CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the researcher describes the meaning of writing, the purpose of

writing, definition of paragraph, three main parts of a paragraph, criteria of complete

paragraph, definition of argumentative essay, elements of argumentative essay, and

example of argumentative essay.

A. The Concept of Writing

1. Definition of writing

Writing seems to be differently defined the definition vary from different

people, needs and purposes. In the following, the researcher presents some definitions

about writing. Klein (2013:18) states that “writing is the ability to put pen and paper

to express ideas through symbols. It means that when we write, we produce meaning

with words. Moreover, Zinser cited in Ruddell confirmed that we need operate some

kind of mechanism-pencil, pen, typewriter, word processor- for getting our thought

on paper in writing. It urges us repeated efforts to go after those thoughts and to

organize them and present them clearly. In addition, Manchon (2011:17) states

“writing is central to our personal experiences, professional careers and social

identities, yet while we are often evaluated by our control of it; its multifaceted nature

constantly evades adequate description. Furthermore, Peter Elbow cited in Brown

(2001:336) states that writing is figuring out meaning and put it into language. As a

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result, writing is an activity of expressing the ideas through the signs or symbols in

written form.

B. The Process of writing

The writing process is a way of looking at writing instruction in which the

emphasis is shifted from students‟ finished products to what students think and do as

they write. Likewise, Boyle cited in Peregoy and Boyle (2008:231) argues “process

writing allows students to concentrate on one task at a time and to experience the

value of peer feedback in developing their ideas for effecting written

[Link](2008:282) has organized the following description of writing

process into the categories of before writing, during writing, and after writing. The

following the description of the categories:

a. Before Writing: Prewriting

Pre-writing is frequently the foundation for a variety of writing, reading,

thinking, and learning event. It might best described as mulling ideas over, whether

immediately before beginning to draft a written piece or while simply thinking about

what one knows about a given topic. As Tompkins states that “prewriting is the

getting ready to write stage; during the prewriting stage in which the activities

involving choosing a topic, considering, form, and audience, and generating and

organizing ideas for writing. Ruddell(2008:285) mentioned that “prewriting occurs in

journals, logs, lists, diaries, e-mails, chat rooms, and maps.

b. During Writing: Drafting

Drafting extends prewriting as students create a new text from what they have

read, seen, thought about, or examined. To be more specific, the drafting stage is the

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time to pour out ideas, with little concern about spelling, punctuation, and other

mechanical errors. The activities in this stage are writing a rough draft, writing lead

and emphasizing content, not mechanics, Tompkins (2008:15) states.

c. After Writing: Revising

Editing the word revision means „seeing again‟. This stage demands writers to

see their compositions again with their classmates and the teacher helping them.

Peregoy and Boyle (2008:233) concluded that “revising is reordering arguments or

reviewing scenes in a narrative; reordering supporting information; reviewing or

changing sentences. Editing is correcting spelling, grammar, punctuation, and

mechanics. Additionally, Tompkins stated that editing is putting the piece of writing

into its final form. The Elements of Writing Oshima and Hogue (1999:16) stated that

there are five elements in writing a paragraph. They are topic sentence, supporting

sentences, concluding sentence, unity, and coherence. The following the explanation

of those:

i. Topic Sentence

The topic sentence is a sentence which states the main idea of paragraph. It is

called the topic the paragraph and limits the topic that can be discussed completely in

the space of single paragraph (controlling idea).

ii. Supporting Sentences

The supporting sentences are sentences that develop the topic sentences by

giving reasons, examples, facts, statistic, quotation, comparison, definition, and

classifications.

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 iii. Concluding Sentence

The concluding sentence is a sentence which signals the end of the paragraph

and leaves the reader with important points to remember.

iv. Unity

Unity means that there is only one main idea in the paragraph. The main idea is

stated in the topic sentence and then each and every supporting sentence develops.

v. Coherence

Coherence means that the paragraph is easy to read and understand because the

supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order, and the ideas are connected by

the use of an appropriate transition signals.

C. The Purpose of Writing

According to Kneffel, Don in his book Writing and Life: A Rhetoric for

Nonfiction with Readings (1986: 6-7) statez that writing is done in the course of daily

life is to fulfill one or more of general purpose, such as:

a. To Inform

The writer communicates information clearly, accurately, simply and directly.

This purpose is often found in report, like magazine, newspaper, and case

study.

b. To Analyze or To Explain

The writer uses languages to analyze or to explain the information that the

writer gets. It means that to discover the deep meaning form the information.

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 c. To Convince

The writers the opinion to make the reader does an action after reading it. It is

usually found in newspaper, argumentative essay, and critical reviews.

d. To Express
The writers use the language to express his/her feeling but the writer does not

expect the reader does an action. It can found in narrative writing.

D. Definition of Paragraph

Many experts define a paragraph in many ways. One of them, Peter (1991:145)

stated that a paragraph is a short piece of writing on a very limited topic, and although

some paragraph can stand alone, most are parts of a larger piece of writing, such as an

essay. According to William (1985:25) a paragraph is a conventional form which

writers find useful to help their readers follow a sequence of ideas or thoughts.

Oshima and Hogue (1983:3) stated that a paragraph is a basic unit of

organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops one main idea.

A paragraph can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number

of sentences is unimportant: however, the paragraph should be long enough to

develop the main idea clearly. They also tell that a paragraph is made up of three

kinds of sentences that develop the writer‟s main idea, opinion or felling about the

subject. These sentences are topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding

sentence.

A paragraph contains of topic sentence and sentences that the support it. Saraka

(1988:26) stated that a paragraph can be subdivided into two main types. The first is

physical paragraph: and the second is conceptual paragraph. A physical paragraph is a

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paragraph which is marked by spacing or indentation during the course of writing to

show that new idea will come. A conceptual paragraph is one in which a writer

constructs limits to one single idea, one topic sentence plus supporting details.

E. Three Main Parts of a Paragraph

In paragraph writing, the clarity and completeness of information contain will

indicate that a paragraph is good paragraph. According to Oshima (1983) a good

paragraph has three main parts, namely: topic sentence, supporting sentence, and

concluding sentence. Below, there is the description of each of these parts.

a. Topic Sentence

Topic sentence is used to state the main idea in a paragraph. As Saraka

(1988:30) tells topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. It does not only

name the topic of the paragraph but also limit the topic to one or two areas that can be

discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph. The specific area is called

the controlling idea. According to Bram (1995:16) stated that a topic sentence must

have a subject and an attitude. In other words, it consists of a topic or subject matter

and a restricting statement.

Tyner (1987:52) stated that there are some important things to know about topic

sentence: 1) a topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph, 2) a topic

sentence usually states a definite opinion or attitude, 3) a topic sentence provides the

reader with a clear understanding of what a paragraph is about, 4) a topic sentence

gives direction to a paragraph that both the writer and reader can follow, 5) a topic

sentence often begins a paragraph or is found near the beginning of a paragraph, 6)

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other sentences within a paragraph relate to the topic sentence, 7) the final “wrap-up”

sentence in a paragraph often reinforces the topic sentence.

Topic sentence is the most general sentence in a paragraph. Reid (1994:36)

suggests the topic sentence is the most general and the most important sentence in the

paragraph that introduces that reader to the topic. It states the main idea and focuses

the paragraph. Therefore, it is the most general statement in the paragraph. It does not

give any specific details.

There are three ways to state ways to state the topic sentence. They are:

1. Using a statement of opinion.

2. Using a statement of intent.

3. Using statement of opinion and intent.

b. Supporting Sentences

Supporting sentence is sentences that develop the topic sentence. Saraka

(1988:30) tells that supporting sentences that develop the topic sentence by giving

definitions, reasons, examples, facts, incident, comparison, analogy, cause and effect,

statistics and quotations. Development means supporting the main idea or

generalization with specifics.

Dietsch (1998:78) stated that support sentences explain the main idea of

thetopic sentence. They supply evidence to convince the reader of the soundness of

the claim, assertion, or opinion. You might regard the topic sentence as an argument

(view) to be proven. The support sentences supply evidence in the form facts,

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definitions, reasons, examples, or illustrations to back up the claim in the topic

sentence.

c. Concluding Sentence

Concluding sentence is the last sentence that concludes the points of the

paragraph. Oshima and Hogue (1983:12) state concluding sentence is a sentence that

summarizes the main points of the paragraph. It signals the end of the paragraph and

leaves the reader with important ideas to think about. It can be written as the same as

topic sentence vut in the different words. According to Dietsch (1998:78) stated

thatbesides the two basic parts just discussed the topic sentence and support

sentences,some paragraphs have a third part: a concluding sentence. This final

sentence may be summary of the points made in the support sentence. For concluding

sentences, Reid (1994:42) tells that there are five techniques can be used in a

paragraph. They are:

1. Summarizes the material in the paragraph.

2. Offers a solution to the problem stated in the paragraph.

3. Predict a situation that will result or occur from the statement made in the

paragraph.

4. Makes a recommendation concerning materials presented in the paragraph.

5. States a conclusion to information given in the paragraph.

From the quotation above, the researcher can summarize that a concluding

sentence is an ended sentence that leaves the reader with the important ideas on the

topic of the paragraph. While, some techniques in the concluding sentence are

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summarize the information, offers a solution(s), states conclusion, makes

recommendation, or predict a situation.

F. Criteria of the Complete Paragraph

A good paragraph must have a sense of completeness. Baker and

OliuSaraka(1988:73) state that completeness in a paragraph means that the

controlling ideas thoroughly develop by the use of particular (specific) information.

They also state paragraph is complete when it leaves no confusion in the reader‟s

mind about what is intended, about how the reader is supposed to respond and about

why such response is both necessary and appropriate.

G. Definition of Argumentative Essay

Generally, argumentative essay is a form of writing in which the writer argue

for a certain idea and try to persuade readers to adopt the writer‟s point of view.

Harvey (2003) also says that argumentative essay is the act of forming reasons,

making orientations, drawing conclusions and applying them to the case in argument;

the process of understanding propositions not known or admitted as true, from facts

or principles known, admitted or proved true.

The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to

investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position

on the topic in a concise manner In Senior High School, one of the skills that should

be mastered by students is writing an argumentative essay. The curriculum requires

the students to master it. In addition, they need to prepare their skill in writing to face

national examination and competence examination. When the students do not have

enough skill in writing include writing, they will face some difficulties to compete in

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the global era. Besides, the students should be ready to work with many types of

challenges included skills in writing.

Additionally, argumentative essays present one side of an issue using evidence

to convince the readers to draw the same conclusions as the writer. In short,

argumentative essay has been defined as a well-structured and well-supported point

of view on a topic that supported by reasons. Similar to the other essay,

argumentative essay also has three essential parts. The introductory paragraph that

function as attention getter for the readers then body paragraph where the writer

actually proves the assertion at the end of the introduction and finally the concluding

paragraph. It is in line with Jordan (1990) and Ozagac (2004) claim an academic

essay, like argumentative essay, has three essential parts. The first paragraph of an

essay is an introductory paragraph. It consists of general to specific statements and a

thesis statement. The following paragraph is called body paragraph. It contains as

many as paragraph as necessary to explain the controlling idea in the thesis statement

in a logical sequence. The last paragraph of the essay is concluding paragraph which

give the readers the conclusion or the summary of the essay and the writer‟s final

comments.

Macmillan (1988) says that an argument is an ordered presentation of support

for an opinion that you want others to accept. An argument is made up of your

opening statement of opinion, any background information that your readers may

need in order to follow you, the evidence that you will use to support your opinion,

and concluding statement.

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 There have been some ideas of argumentative essay proposed by some experts.

Harmer (2004) stated that argumentative essay is one type of the essays with the

purpose to convince readers by appealing readers‟ logic and emotions. Convincing

needs proves and arguments (Coffin, et al., 2003) to prove a particular point,

demonstrate understanding, and show a perspective, a position or stance on

something. Without strong proves and arguments, argumentative essay cannot meet

its purpose, that is, to convince.

Arguments used to convince need students‟ deep understanding and analysis on

one particular topic. Therefore, this essay, according to Coffin et al., (2003) is the

most common labeled type of the essays in higher education for four reasons. The

first one is that it expects students‟ interpretation about a topic. The second one is that

it requires students to seek for evidence for their arguments. The third one is that to

arrive at an argument, students need to think across disciplines. The last one is that it

should be persuasive. It is clear that the students‟ interpretation, evidence for

arguments, ideas synthesized from across disciplines, and persuasion are highly

demanded at university level as university students need to actualize their

understanding of subjects‟ studies.

Displaying ideas in argumentative essays is organized in one of three ways.

First, exposition, with the purpose to put forward a point of view, uses arguments and

evidence to support the writer‟s position. Second, discussion, with the purpose to

argue the case for two or more points of view, starts with a controversial issue. The

two or more perspectives forms of the issue are explored by reaching a position stated

in the concluding paragraph. Last, challenge, with the purpose to argue against a

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point of view or argument, contains a series of rebuttal arguments and supporting

evidence before putting forward the writer‟s overall arguments (Coffin et al., 2003).

In brief, an argumentative essay can be organized in one of the three ways;

exposition, discussion, or challenge to show students‟ interpretation on one subject or

an issue.

Those three types are organized into at least three paragraphs consisting of

introduction, body, and conclusion. Harmer (2004) identifies the introductory

paragraph, the body, and the concluding paragraph as the organization of the

argumentative essay. The introductory paragraph shows the object of analysis, the

background to the thesis statement, and the thesis statement. The body consists of

some arguments and evidence to support the arguments. The conclusion can be

arrived by retracing the steps, restating the thesis statement, and suggesting some

points to make the arguments stronger.

In conclusion, since an argumentative essay is the most widely used at

university level, understanding its organization and its process is necessary. The

argumentative essay organization includes the introductory paragraph with a thesis

statement, the body to support the thesis statement, and the concluding paragraph.

This argumentative essay organization is used as the indicators in framework

for argumentative essay test. The argumentative essay, which has three types, should

meet some criteria- introductory paragraph, supporting reasons and arguments,

evidence and examples, mechanic of writing, knowledge and understanding, and

concluding paragraph. The process of the argumentative essay consists of prewriting,

drafting with the revision of draft on development, organization, and elaboration of

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ideas, reflection, and editing on proofread. Within those processes, peer review is

done in drafting and in editing on proofreading. Briefly, understanding the

organization and the process of the argumentative essay aims at producing a good

argumentative essay.

H. Elements of Argumentative Essay

According Illinois Normal (1996) views that an argumentative essay contains

the following:

In the Introduction

Backgroundis appropriate. This may consist of a brief history of related past

events, a summary of others‟ opinions, or a review of the basic facts.

Athesis statement is required. This informs the reader of the writer‟s opinion

regarding the matter under discussion and previews his plan of development.

In the Body Paragraphs. The writer presents his points of discussion. Each point

is typicallygiven its own paragraph and is supported by evidence. Most often, the

writer begins with his weakest point and concludes with his stronger arguments. If all

the writer‟s points are equally strong, he builds a relationship with his audience by

discussing the most familiar, less controversial points first.

In the Conclusion. The writer restates, in general terms, the major arguments he

hasmarshaled in defense of his [Link] writer may summarize key points, restate

his thesis, reinforce theweakness of his opposition, underscore the logic of his

presentation, reemphasizewhy this debate is important, suggest a course of action, or

Challenge the reader to apply the paper‟s argument to his own life.

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I. Argument in Scientific Writing

From the current knowledge, the component of an argument consist at least

claim, support and warrant (Rotenberg, 1988), as well as in logic and philosophy

theory define several components of an argument for example claim and premise

(Toulmin,1958; Walton et al, 2008), several studies investigate argument in academic

discourse such as the relation between each component of argument (Kirschner,

2015), the relation between one argument to another argument (Cohen, 1987;

Henkemans, 2000; Stab and Gurevych, 2016). Consider that argument discourse in

academic writing are similar to formal logic and contribute the same base of claim

and evidence (Toulmin, 2003), The argument model which are widely used for

academic discourse to provide a structure of written argument is Toulmin argument

pattern. The arguments include a claim, data that support the claim, warrants that

provide a link between the data and the claim, backings that strengthen the warrants

and rebuttals that indicate the circumstances under which the claim would not be true.

Toulmin also considered qualifiers as showing the degree of reliance that can be

placed on conclusions arising from arguments. Toulmin`s theory (1958) is still

acceptable and valid to be used in analysing the argumentative text. it can be seen by

the commonly used of this theory by the researchers in analyzing written and spoken

argument despite this theory is not the newest theory. Further, Toulmi`s theory (1958)

can be used to provide a pattern for arguments.

A study by Rusfandi (2015) on Indonesian argumentative essay reveals that the

absence of refutation section which in this part aims to provide counter-argument, this

happens when they write an argumentative essay in English. The possible reason is

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that the students seem not aware of the important from this refutation section and the

lack of confidence in using English, this problem influence on students‟

argumentative essay in constructing credible and persuasive essays. Another study

also shows that the students most at level 2 of argumentation, they are able to make

claim and present support and warrant for their argument, but only a few of the

students provide rebuttal section in their argument, the statements which contradict

the data or warrant. This study reveals the similarities between Indonesian and

Australian students‟ argumentation Pattern present Toulmin argument pattern

(Widodo [Link], 2016).

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