the USA was the Canyon Reef
carbon-manganese steel (American Petroleum Institute grade Carriers, built in 1970 by the SACROC Unit in Scurry County,
X65) and 0.5 chromium corrosion-resistant alloy. It is unlikely Texas. Its 352 km moved 12,000 tonnes of anthropogenically
to be practicable to transport wet CO2 in low-alloy carbon produced CO2 daily (4.4 Mt yr-1) from Shell Oil Company gas
steel pipelines because of this high corrosion rate. If the CO2 processing plants in the Texas Val Verde basin.
cannot be dried, it may be necessary to build the pipeline of a
corrosion-resistant alloy (‘stainless steel’). This is an established [Link] Bravo Dome Pipeline
technology. However the cost of steel has greatly increased Oxy Permian constructed this 508 mm (20-inch) line connecting
recently and this may not be economical. the Bravo Dome CO2 field with other major pipelines. It is
Once the CO2 has been dried and meets the transportation capable of carrying 7.3 MtCO2 yr-1 and is operated by Kinder
criteria, the CO2 is measured and transported to the final use Morgan.
site. All the pipelines have state-of-the-art metering systems that
accurately account for sales and deliveries on to and out of each [Link] Cortez Pipeline
line, and SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) Built in 1982 to supply CO2 from the McElmo Dome in S.E.
systems for measuring pressure drops, and redundancies Colorado, the 762 mm (30-inch), 803 km pipeline carries
built in to allow for emergencies. In the USA, these pipelines approximately 20 Mt CO2 yr-1 to the CO2 hub at Denver City,
are governed by Department of Transportation regulations. Texas. The line starts near Cortez, Colorado, and crosses the
Movement of CO2 is best accomplished under high pressure: Rocky Mountains, where it interconnects with other CO2 lines.
the choice of operating pressure is discussed in an example In the present context, recall that one 1000 MW coal-fired

Box 4.1 Specimen CO2 quality specifications

The Product delivered by Seller or Seller’s representative to Buyer at the Canyon Reef Carriers Delivery Meter shall meet the
following specifications, which herein are collectively called ‘Quality Specifications’:
(a) Carbon Dioxide. Product shall contain at least ninety-five mole percent (95%) of Carbon Dioxide as measured at the
SACROC delivery meter.
(b) Water. Product shall contain no free water, and shall not contain more than 0.48 9 m-3 in the vapour phase.
(c) Hydrogen Sulphide. Product shall not contain more than fifteen hundred (1500) parts per million, by weight, of
hydrogen sulphide.
(d) Total Sulphur. Product shall not contain more than fourteen hundred and fifty (1450) parts per million, by weight, of
total sulphur.
(e) Temperature. Product shall not exceed a temperature of 48.9 oC.
(f) Nitrogen. Product shall not contain more than four mole percent (4%) of nitrogen.
(g) Hydrocarbons. Product shall not contain more than five mole percent (5%) of hydrocarbons and the dew point
of Product (with respect to such hydrocarbons) shall not exceed –28.9 oC.
(h) Oxygen. Product shall not contain more than ten (10) parts per million, by weight, of oxygen.
(i) Glycol. Product shall not contain more than 4 x 10-5 L m-3 of glycol and at no time shall such glycol be present in a
liquid state at the pressure and temperature conditions of the pipeline.
Chapter 4: Transport of CO2 183

Table 4.1 Existing long-distance CO2 pipelines (Gale and Davison, 2002) and CO2 pipelines in North America (Courtesy of Oil and Gas
Journal).

Pipeline Location Operator Capacity Length Year finished Origin of CO2

(MtCO2 yr ) -1
(km)
Cortez USA Kinder Morgan 19.3 808 1984 McElmoDome
Sheep Mountain USA BP Amoco 9.5 660 - Sheep Mountain
Bravo USA BP Amoco 7.3 350 1984 Bravo Dome
Canyon Reef Carriers USA Kinder Morgan 5.2 225 1972 Gasification plants
Val Verde USA Petrosource 2.5 130 1998 Val Verde Gas Plants
Bati Raman Turkey Turkish Petroleum 1.1 90 1983 Dodan Field
Weyburn USA & Canada North Dakota 5 328 2000 Gasification Plant
Gasification Co.
Total 49.9 2591

power station produces about 7 Mt CO2 yr-1, and so one Cortez programme includes the mailing of a brochure describing CO2,
pipeline could handle the emissions of three of those stations. signs of a leak and where to report a suspected leak, together
The Cortez Pipeline passes through two built-up areas, with information about the operator and the “one-call” centre.
Placitas, New Mexico (30 km north of Albuquerque, New
Mexico) and Edgewood/Moriarty, New Mexico (40 km east [Link] Sheep Mountain Pipeline
of Albuquerque). The line is buried at least 1 m deep and is BP Oil constructed this 610 mm (24-inch) 772 km line capable
marked within its right of way. Near houses and built-up areas of carrying 9.2 MtCO2 yr-1 from another naturally occurring
it is marked more frequently to ensure the residents are aware source in southeast Colorado. It connects to the Bravo Dome
of the pipeline locations. The entire pipeline is patrolled by air line and into the other major carriers at Denver City and now is
every two weeks, and in built-up areas is frequently patrolled operated by Kinder Morgan.
by employees in company vehicles. The public education

Figure 4.1 CO2 pipelines in North America. (Courtesy of Oil and Gas Journal).
184 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage

[Link] Weyburn Pipeline • Trenching and backfilling: onshore lines are usually buried
This 330 km, (305-356 mm diameter) system carries more than to depth of 1 m. Offshore lines are almost always buried
5000 tonne day-1 (1.8 Mt yr-1) of CO2 from the Great Plains in shallow water. In deeper water pipelines narrower than
Synfuels Plant near Beulah, North Dakota to the Weyburn EOR 400 mm are trenched and sometimes buried to protect them
project in Saskatchewan. The composition of the gas carried by against damage by fishing gear.
the pipeline is typically CO2 96%, H2S 0.9%, CH4 0.7%, C2+ • CO2 pipelines may be more subject to longitudinal running
hydrocarbons 2.3%, CO 0.1%, N2 less than 300 ppm, O2 less fracture than hydrocarbon gas pipelines. Fracture arresters
than 50 ppm and H2O less than 20 ppm (UK Department of are installed at intervals of about 500 m.
Trade and Industry, 2002). The delivery pressure at Weyburn is
15.2 MPa. There are no intermediate compressor stations. The West (1974) describes the design of the SACROC CO2 pipeline
amount allocated to build the pipeline was 110 US $ million (Section [Link] above). The transportation options examined
(0.33 x 106 US$ km-1) in 1997. were:

4.2.3 Design (i) a low-pressure CO2 gas pipeline operating at a maximum

pressure of 4.8 MPa;
The physical, environmental and social factors that determine (ii) a high-pressure CO2 gas pipeline operating at a minimum
the design of a pipeline are summarized in a design basis, which pressure of 9.6 MPa, so that the gas would remain in a
then forms the input for the conceptual design. This includes a dense phase state at all temperatures;
system definition for the preliminary route and design aspects (iii) a refrigerated liquid CO2 pipeline;
for cost-estimating and concept-definition purposes. It is also (iv) road tank trucks;
necessary to consider the process data defining the physical (v) rail tankers, possibly in combination with road tank
characteristics of product mixture transported, the optimal trucks.
sizing and pressures for the pipeline, and the mechanical
design, such as operating, valves, pumps, compressors, seals, The tank truck and rail options cost more than twice as
etc. The topography of the pipeline right-of-way must be much as a pipeline. The refrigerated pipeline was rejected
examined. Topography may include mountains, deserts, river because of cost and technical difficulties with liquefaction. The
and stream crossings, and for offshore pipelines, the differing dense phase (Option ii) was 20% cheaper than a low-pressure
challenges of very deep or shallow water, and uneven seabed. CO2 gas pipeline (Option i). The intermediate 4.8 to 9.6 MPa
It is also important to include geotechnical considerations. pressure range was avoided so that two-phase flow would not
For example, is this pipeline to be constructed on thin soil occur. An added advantage of dense-phase transport was that
overlaying granite? The local environmental data need to be high delivery pressures were required for CO2 injection.
included, as well as the annual variation in temperature during The final design conforms to the ANSI B31.8 code for gas
operation and during construction, potentially unstable slopes, pipelines and to the DOT regulations applicable at the time. The
frost heave and seismic activity. Also included are water depth, main 290 km section is 406.4 mm (16 inch) outside diameter
sea currents, permafrost, ice gouging in Arctic seas, biological and 9.53 mm wall thickness made from grade X65 pipe
growth, aquifers, and other environmental considerations such (specified minimum yield stress of 448 MPa). A shorter 60 km
as protected habitats. The next set of challenges is how the section is 323.85 mm (12.75 inch) outside diameter, 8.74 mm
pipeline will accommodate existing and future infrastructure – wall thickness, grade X65. Tests showed that dry CO2 would
road, rail, pipeline crossings, military/governmental restrictions not corrode the pipeline steel; 304L corrosion-resistant alloy
and the possible impact of other activities – as well as shipping was used for short sections upstream of the glycol dehydrator.
lanes, rural or urban settings, fishing restrictions, and conflicting The line is buried to a minimum of 0.9 m, and any point on the
uses such as dredging. Finally, this integrated study will serve line is within 16 km of a block valve.
as the basis for a safety review. There are six compressor stations, totalling 60 MW, including
a station at the SACROC delivery point. The compressor
Conceptual design stations are not equally spaced, and the longest distance between
The conceptual design includes the following components: two stations is about 160 km. This is consistent with general
• Mechanical design: follows standard procedures, described practice, but some long pipelines have 400 km or more between
in detail in (Palmer et al., 2004). compressor stations.
• Stability design: standard methods and software are used to Significant nitrogen and oxygen components in CO2 would
perform stability calculations, offshore (Veritec, 1988) or shift the boundary of the two-phase region towards higher
onshore, though the offshore methods have been questioned. pressures, and would require a higher operating pressure to
New guidelines for stability will be published in 2005 by avoid two-phase flow.
Det Norske Veritas and will be designated DNV-RP-F109
On-Bottom Stability 4.2.4 Construction of land pipelines
• Protection against corrosion: a well-understood subject of
which the application to CO2 pipelines is described below. Construction planning can begin either before or after rights
Chapter 4: Transport of CO2 185

of way are secured, but a decision to construct will not come plots the diameters and maximum depths of major deepwater
before a legal right to construct a pipeline is secured and all pipelines constructed up to 2004. The difficulty of construction
governmental regulations met. Onshore and underwater CO2 is roughly proportional to the depth multiplied by the diameter,
pipelines are constructed in the same way as hydrocarbon and the maximum value of that product has multiplied fourfold
pipelines, and for both there is an established and well- since 1980. Still larger and deeper pipelines are technically
understood base of engineering experience. Subsection 4.2.5 feasible with today’s technology.
describes underwater construction.
The construction phases of a land pipeline are outlined 4.2.6 Operations
below. Some of the operations can take place concurrently.
Environmental and social factors may influence the season Operational aspects of pipelines are divided into three areas: daily
of the year in which construction takes place. The land is operations, maintenance, and health, safety and environment.
cleared and the trench excavated. The longest lead items come Operations of a CO2 pipeline in the USA, for instance, must
first: urban areas, river and road crossings. Pipe is received follow federal operations guidelines (49 CFR 195). Overall
into the pipe yard and welded into double joints (24 m long); operational considerations include training, inspections, safety
transported to staging areas for placement along the pipe route, integration, signs and pipeline markers, public education,
welded, tested, coated and wrapped, and then lowered into the damage prevention programmes, communication, facility
trench. A hydrostatic test is carried out, and the line is dried. security and leak detection. Pipelines outside the USA generally
The trench is then backfilled, and the land and the vegetation have similar regulatory operational requirements.
restored. Personnel form a central part of operations and must be
qualified. Personnel are required to be continuously trained and
4.2.5 Underwater pipelines updated on safety procedures, including safety procedures that
apply to contractors working on or near the pipeline, as well as
Most underwater pipelines are constructed by the lay-barge to the public.
method, in which 12 or 24 m lengths of pipe are brought to a Operations include daily maintenance, scheduled planning
dynamically positioned or anchored barge, and welded one by and policies for inspecting, maintaining and repairing all
one to the end of the pipeline. The barge moves slowly forward, equipment on the line and the pipeline itself, as well as supporting
and the pipeline leaves the barge over the stern, and passes first the line and pipeline. This equipment and support includes
over a support structure (‘stinger’) and then down through the valves, compressors, pumps, tanks, rights of way, public signs
water in a suspended span, until it reaches the seabed. Some and line markers as well as periodic pipeline flyovers.
lines up to 450 mm diameter are constructed by the reel method, Long-distance pipelines are instrumented at intervals so that
in which the pipeline is welded together onshore, wound onto the flow can be monitored. The monitoring points, compressor
a reel on a ship, and then unwound from the reel into its final stations and block valves are tied back to a central operations
position. Some short lines and lines for shore crossings in centre. Computers control much of the operation, and manual
shallow water are constructed by various tow and pull methods, intervention is necessary only in unusual upsets or emergency
in which the line is welded together onshore and then pulled conditions. The system has inbuilt redundancies to prevent loss
into its final location. of operational capability if a component fails.
If the design requires that the pipeline be trenched, that is
usually done after it has been laid on the seabed, by a jetting
sled, a plough or a mechanical cutting device that is pulled
along the line. On the other hand, in shore crossings and in very
shallow water the trench is often excavated before the pipeline
is laid, and that is done by dredgers, backhoes or draglines in
soft sediments, or in rock by blasting followed by clamshell
excavators. Many shore crossings are drilled horizontally
from the shore; this procedure eliminates many uncertainties
associated with the surf zone, and reduces the environmental
impact of construction.
Underwater connections are made by various kinds of
mechanical connection systems, by hyperbaric welding (in
air under the local hydrostatic pressure) or by lifting the pipe
ends above the surface, welding them together and lowering the
connected line to the bottom.
These technologies are established and understood (Palmer
and King, 2004). Underwater pipelines up to 1422 mm in
diameter have been constructed in many different environments,
and pipelines have been laid in depths up to 2200 m. Figure 4.2 Figure 4.2 Pipelines in deep water.
186 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage

Pipelines are cleaned and inspected by ‘pigs’, piston-like associated liquefaction and intermediate storage facilities.
devices driven along the line by the gas pressure. Pigs have
reached a high level of sophistication, and can measure internal 4.3.3 Design
corrosion, mechanical deformation, external corrosion, the
precise position of the line, and the development of spans in For the design of hull and tank structure of liquid gas transport
underwater lines. Further functionality will develop as pig ships, such as LPG carriers and LNG carriers, the International
technology evolves, and there is no reason why pigs used for Maritime Organization adopted the International Gas Carrier
hydrocarbon pipelines should not be used for carbon dioxide. Code in order to prevent the significant secondary damage
Pipelines are also monitored externally. Land pipelines from accidental damage to ships. CO2 tankers are designed and
are inspected from the air, at intervals agreed between the constructed under this code.
operator and the regulatory authorities. Inspection from the There are three types of tank structure for liquid gas transport
air detects unauthorized excavation or construction before ships: pressure type, low temperature type and semi-refrigerated
damage occurs. Currently, underwater pipelines are monitored type. The pressure type is designed to prevent the cargo gas from
by remotely operated vehicles, small unmanned submersibles boiling under ambient air conditions. On the other hand, the
that move along the line and make video records, and in the low temperature type is designed to operate at a sufficiently low
future, by autonomous underwater vehicles that do not need to temperature to keep cargo gas as a liquid under the atmospheric
be connected to a mother ship by a cable. Some pipelines have pressure. Most small gas carriers are pressure type, and large
independent leak detection systems that find leaks acoustically LPG and LNG carriers are of the low temperature type. The
or by measuring chemical releases, or by picking up pressure low temperature type is suitable for mass transport because
changes or small changes in mass balance. This technology is the tank size restriction is not severe. The semi-refrigerated
available and routine. type, including the existing CO2 carriers, is designed taking
into consideration the combined conditions of temperature and
4.3 Ships for CO2 transportation pressure necessary for cargo gas to be kept as a liquid. Some
tankers such as semi-refrigerated LPG carriers are designed for
4.3.1 Marine transportation system applicability to the range of cargo conditions between normal
temperature/high pressure and low temperature/atmospheric
Carbon dioxide is continuously captured at the plant on land, pressure.
but the cycle of ship transport is discrete, and so a marine Annex I to this report includes the CO2 phase diagram. At
transportation system includes temporary storage on land atmospheric pressure, CO2 is in gas or solid phase, depending
and a loading facility. The capacity, service speed, number on the temperature. Lowering the temperature at atmospheric
of ships and shipping schedule will be planned, taking into pressure cannot by itself cause CO2 to liquefy, but only to make
consideration, the capture rate of CO2, transport distance, and so-called ‘dry ice’ or solid CO2. Liquid CO2 can only exist at
social and technical restrictions. This issue is, of course, not a combination of low temperature and pressures well above
specific to the case of CO2 transport; CO2 transportation by ship atmospheric pressure. Hence, a CO2 cargo tank should be of the
has a number of similarities to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) pressure-type or semi-refrigerated. The semi-refrigerated type
transportation by ship. is preferred by ship designers, and the design point of the cargo
What happens at the delivery point depends on the CO2 tank would be around –54 ºC per 6 bar to –50ºC per 7 bar, which
storage system. If the delivery point is onshore, the CO2 is is near the point of CO2. In a standard design, semi-refrigerated
unloaded from the ships into temporary storage tanks. If the type LPG carriers operate at a design point of –50°C and 7 bar,
delivery point is offshore – as in the ocean storage option – ships when transporting a volume of 22,000 m3.
might unload to a platform, to a floating storage facility (similar Carbon dioxide could leak into the atmosphere during
to a floating production and storage facility routinely applied transportation. The total loss to the atmosphere from ships is
to offshore petroleum production), to a single-buoy mooring or between 3 and 4% per 1000 km, counting both boil-off and
directly to a storage system. exhaust from the ship’s engines; both components could be
reduced by capture and liquefaction, and recapture onshore
4.3.2 Existing experience would reduce the loss to 1 to 2% per 1000 km.

The use of ships for transporting CO2 across the sea is today in 4.3.4 Construction
an embryonic stage. Worldwide there are only four small ships
used for this purpose. These ships transport liquefied food- Carbon dioxide tankers are constructed using the same
grade CO2 from large point sources of concentrated carbon technology as existing liquefied gas carriers. The latest LNG
dioxide such as ammonia plants in northern Europe to coastal carriers reach more than 200,000 m3 capacity. (Such a vessel
distribution terminals in the consuming regions. From these could carry 230 kt of liquid CO2.) The same type of yards that
distribution terminals CO2 is transported to the customers either today build LPG and LNG ships can carry out the construction
by tanker trucks or in pressurized cylinders. Design work is of a CO2 tanker. The actual building time will be from one to
ongoing in Norway and Japan for larger CO2 ships and their two years, depending on considerations such as the ship’s size.
Chapter 4: Transport of CO2 187

4.3.5 Operation spite of occasional serious pollution incidents such as the Exxon
Valdes and Torrey Canyon disasters (van Bernem and Lubbe,
[Link] Loading 1997). Because the consequences of CO2 pipeline accidents
Liquid CO2 is charged from the temporary storage tank to potentially are of significant concern, stricter regulations for
the cargo tank with pumps adapted for high pressure and low CO2 pipelines than those for natural gas pipelines currently are
temperature CO2 service. The cargo tanks are first filled and in force in the USA.
pressurized with gaseous CO2 to prevent contamination by
humid air and the formation of dry ice. 4.4.2 Land pipelines

[Link] Transport to the site Land pipelines are built to defined standards and are subject
Heat transfer from the environment through the wall of the to regulatory approval. This sometimes includes independent
cargo tank will boil CO2 and raise the pressure in the tank. It design reviews. Their routes are frequently the subject of public
is not dangerous to discharge the CO2 boil-off gas together inquiries. The process of securing regulatory approval generally
with the exhaust gas from the ship’s engines, but doing so includes approval of a safety plan, of detailed monitoring and
does, of course, release CO2 to the air. The objective of zero inspection procedures and of emergency response plans. In
CO2 emissions during the process of capture and storage can densely populated areas the process of planning, licensing and
be achieved by using a refrigeration unit to capture and liquefy building new pipelines may be difficult and time-consuming. In
boil-off and exhaust CO2. some places it may be possible to convert existing hydrocarbon
pipelines into CO2 pipelines.
[Link] Unloading Pipelines in operation are monitored internally by pigs
Liquid CO2 is unloaded at the destination site. The volume (internal pipeline inspection devices) and externally by
occupied by liquid CO2 in the cargo tanks is replaced with dry corrosion monitoring and leak detection systems. Monitoring is
gaseous CO2, so that humid air does not contaminate the tanks. also done by patrols on foot and by aircraft.
This CO2 could be recycled and reliquefied when the tank is The incidence of failure is relatively small. Guijt (2004)
refilled. and the European Gas Pipeline Incident Data Group (2002)
show that the incidence of failure has markedly decreased.
[Link] Return to port in ballast, and dry-docking Guijt quotes an incident rate of almost 0.0010 km-1 year-1 in
The CO2 tanker will return to the port for the next voyage. When 1972 falling to below 0.0002 km-1 year-1 in 2002. Most of the
the CO2 tanker is in dock for repair or regular inspection, gas incidents refer to very small pipelines, less than 100 mm in
CO2 in cargo tank should be purged with air for safe working. diameter, principally applied to gas distribution systems. The
For the first loading after docking, cargo tanks should be fully failure incidence for 500 mm and larger pipelines is very much
dried, purged and filled with CO2 gas. lower, below 0.00005 km-1 year-1. These figures include all
Ships of similar construction with a combination of cooling unintentional releases outside the limits of facilities (such as
and pressure are currently operated for carrying other industrial compressor stations) originating from pipelines whose design
gases. pressures are greater than 1.5 MPa. They cover many kinds
of incidents, not all of them serious, and there is substantial
4.4 Risk, safety and monitoring variation between pipelines, reflecting factors such as system
age and inspection frequency.
4.4.1 Introduction The corresponding incident figures for western European
oil pipelines have been published by CONCAWE (2002).
There are calculable and perceivable risks for any transportation In 1997-2001 the incident frequency was 0.0003 km-1 yr-1.
option. We are not considering perceivable risks because this The corresponding figure for US onshore gas pipelines was
is beyond the scope of the document. Risks in special cases 0.00011 km-1 yr-1 for the 1986-2002 period, defining an incident
such as military conflicts and terrorist actions have now been as an event that released gas and caused death, inpatient
investigated. At least two conferences on pipeline safety and hospitalization or property loss of US$ 50,000: this difference
security have taken place, and additional conferences and in reporting threshold is thought to account for the difference
workshops are planned. However, it is unlikely that these will between European and US statistics (Guijt, 2004).
lead to peer-reviewed journal articles because of the sensitivity Lelieveld et al. (2005) examined leakage in 2400 km of
of the issue. the Russian natural gas pipeline system, including compressor
Pipelines and marine transportation systems have an stations, valves and machine halls, and concluded that ‘...overall,
established and good safety record. Comparison of CO2 the leakage from Russian natural gas transport systems is about
systems with these existing systems for long-distance pipeline 1.4% (with a range of 1.0-2.5%), which is comparable with the
transportation of gas and oil or with marine transportation of amount lost from pipelines in the United States (1.5±0.5%)’.
oil, yidds that risks should be comparable in terms of failure and Those numbers refer to total leakage, not to leakage per
accident [Link] the existing transport system these incidents kilometre.
seem to be perceived by the broad community as acceptable in Gale and Davison (2002) quote incident statistics for CO2
188 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage

pipelines in the USA. In the 1990-2002 period there were 10 The incidence of failure in service is again low. Dragging ships’
incidents, with property damage totalling US$ 469,000, and no anchors causes some failures, but that only occurs in shallow
injuries nor fatalities. The incident rate was 0.00032 km-1 yr-1. water (less than 50 m). Very rarely do ships sink on to pipelines,
However, unlike oil and gas, CO2 does not form flammable or or do objects fall on to them. Pipelines of 400 mm diameter
explosive mixtures with air. Existing CO2 pipelines are mainly and larger have been found to be safe from damage caused by
in areas of low population density, which would also tend to fishing gear, but smaller pipelines are trenched to protect them.
result in lower average impacts. The reasons for the incidents Damage to underwater pipelines was examined in detail at a
at CO2 pipelines were relief valve failure (4 failures), weld/ conference reported on in Morris and Breaux (1995). Palmer
gasket/valve packing failure (3), corrosion (2) and outside and King (2004) examine case studies of marine pipeline
force (1). In contrast, the principal cause of incidents for natural failures, and the technologies of trenching and monitoring.
gas pipelines is outside force, such as damage by excavator Most failures result from human error. Ecological impacts from
buckets. Penetration by excavators can lead to loss of pipeline a CO2 pipeline accident have yet to be assessed.
fluid and sometimes to fractures that propagate great distances. Marine pipelines are monitored internally by inspection
Preventative measures such as increasing the depth of cover devices called ‘pigs’ (as described earlier in Section 4.2.5), and
and use of concrete barriers above a pipeline and warning tape externally by regular visual inspection from remotely operated
can greatly reduce the risk. For example, increasing cover from vehicles. Some have independent leak detection systems.
1 m to 2 m reduces the damage frequency by a factor of 10 in
rural areas and by 3.5 in suburban areas (Guijt, 2004). 4.4.4 Ships
Carbon dioxide leaking from a pipeline forms a potential
physiological hazard for humans and animals. The consequences Ship systems can fail in various ways: through collision,
of CO2 incidents can be modelled and assessed on a site-specific foundering, stranding and fire. Perrow’s book on accidents
basis using standard industrial methods, taking into account (1984) includes many thought-provoking case studies. Many
local topography, meteorological conditions, population density of the ships that he refers to were old, badly maintained and
and other local conditions. A study by Vendrig et al. (2003) crewed by inadequately trained people. However, it is incorrect
has modelled the risks of CO2 pipelines and booster stations. to think that marine accidents happen only to poorly regulated
A property of CO2 that needs to be considered when selecting ‘flag-of-convenience’ ships. Gottschalch and Stadler (1990)
a pipeline route is the fact that CO2 is denser than air and can share Perrow’s opinion that many marine accidents can be
therefore accumulate to potentially dangerous concentrations in attributed to system failures and human factors, whereas
low lying areas. Any leak transfers CO2 to the atmosphere. accidents arising as a consequence of purely technical factors
If substantial quantities of impurities, particularly H2S, are are relatively uncommon.
included in the CO2, this could affect the potential impacts of a Ship casualties are well summarized by Lloyds Maritime
pipeline leak or rupture. The exposure threshold at which H2S Information Service. Over 22.5 years between 1978 and 2000,
is immediately dangerous to life or health, according to the there were 41,086 incidents of varying degrees of severity
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, is 100 identified, of which 2,129 were classified as ‘serious’ (See Table
ppm, compared to 40,000 ppm for CO2. 4.2).
If CO2 is transported for significant distances in densely Tankers can be seen to have higher standards than ships in
populated regions, the number of people potentially exposed to general. Stranding is the source of most of the tanker incidents
risks from CO2 transportation facilities may be greater than the that have led to public concern. It can be controlled by careful
number exposed to potential risks from CO2 capture and storage navigation along prescribed routes, and by rigorous standards
facilities. Public concerns about CO2 transportation may form of operation. LNG tankers are potentially dangerous, but are
a significant barrier to large-scale use of CCS. At present most carefully designed and appear to be operated to very high
electricity generation or other fuel conversion plants are built standards. There have been no accidental losses of cargo from
close to energy consumers or sources of fuel supply. New plants LNG ships. The LNG tanker El Paso Paul Kaiser ran aground
with CO2 capture could be built close to CO2 storage sites, to at 17 knots in 1979, and incurred substantial hull damage, but
minimize CO2 transportation. However, this may necessitate the LNG tanks were not penetrated and no cargo was lost. There
greater transportation of fuels or electricity, which have their is extensive literature on marine transport of liquefied gas, with
own environmental impacts, potential risks and public concerns. a strong emphasis on safety, for example, in Ffooks (1993).
A gathering system would be needed if CO2 were brought from Carbon dioxide tankers and terminals are clearly much less
distributed sources to a trunk pipeline, and for some storage at risk from fire, but there is an asphyxiation risk if collision
options a distribution system would also be needed: these should rupture a tank. This risk can be minimized by making
systems would need to be planned and executed with the same certain that the high standards of construction and operation
regard for risk outlined here. currently applied to LPG are also applied to carbon dioxide.
An accident to a liquid CO2 tanker might release liquefied
4.4.3 Marine pipelines gas onto the surface of the sea. However, consideration of such
an event is a knowledge gap that requires further study. CO2
Marine pipelines are subject to a similar regulatory regime. releases are anticipated not to have the long-term environmental
Chapter 4: Transport of CO2 189

Table 4.2 Statistics of serious incidents, depending on the ship type.

Ship type Number of ships Serious incidents Frequency

2000 1978-2000 (incidents/ship year)
LPG tankers 982 20 0.00091
LNG tankers 121 1 0.00037
Oil tankers 9678 314 0.00144
Cargo/bulk carriers 21407 1203 0.00250

impacts of crude oil spills. CO2 would behave differently from Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal came
LNG, because liquid CO2 in a tanker is not as cold as LNG but into force in 1992 (UNEP, 2000). The Basel Convention
much denser. Its interactions with the sea would be complex: was conceived partly on the basis that enhanced control of
hydrates and ice might form, and temperature differences would transboundary movement of wastes will act as an incentive
induce strong currents. Some of the gas would dissolve in the for their environmentally sound management and for the
sea, but some would be released to the atmosphere. If there reduction of the volume of movement. However, there is no
were little wind and a temperature inversion, clouds of CO2 gas indication that CO2 will be defined as a hazardous waste under
might lead to asphyxiation and might stop the ship’s engines. the convention except in relation to the presence of impurities
The risk can be minimized by careful planning of routes, such as heavy metals and some organic compounds that may
and by high standards of training and management. be entrained during the capture of CO2. Adoption of schemes
where emissions of SO2 and NOx would be included with
4.5 Legal issues, codes and standards the CO2 may require such a review. Accordingly, the Basel
Convention does not appear to directly impose any restriction
Transportation of CO2 by ships and sub-sea pipelines, and across on the transportation of CO2 (IEA GHG, 2003a).
national boundaries, is governed by various international legal In addition to the provisions of the Basel Convention, any
conventions. Many jurisdictions/states have environmental transport of CO2 would have to comply with international
impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment transport regulations. There are numerous specific agreements,
legislation that will come into consideration in pipeline building. some of which are conventions and others protocols of other
If a pipeline is constructed across another country’s territory conventions that apply depending on the mode of transport.
(e.g. landlocked states), or if the pipeline is laid in certain zones There are also a variety of regional agreements dealing with
of the sea, other countries may have the right to participate transport of goods. International transport codes and agreements
in the environmental assessment decision-making process or adhere to the UN Recommendations on the Transport of
challenge another state’s project. Dangerous Goods: Model Regulations published by the United
Nations (2001). CO2 in gaseous and refrigerated liquid forms
4.5.1 International conventions is classified as a non-flammable, non-toxic gas; while solid
CO2 (dry ice) is classified under the heading of miscellaneous
Various international conventions could have implications dangerous substances and articles. Any transportation of
for storage of CO2, the most significant being the UN Law of CO2 adhering to the Recommendations on the Transport of
the Sea Convention, the London Convention, the Convention Dangerous Goods: Model Regulations can be expected to meet
on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary all relevant agreements and conventions covering transportation
Context (Espoo Convention) and OSPAR (see Chapter 5). by whatever means. Nothing in these recommendations would
The Espoo convention covers environmental assessment, a imply that transportation of CO2 would be prevented by
procedure that seeks to ensure the acquisition of adequate and international transport agreements and conventions (IEA GHG,
early information on likely environmental consequences of 2003a).
development projects or activities, and on measures to mitigate
harm. Pipelines are subject to environmental assessment. The 4.5.2 National codes and standards
most significant aspect of the Convention is that it lays down
the general obligation of states to notify and consult each other The transport of CO2 by pipeline has been practiced for over 25
if a project under consideration is likely to have a significant years. Internationally adopted standards such as ASME B31.4,
environmental impact across boundaries. In some cases the Liquid transportation systems for hydrocarbons, liquid petroleum
acceptability of CO2 storage under these conventions could gas, anhydrous ammonia and alcohols’ and the widely-applied
depend on the method of transportation to the storage site. Norwegian standard (DNV, 2000) specifically mention CO2.
Conventions that are primarily concerned with discharge and There is considerable experience in the application and use of
placement rather than transport are discussed in detail in the these standards. Existing standards and codes vary between
chapters on ocean and geological storage. different countries but gradual unification of these documents
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary is being advanced by such international bodies as ISO and CEN
190 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage

as part of their function. A full review of relevant standards pressures and lower temperatures than onshore pipelines, and
categorized by issues is presented in IEA GHG, 2003b. are often, but not always, 40 to 70% more expensive.
Public concern could highlight the issue of leakage of CO2 It is cheaper to collect CO2 from several sources into a single
from transportation systems, either by rupture or minor leaks, pipeline than to transport smaller amounts separately. Early and
as discussed in Section 4.4. It is possible that standards may be smaller projects will face relatively high transport costs, and
changed in future to address specific public concerns. Odorants therefore be sensitive to transport distance, whereas an evolution
are often added to domestic low-pressure gas distribution towards higher capacities (large and wide-spread application)
systems, but not to gas in long-distance pipelines; they could, may result in a decrease in transport costs. Implementation of
in principle, be added to CO2 in pipelines. Mercaptans, a ‘backbone’ transport structure may facilitate access to large
naturally present in the Weyburn pipeline system, are the remote storage reservoirs, but infrastructure of this kind will
most effective odorants but are not generally suitable for this require large initial upfront investment decisions. Further study
application because they are degraded by O2 , even at very low is required to determine the possible advantages of such pipeline
concentrations (Katz, 1959). Disulphides, thioethers and ring system.
compounds containing sulphur are alternatives. The value and Figure 4.4 presents onshore and offshore transport costs
impact of odorization could be established by a quantitative risk versus pipeline diameter; where costs are based on investment
assessment. cost information from various sources. Figure 4.5 gives a cost
window for specific transport as function of the flow. Steel is a
4.6 Costs cost component for both pipelines and ships, and steel prices
doubled in the two years up to 2005: this may be temporary.
4.6.1 Costs of pipeline transport
4.6.2 Costs of marine transportation systems
The costs of pipelines can be categorized into three items
• Construction costs Costs of a marine transport system comprise many cost
- Material/equipment costs (pipe, pipe coating, cathodic elements. Besides investments for ships, investments are
protection, telecommunication equipment; possible required for loading and unloading facilities, intermediate
booster stations) storage and liquefaction units. Further costs are for operation
- Installation costs (labour) (e.g. labour, ship fuel costs, electricity costs, harbour fees),
• Operation and maintenance costs and maintenance. An optimal use of installations and ships in
- Monitoring costs the transport cycle is crucial. Extra facilities (e.g. an expanded
- Maintenance costs storage requirement) have to be created to be able to anticipate
- (Possible) energy costs on possible disruptions in the transport system.
• Other costs (design, project management, regulatory filing The cost of marine transport systems is not known in detail
fees, insurances costs, right-of-way costs, contingencies at present, since no system has been implemented on a scale
allowances) required for CCS projects (i.e. in the range of several million
tonnes of carbon dioxide handling per year). Designs have been
The pipeline material costs depend on the length of the pipeline, submitted for tender, so a reasonable amount of knowledge is
the diameter, the amount of CO2 to be transported and the available. Nevertheless, cost estimates vary widely, because
quality of the carbon dioxide. Corrosion issues are examined in CO2 shipping chains of this size have never been built and
Section 4.2.2 For costs it is assumed that CO2 is delivered from economies of scale may be anticipated to have a major impact
the capture system at 10 MPa. on the costs.
Figure 4.3 shows capital investment costs for pipelines. A ship designed for carrying CO2 from harbour to harbour
Investments are higher when compressor station(s) are required may cost about 30-50% more than a similar size semi-
to compensate for pressure loss along the pipeline, or for refrigerated LPG ship (Statoil, 2004). However, since the
longer pipelines or for hilly terrain. Compressor stations may density of liquid CO2 is about 1100 kg m-3, CO2 ships will carry
be avoided by increasing the pipeline diameter and reducing more mass than an equivalent LNG or LPG ship, where the
the flow velocity. Reported transport velocity varies from 1 cargo density is about 500 kg m-3. The estimated cost of ships
to 5 m s-1. The actual design will be optimized with regard to of 20 to 30 kt capacity is between 50 and 70 M$ (Statoil, 2004).
pipeline diameter, pressure loss (required compressor stations Another source (IEA GHG, 2004) estimates ship construction
and power) and pipeline wall thickness. costs at US$ 34 million for 10 kt-sized ship, US$ 60 million
Costs depend on the terrain. Onshore pipeline costs may with a capacity of 30 kt, or US$ 85 million with a capacity of
increase by 50 to 100% or more when the pipeline route 50 kt. A time charter rate of about 25,000 US$ day-1 covering
is congested and heavily populated. Costs also increase in capital charges, manning and maintenance is not unreasonable
mountains, in nature reserve areas, in areas with obstacles for a ship in the 20 kt carrying capacity range.
such as rivers and freeways, and in heavily urbanized areas The cost for a liquefaction facility is estimated by Statoil
because of accessibility to construction and additional required (2004) at US$ 35 to US$ 50 million for a capacity of 1 Mt
safety measures. Offshore pipelines generally operate at higher per year. The present largest liquefaction unit is 0.35 Mt yr-1.
Chapter 4: Transport of CO2 191

Figure 4.3 Total investment costs for pipelines from various information sources for offshore and onshore pipelines. Costs exclude possible
booster stations (IEA GHG, 2002; Hendriks et al., 2005; Bock, 2003; Sarv, 2000; 2001a; 2001b; Ormerod, 1994; Chandler, 2000; O&GJ,
2000).

Figure 4.4 Transport costs derived from various information sources for offshore and onshore pipelines. Costs exclude possible booster stations,
applying a capital charge rate of 15% and a load factor of 100% (IEA GHG, 2002; Hendriks et al., 2005; Bock, 2003; Sarv, 2000; 2001a; 2001b;
Ormerod, 1994; Chandler, 2000; O&GJ, 2000)
192 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage

IEA GHG (2004) estimates a considerable lower investment for million, including liquefaction, decreasing to US$ 232 million
a liquefaction facility, namely US$ 80 million for 6.2 Mt yr-1. if compression is allowed (to avoid double counting). The
Investment costs are reduced to US$ 30 million when carbon corresponding specific transport costs are 34, 55, and 42 US$
dioxide at 100 bar is delivered to the plant. This pressure level t-1. The study also considered sensitivity to distance: for the case
is assumed to be delivered from the capture unit. Cost estimates excluding liquefaction, the specific costs were 20 US$ t-1 for
are influenced by local conditions; for example, the absence of 500 km, 22 US$ t-1 for 1500 km, and 28 US$ t-1 for 4500 km.
sufficient cooling water may call for a more expensive ammonia A study on a comparable ship transportation system carried
driven cooling cycle. The difference in numbers also reflects out for the IEA shows lower costs. For a distance of 7600 km
the uncertainty accompanied by scaling up of such facilities using 30 kt ships, the costs are estimated at 35 US$ t-1. These
A detailed study (Statoil, 2004) considered a marine costs are reduced to 30 US$ tonne-1 for 50 kt ships. The IEA
transportation system for 5.5 Mt yr-1. The base case had 20 kt study also showed a stronger cost dependency on distance than
tankers with a speed of 35 km h-1, sailing 7600 km on each the Statoil (2004) study.
trip; 17 tankers were required. The annual cost was estimated It should be noted that marine transport induces more
at US$ 188 million, excluding linquefaction and US$ 300 associated CO2 transport emissions than pipelines due to
additional energy use for liquefaction and fuel use in ships.
IEA GHG (2004) estimated 2.5% extra CO2 emissions for a
transport distance of 200 km and about 18% for 12,000 km.
The extra CO2 emissions for each 1000 km pipelines come to
about 1 to 2%.
Ship transport becomes cost-competitive with pipeline
transport over larger distances. Figure 4.6 shows an estimate
of the costs for transporting 6 Mt yr-1 by offshore pipeline and
by ship. The break-even distance, i.e. the distance for which the
costs per transport mode are the same, is about 1000 km for this
example. Transport of larger quantities will shift the break-even
distance towards larger distances. However, the cross-over
point beyond which ship transportation becomes cheaper than
pipeline transportation is not simply a matter of distance alone.
It involves many other factors, including loading terminals,
pipeline shore crossings, water depth, seabed stability, fuel
cost, construction costs, different operating costs in different
locations, security, and interaction between land and marine
Figure 4.5 Transport costs for onshore and offshore pipelines per transportation routes.
250 km. High (broken lines) and low range (continuous lines) are
indicated.
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