Unit 6: Constructing Hypotheses

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 Outline

1 Definition of a hypothesis

2 Function of hypothesis

3 Types of hypotheses

4 Errors in testing hypotheses

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 Outline

Research Journey

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 Definition of a hypothesis

What is Hypothesis?

As a researcher you do not know about a phenomenon, but you do

have a hunch to form the basis of certain assumption or guesses.
You can test these by collecting information that will enable you
to conclude if your hunch was right.
The verification process can have one of the three outcomes. Your
hunch may prove to be: right, partially right or wrong.
Without this process of verification, you cannot conclude anything
about the validity of your assumption.
Hence, a hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion
or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the
reality or truth of which you do not know.
A researcher calls these assumptions/hunches hypotheses and they
become the basis of an enquiry.

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 Definition of a hypothesis

What is Hypothesis?
Definitions of ahypothesis:
► A proposition, condition, or principle which is assumed, perhaps
without belief, in order to draw out its logical consequences, and
to test its accord with facts which are known or may be deter-
mined.
► A proposition that is stated in a testable form and that predicts a

particular relationship between two or more variables.

► A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or

disproven by valid and reliable data.

► A hypothesis is a logical relationship between two or more vari-

ables expressed in the form of a testable statement.

From the above definitions, it is apparent that a hypothesis:
► A tentative proposition that can be proven or disproven.
► Validity is unknown, hence reliable and valid data needed.
► In most cases, it specifies a relationship between two or more

variables.
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 Function of hypothesis

Functions of Hypothesis
In most studies the hypothesis will be based either upon previous stud-
ies or on your own or someone else’s observations. The functions of a
hypothesis are:
1 Brings specificity and clarity to a research problem, but are not

essential.
2 This specificity and clarity used to construct a hypothesis ensures

that only information needed is collected, thereby, providing focus

to the study. This also enhances the validity of a study as it
ensures measuring what the study sets out to measure.
3 As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances

objectivity in a study.
4 The testing of a hypothesis enables the researcher to specifically

conclude what is true or what is false, thereby, contributing to-

wards theoryformulation.
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 Function of hypothesis

The process of testing a hypothesis

The process of hypothesis testing involves three phases:
1 Constructing a hypothesis.

2 Gathering appropriate evidence.

3 Analyzing evidence to draw conclusions as to its validity (true of

false).

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 Function of hypothesis

Characteristics of Hypothesis
A hypothesis should be:
1 Simple, specific and conceptually clear.
2 Should be verifiable (Methods and techniques must be available
for data collection and analysis).
3 Should be related to the existing body of knowledge.
4 Should be measurable(operationalizable).
Examples:
► The average salary of accountants in Dubai is higher than that in
Al Ain.
► There will be no difference in the level of information literacy

among university students.

► Smoking causes lungcancer.

► Sales in a shop are greater on a Thursday than on other weekdays.

► More than 80% of Al Ain residents are satisfied with the provided

services by Al Ain Municipality.

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 Types ofhypotheses

Formulating Hypotheses
0 Null hypothesis:
A null hypothesis (denoted by H0) is a claim (or statement) about
the population that is assumed to be true until it is declared false.
The null hypothesis will be rejected only if the sample data provide
substantial contradictory evidence.
In general, the null hypothesis is expressed as no (significant)
difference between groups or no relationship between the variables.
Examples:
► There will be no significant difference in the TOEFL examination
results among students of different programs.
► Customer services training of IT telephone support staff will not

lead to a significant improvement in users’ satisfactionfeedback.

► There is no significant relationship between employee engagement

and employee loyalty.

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 Types ofhypotheses

Formulating Hypotheses
@ Alternative (Alternate) hypothesis:
The alternative hypothesis (denoted by Ha or H1), is a claim
about the population that will be true if H0 is false.
In general, the alternative hypothesis is perceived as the Research
Hypothesis that you seek to validate through an inquiry.
The alternative hypothesis, the opposite of the null hypothesis, is
a statement expressing a relationship between two variables or
indicating differences between groups.
Examples:
► There will be significant difference in the TOEFL examination
results among students of different programs.
► Customer services training of IT telephone support staff will lead

to a significant improvement in users’ satisfaction feedback.

► There is a significant relationship between employee engagement

and employee loyalty.

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 Types ofhypotheses

Types of Hypotheses
1 Hypothesis of nodifference:
►It is a statement specifying that there is no difference between two
situations, groups, outcomes, or the prevalence of a condition or
phenomenon.
► Examples:

There will be no significant difference in the GPA among male and

female students at AAU.
There will be no significant relationship between gender and salary
of employees.
2 Hypothesis of Difference:
►It states that there will be a difference but does not specify its
magnitude.
► Examples:

A greater number of males than females are smokers in the study

population.
There is a significant difference in productivity between day and
night shifts at Al Ain Food and BeveragesCompany.
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 Types ofhypotheses

Types of Hypotheses
3 Hypothesis of point-prevalence:
►It is a statement that speculates almost the exact prevalence of the
situation or the outcome of a treatment program.
► Examples:

A total of 40% of females and 70% of males in the UAE workforce

are expatriates.
The prevalence of diabetes in UAE is less than 20%.
4 Hypothesis of Association:
► It states the extent of the relationship in terms of the effect of
different treatment groups on the dependant variable, or the
prevalence of phenomenon in different populations
► Examples:

There is a significant relationship between information literacy and

academic performance among students at AAU.
There is an inverse relationship between exercise and risk of coro-
nary heart disease.
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 Errors in testinghypotheses

Errors in testing Hypothesis

Incorrect conclusions about the validity of a hypothesis may be drawn

in cases of:
1 Faulty study design

2 Faulty sampling procedures

3 Inaccurate method of data collection

4 Wrong data analysis

5 Inappropriate statistical procedures

6 Incorrect conclusions

Any, some or all of these aspects of the research process could be

responsible for the neglected introduction of error in the study, making
conclusions misleading.

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 Errors in testinghypotheses

Errors in Hypothesis Testing

When testing hypotheses, we realize that all we see is a random
sample. Therefore, because of sampling variability, our decision to
accept or to reject H0 may still be wrong.
Summary of the four different states in hypotheses testing:

Truth
H0 is True H0 is False
Decisio

Accept H0 Correct decision Type II error

Reject H0 Type I error Correct decision
n

Types of Errors:
► Type I error: rejection of a null hypothesis when it istrue.
► Type II error: acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is false.
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 Errors in testinghypotheses

Example of type I and type II errors

A researcher wants to compare the effectiveness of two medications:
The null and alternative hypotheses are:
H0: The two medications are equallyeffective.
Ha: The two medications are not equally effective.
Description of type I and type II errors:
► A type I error occurs if the researcher rejects H0 and concludes
that the two medications are different when, in fact, they are not.
If the medications have the same effectiveness, the researcher may
not consider this error too severe because the patients still benefit
from the same level of effectiveness regardless of which medicine
they take.
► However, if a type II error occurs, the researcher fails to reject H0

when it should be rejected. That is, the researcher concludes that

the medications are the same when, in fact, they are differ- ent.
This error is potentially life-threatening if the less-effective
medication is sold to the public instead of the more effective one.
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 Errors in testinghypotheses

Hypothesis in Qualitative Research

One of the main differences in qualitative and quantitative re-
search is the extent to which hypotheses are used and the impor-
tance attached to them.
In qualitative research, because of the purpose of an investigation
and methods used to obtain information, hypotheses are not used
and almost no importance is given to them.
However, in quantitative research, their use is far more prevalent
though it varies markedly from one academic discipline to another
and from researcher to researcher.
On the whole it can be said that if the aim of a study is to explore
where very little is known, hypotheses are usually not formulated;
however, if a study aims to test an assertion by way of causality or
association, validate the prevalence of something or establish its
existence, hypotheses can be constructed.
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