Sex Roles, Vol. 39, Nos.
1/2, 1998
Brief Report
Gender Stereotypes in Portuguese Television
Advertisem en ts
F élix Neto 1 an d Isabel Pin to
Universidade do Porto
This stu dy exam in ed the po rtrayal of m en an d wom en in a sam ple of
Portu gu ese television com m ercials, attem pting to replicate an d extend past
investigation s done in Am erica, Australia, Britain , and Italy. The aim was to
update Portuguese research and to com pare findings across cultures. Three
hu ndred and four evening com m ercials were conten t an alyzed by two raters,
one m ale an d the oth er female, to check reliability. The attribu tes of each of
th eir cen tral figu res were classified in to 11 categorie s: gen der, m od e of
presentation , credibility, role, location , age, argu m ent, reward type, product
type, backgroun d, and end com m ent. Stron g eviden ce of differences in the
presentation of m ale and female characteristics was obtained. The im plications
of results for the developm ent and m ain tenance of gen der roles are discussed.
There is now fairly widespread conce ptual agre e ment and empirical support
for the view that television can and doe s profoundly influe nce both childre n
and adults (e .g., Mille r & Reeves, 1976; Frueh & Mc Ghe e, 1975; McGhee
& Frueh, 1980; Jennings, Geis, & Brown, 1980) . As Courtne y and Whipple
(1983) have note d it “ can influe nce inte lle ctual deve lopme nt, change atti-
tude s, contribute to aggre ssive be havior in childre n, teach childre n how to
become consume rs, e ncourage prosocial attitude s and be haviours, be an
age nt of political socialization, and te ach racial stere otype s . . .” (pp. 45-46) .
It is as a socializing age nt that television is particularly powe rful. Be-
cause vie wing te levision involve s the observation of othe rs’ be haviour and
its reinforce ment continge ncie s (Bandura, 1977) , te levision is conside red to
be a major vehicle through which childre n learn about appropriate behav-
1
cologia e de Ciéncias da Educa çã o, R. Do Campo Ale gre, LO SS, 4150 Porto, Portugal.
To whom correspondence should be addre ssed at Unive rsidade do Porto, Faculdade de Psi-
153
0360-0025/98/0700-0153$ 15.00/0 Ó 1998 Plenum Publishing Corporation
154 Neto an d Pin to
iours, particularly ge nde r-appropriate be haviours, and about the re lative
desirability of performing those be haviors.
Gerbner (1978) has de scribe d television as the “ cosmic force ” or un-
questione d environme nt one is born into, such as pre-Reformation re ligion
provide d the social milie u in pre-industrial times. In most de velope d coun-
tries te levision has the widest audie nce of any medium. It is watche d by all
type s of pe ople regardle ss of national origin, race, social class, gender or age ,
and it is watche d ve ry frequently. Typical estimates of ave rage time pe r day
spe nt with te levision adve rtisements in the four Portugue se channe ls, from
January to July 1996, was 11 hours (P ú blico, 28 November, 1996) .
Due to the fact that be tween 10 and 28% of te le vision time is dedi-
cate d to adve rtisements, the re has bee n conce rn and re search about the
characte ristics of the male and fe male models that are “ sold ” along with
the product (McArthur & Resko, 1975) . Comme rcials are of particular in-
te rest in the analysis of media conte nt because they are a highly conde nsed
form of information which tends to be sele ctive ly responsive to aspe cts of
the surrounding culture , and because they are usually repeate d many times,
so that most viewers are like ly to encounte r them, probably more than once .
Recognition of the pote ntial influe nce of television commercials on gen-
der-role deve lopme nt has spurred a continuing interest in monitoring the de-
gree of ge nder-role stere otyping in comme rcials ove r the past two decades.
Be ginning in the e arly 1970s, researchers asse ssed the degree of ste reotyping
by analyzing the content of ge nde r-role message s. The choice to focus on
content is most like ly attributable to the long-e stablishe d tradition of content
analysis. For de cade s it has be en use d as an obje ctive, syste matic, and quan-
titative method for analyzing the manife st feature s of communication. It is
based on the assumption that information about the nature of people ’s psy-
chological states and social roles can be obtaine d by analysing their choice
of language and other observable , visible characte ristics.
During the 1970s and 1980s, Portugal expe rience d substantial increases
in the proportion of wome n in the workplace . In 1994 the female activity
rate was 42% (Comiss ã o para a Igualdade e Direitos da Mulhe r- CIDM-
1994) . In the context of the Europe an Union, Portugal is one of the coun-
tries with the highe st fe male activity rate . The Government incre ase d leg-
islation to prohibit ge nde r discrimination and appointe d CIDM whose
office constitute s the gove rnme ntal mechanism to obtain e quality of op-
portunitie s and of rights. Surve ys of family roles indicate some shifts in the
patte rns of division of house hold labor. In 1990/91 wome n constitute d
55.5% of the stude nts enrolle d in colle ge education. In sum, in recent
decades Portugal has e xpe rie nced ide ological, political and economic pres-
sure s conce rning gende r roles similar to those of othe r We ste rn nations,
and in this context it is of interest to assess the e xtent to which the mass
Gend er Stereotypes in Portugu es e Televis ion Advertisem en ts 155
media have re sponde d to de ve lopm ents in the surrounding socie ty. Portu-
gue se television is se en in Portugal and by large populations in othe r coun-
trie s (African countrie s spe aking Portugue se and Portugue se emigrants
around the world) .
This study e xamine d gender role ste reotyping in Portuguese tele vision
adve rtisements. It had two majors aims. First, it attempted to exte nd our
knowle dge of current Portuguese adve rtisings using a large sample and e m-
ploying a coding scheme based closely upon those use d in analyse s in both
American and British commercials, namely McArthur and Resko (1975) ,
Manste ad and McCulloch (1981), Levingstone and Gree n (1986), Harris and
Stobart (1986) , Gilly (1988) and Furnham and Bitar (1993). The previous
rese arch in other Western nations and e veryday observation led to the e xpe c-
tation that gende r role stere otype s would be found too in Portugue se media.
It can be observed that similar ge nde r stereotype s among childre n and adults
have be en found in Portugal and in other western countrie s (Neto, 1997;
Neto, Williams, & Widne r, 1991; Williams, Best, Ward, & Neto, 1990) . Se c-
ond, the study atte mpted some cross-cultural analysis of comparable data,
spe cifically that of America, Australia, Britain and Italy.
METHOD
Sam ple of Com m ercials
The sample of te le vision adve rtise me nts was se le cted by vide ore-
cording four hours of prime-time television eve ry e vening from 7.00 p.m.
to 11.00 p.m. during eve ry day for one wee k in the be ginning of June 1996.
The sample comprise d commercials broadcast on the four Portugue se sta-
tions (two public channe ls —RTP1, RTP2- and two private channe ls — SIC
and TV I-). All re pe at adve rtise ments were omitte d, as well as adve rtise-
ments de picting childre n, animals, cartoon figure s, or fantasy characte rs as
central figure s, or those in which a central figure was not readily identifi-
able . Thus the central figure is defined as adults involve d in a verbal or
non verbal interaction that was the central focus of the comme rcial. The
final sample comprise d 304 inde pende nt adve rtisements for coding.
Codin g Procedure
The coding procedure was mode lle d on that of Furnham and Bitar
(1993) , Furnham and Voli (1989) , Manste ad and McCulloch (1981) , and
McArthur and Resko (1975) . The te n attribute s rate d are prese nted in Ta-
ble I.
156 Neto an d Pin to
Table I. Percentage of Male and Fe male Characte rs Depicte d in All Advertisem ents by At-
tribute Coding Category
Male s (n = 204) Females (n = 100)
Attribute % n % n c 2
Mode
V oice-over 51.0 104 10.0 10 48.37 d
V isual speaking 27.9 57 48.0 48
V isual not speaking 21.1 43 42.0 42
Credibility
User 22.5 46 71.0 71 66.54 d
Authority/other a 77.5 158 29.0 29
Role
De pende nt 6.4 13 50.0 50 90.28 d
Intervie we r 60.3 123 19.0 19
Profe ssional 26.0 53 18.0 18
Other 7.4 15 13.0 13
Location
Home 12.7 26 35.0 35 27.43 d
Occupation 37.7 77 22.0 22
Leisure 20.6 42 27.0 27
Other/unknown 28.9 59 16.0 16
Age
Young 13.7 28 56.0 56 60.70 d
Middle aged 81.9 167 40.0 40
Old 4.4 9 4.0 4
Argument
Factual 23.5 48 11.0 11 16.91 d
Opinion 53.9 110 45.0 45
None 22.5 46 44.0 44
Re ward type
Social approval 7.8 16 6.0 6 32.11 d
Self-enhancemen t 10.3 21 37.0 37
Practical 31.9 65 27.0 27
Pleasure/other b 50.0 102 30.0 30
Product type
Body 7.8 16 30.0 30 39.92 d
Home 23.0 47 17.0 17
Food 22.5 46 33.0 33
Auto/sportc 20.6 42 5.0 5
Other 26.0 53 15.0 15
Background
Mostly fe male 3.9 8 56.0 56 147.94 d
Mostly male 44.1 90 4.0 4
Mixed 26.0 53 36.0 36
Mostly children 1.0 2 3.0 3
None 25.0 51 1.0 1
Comment
Pre sent 59.6 122 13.0 13 42.26 d
Absent 40.4 82 87.0 87
a
Mainly authority, very few uncode d other.
b
Pleasure and re lated positive rewards.
c
Motor cars and sports products combine d.
d
p < .001.
Gend er Stereotypes in Portugu es e Televis ion Advertisem en ts 157
Coding Reliability
Two raters, one male and one female , participate d initially in a group
training session where twenty comme rcials were code d. The ads used for
training were diffe re nt from those used in the main study. Each code r was
the n require d to view inde pe ndently all othe r adve rtise ments. Interjudge
re liability was dete rmine d as the pe rcentage of agre e ment be tween the
judge s (Kassarjian, 1977) . From the 304 adve rts viewed, the coders agre ed
perfectly (100% ) on the central figure of each commercial. Two hundre d
and four central figure s were male and one hundre d were female .
Regarding the characte ristics of the 304 central figure s, the ave rage
percentage of agre ement among rate rs was 96% for “ mode of prese nta-
tion ” , 96% for “ credibility ” , 95% for “ role ” , 91% for “ location ” , 95% for
“ age ” , 97% for “ argume nt ” , 85% for “ re ward type ” , 95% for “ product
type ” , 95% for background ” , and 97% for “ e nd comme nt” , making a mean
of 94% . The lowe st percentage s of agre e ment occurred mostly when sug-
ge sting the type of re ward or the location of the central figure . Any dis-
crepancie s were re solve d by re vie wing jointly the proble m commercial, and
discussing its prope rtie s until agre ement was achie ved.
RESULTS
As in pre vious studie s chi-square s were calculate d for gende r diffe r-
ence s within each coding category (Furnham & Bitar, 1993; Manste ad &
McCulloch, 1981; MacArthur & Resko, 1975) . The main findings conce rn-
ing the relationship betwee n gende r of central figure s and the categorie s
of e ach of the depende nt variable s are shown in Table I.
Mode of Presentation
Mode of prese ntation was significantly associate d with ge nder of cen-
tral figure ( c 2 = 48.37, d.f. = 2, p < .001) . Nine ty-one percent of central
figure s who appe are d as voice -ove rs were male . Female s were also more
like ly than males to be pre sente d visually.
Credibility Basis
The basis of credibility for male and fe male central figure s is not in-
depe nde nt ( c 2 = 66.54, d.f. = 1, p < .001) . Females were more like ly than
males to be shown as product users, while male s were de picted more fre-
158 Neto an d Pin to
que ntly as product authoritie s. The cate gorie s “ authority ” and “ othe r” were
combine d for analysis because of low numbe rs in this last category (4.6% ).
Eighty-five pe rcent of central figure s who appe ared as product authoritie s
were male s.
Role
The re lationships betwe en role and gende r of central figure s is statis-
tically significant ( c 2 = 90.28, d.f. = 3, p < .001) . Females were more like ly
than male s to be depicte d in depe nde nt role s. 79% of central figure s who
appe ared in depende nt role s were female s, whe re as males were more fre-
que ntly de picted in inde pende nt roles (interviewer and profe ssional) .
Location
A significant association did exist be tween gende r of central figure and
location ( c .2 = 27.43, d.f. = 3, p < .001) . Female characte rs were more
like ly to be portraye d at home and male characte rs were more like ly to be
depicte d in occupational settings. Male central figure s were also more fre-
que ntly de picted in the O ther category.
Age
A 2 ´ 3 (gende r ´ age ) analysis indicate d that male and fe male central
figure s we re de picte d in diffe re nt age cate gorie s ( c 2 = 60.70, d.f. = 2,
p < .001) . Women were more like ly than men to be young (unde r 30) ,
whereas men were more like ly to be in the “ middle -age d ” cate gory.
Argum ent
Male and female central figure s gave diffe rent argume nts in support
of a product ( c 2 = 16.91, d.f. = 2, p < .001) . Men were more like ly than
women to offer factual and opinion argume nts, where as women were more
like ly to prese nt no argume nt at all.
Reward Type
Analysis of the 2 ´ 4 continge ncy table re lating gende r to re ward type
indicate d a significant association ( c 2 = 32.11, d.f. = 3, p < .001) . More
Gend er Stereotypes in Portugu es e Televis ion Advertisem en ts 159
females than males emphasize d se lf-e nhance ment as a type of reward. Men
were more like ly than women to stre ss ple asure .
Product Type
A 2 ´ 5 continge ncy table showe d a significant association between gen-
der and type of product being adve rtised ( c 2 = 39.92, d.f. = 4, p < .001).
Women were more fre que ntly associate d with body and food products than
men. Male s were more like ly to adve rtise auto and sports products.
Backgroun d
The re was an association betwee n gende r of central figure s and type
of background ( c 2 = 14.94, d.f. = 4, p < .001) . The female s were portraye d
more often in a female and mixe d background and the males were depicted
more fre quently in a male background and no background (no othe r human
beings appe ared in the adve rtise ment).
End Com m ent
The re was a significant association be tween gende r and end comme nt
( c 2 = 42.26, d.f. = 1, p < .001), with men making an end comment much
more ofte n than wome n.
DISCUSSION
The results of this study indicate that men and wome n appe aring in
this sample of Portugue se television commercials were portraye d in not in-
depe nde nt ways. The nature of these associations were syste matic and in
line with traditional ge nder-role ste reotype s. These findings reve al that Por-
tugue se te levision comme rcials manife st very similar traditional ge nde r role
ste reotype s to those found in studie s made in Western countrie s.
It is inte re sting to compare the prese nt Portugue se findings with simi-
lar studie s carried out in America (McArthur & Resko, 1975), Australia
(Mazella e t al., 1992) , England (Manste ad & McCuloch, 1981; Furnham
& Bitar, 1993) and Italy (Furnham & Voli, 1989) , in view of the similarity
betwe en the coding systems used in the se five studie s. A proble m with this
comparative analysis is, howe ver, that it confounds nationality and time .
These studie s have bee n done in differe nt countrie s at differe nt time s and
160 Neto an d Pin to
it is uncle ar, if there are diffe rence s, e xactly which of these two factors is
responsible for them.
A numbe r of findings confirme d those of previous studie s, while othe rs
were differe nt. In te rms of fre quency of appe arance of central figure s, give n
that fe male s constitute 51.8% of the Portugue se population, approximate ly
one half of the central figure s in the media might be expe cted to be women.
Moreove r, women have bee n re porte d to make 75% of consume r purchase s
in North America (McArthur & Resko, 1975) , and a similar percentage
might be expe cted in Portugal whe re esse ntial shopping is ofte n conside red
the prerogative of women. O ne might expe ct an eve n gre ater proportion
of central figure s to be fe male s, because te levision comme rcials are spe-
cially ge ared to a consume r audie nce. Wome n, however, did not comprise
eve n one half of the central figure s conside re d in this study— only 34%
were fe male s. Thus, the prese nt study found a greate r tende ncy for males
to pre dominate (66% ) compare d to the American study (57% ), a similar
te nde ncy compare d with the Manste ad and McCulloch ’s (1981) British
study (66% ) and the Italian study (64% ), and a lower tende ncy compare d
with the Australian study (74% ), the Furnham and Bitar’s (1993) British
study (74% ). This global tende ncy re flects maybe that TV adve rtise ments
are faithfully re pre senting ge nde r imbalance s in the kind of situations the y
depict, rathe r than the mselves distorting the picture .
For mode of pre sentation, the findings that male s were like ly to appe ar
as voice -ove rs and females to be de picted visually confirms previous studie s.
Bre tl and Cantor (1988) re viewed te n studie s plus their own and found
that the percentage of commercials having male narrators range d from 85
to 95% . The highe st proportion (91% ) of male s comprising the voice -ove r
cate gory found in Portugal sugge sts that, in this country too, it is men much
more than women who are conside red to have knowle dge about products.
Thus, the male bastion of authoritative voice continue s unscathe d.
In terms of credibility, McArthur and Resko (1975) reporte d 70% of
the ir male central figure s to be authoritie s, Manste ad and McCulloch
(1981) reporte d 78% , Furnham and Voli (1989) 63% , Maze lla et al. (1992)
reporte d 60% , and Furnham and Bitar (1993) found 57% , while the cor-
responding figure in this study is 72% . Thus the male figure s’ typical credi-
bility basis as an authority of the adve rtised product comple ments previous
findings.
Men were most like ly to be portraye d as intervie wers, narrators, or
celebritie s in occupational settings or in unspe cifie d locations, while women
were most like ly de pende nt on othe rs and portraye d at home. This finding
has bee n consiste nt across the five comparative studie s and across many
othe r inve stigations (Bre tl & Cantor, 1988) . However the diffe re nce be-
tween the two (males and fe male s) was not as gre at as e xpe cted concerning
Gend er Stereotypes in Portugu es e Televis ion Advertisem en ts 161
the profe ssional role . For example , Furnham and Voli report 34.5% of the
male as profe ssional and 9.2% of the females in the same role , while in
this study the comparative figure s were re spe ctive ly 26% and 18% . This
result may re flect the high female activity rate existing in Portugal.
The depiction of 56% of fe male figure s as young is also a typical fe a-
ture of adve rtise me nts from Australia and Unite d State s (Gilly, 1988;
Mazella e t al., 1992) . This implie s that adve rtise rs conside r it important
for wome n to be portraye d as youthful and conse quently attractive , where as
this is not as important for men. Inste ad male figure s are depicted as be ing
olde r—in this study 82% of male figure s are middle age d —which may en-
hance this commonly prese nted image as authoritative expe rts.
We find striking diffe re nces be tween pre vious studie s conce rning the
use of argume nts by central figure s. Manste ad and McCulloch (1981) re-
porte d that 63% of their fe male central figure s gave no argume nt, Furnham
and Voli (1989) re porte d a similar figure (53% ), but McArthur and Resko’s
(1975) findings show an ave rage of 30% only and Mazze lla e t al. (1992)
reporte d a similar figure (29% ). The pre sent study, however, shows inter-
mediate pe rcentage s of fe male s providing no argume nt (44% ).
The re is no agre ement betwee n gende r of central figure s and reward
type in American, Australian, British and Italian tele vision commercials.
Furnham and Voli (1989) , Manste ad and McCulloch (1981) and Mazella
et al. (1992) found a significant association be twee n female products use rs
and social approval rewards, while McArthur and Resko (1975) and Furn-
ham and Bitar (1993) found no association be tween gende r of product user
and re ward sugge sted by consume rs. In the present study we find a signifi-
cant association be twee n gende r of product user and re ward type , men were
more often portraye d as re warded with pleasure issues than women who
were more portraye d as re warded with se lf-e nhance ment.
The association of ge nde r of central figure s and product type is not
consiste nt in previous studie s. Despite the fact the diffe rent studie s have
used rathe r diffe rent product type categorie s, most studie s found that fe-
male s were proportionate ly more like ly to appe ar in adve rtise ments for
home products. This is not the case in the Portugue se study. Howe ve r, the
consiste nt te nde ncy found in previous studie s, also found in the Portugue se
study, was that wome n were more like ly to appe ar in adve rts for body prod-
ucts. With regard to food, pre vious studie s are not consiste nt, but in the
present study wome n were most like ly to be associate d with food products.
With re gard to background, the pre sent inve stigation shows ve ry few
men or wome n to be with childre n. Wome n were mostly with e ithe r a pre-
dominantly fe male background or a mixed background whe re neither men
or women predominate d. Me n were also mostly shown with either a pre-
dominantly male background or a mixe d background. Howe ve r a striking
162 Neto an d Pin to
diffe re nce with previous studie s is that in their inve stigation men were more
like ly than women to be with no background.
In te rms of e nd comme nts both gende rs were more sile nt than in pre-
vious studie s. 59.6% of male s in Portugue se adve rtise ments offere d end
comments (67.5% did in Italian study and 75% did in Furnham and Bitar ’s
British study) , 12.9% of female did (24.8% in Italian study and 33 did in
British study) . Therefore , Levingstone and Gree n ’s (1986) report that si-
le nce is prese nted as a particular feminine quality receives some support
by the study of comme rcials in Portugal.
The re current question that arises in light of the prese nt findings and
those of othe r researche rs is the de gre e to which this ste reotype d portrayal
of men and women in te le vision commercials plays a significant role in the
le arning of ste re otypical perceptions and behaviors by childre n and the
mainte nance of ste reotype d pe rceptions and be haviors in adults. Ste re o-
type d portrayals of adults in te le vision commercials may influe nce the
le arning of stereotypical pe rceptions and behaviors through diffe re ntial imi-
tation of same-ge nde r mode ls. Both the social-le arning (e.g, Mische l, 1970)
and the cognitive -de ve lopme ntal (Kohlbe rg, 1969) approache s to gende r-
role de ve lopme nt attach importance to the part playe d by imitation of
same -gende r models. Although reviews of imitation studie s (e .g., Maccoby
& Jacklin, 1974; Barkle y, Ullman, Otto, & Brecht, 1977) have conclude d
that the re is little evide nce to support the notion of differe ntial imitation
of same -ge nde r models, Perry and Busse y (1979) have propose d a modifie d
social learning account of how imitation contribute s to ge nder-role de ve l-
opme nt. If we agre e with Perry & Busse y’s (1979) analysis of ge nde r-role
deve lopme nt, it se ems possible that this consiste ntly stere otype d portrayal
of males and females is not simply responsible for the rapid acquisition of
knowle dge of ge nde r-trait ste re otype s be tween the age s of 5 and 11 (Neto,
Williams, & Wildne r, 1991; Neto, 1997) , but is also a factor in the le arning
of stere otype d behaviors.
Howeve r, until recently, the re had bee n a shortage of evide nce con-
cerning the impact of stere otype d depiction of mode ls in the adve rtising
media on ge nde r role le arning and gende r role be havior. The reason for
this lays in the difficulty of finding a control group that had ne ve r be en
expose d to stereotype d adve rtising but that in all othe r respects was com-
parable to an expe rime ntal group. Jennings e t al. (1980) trie d to overcome
the proble m by testing a contrast hypothe sis, i.e., instead of te sting the
hypothe sis that stereotype d commercials depre ss women ’s se lf-confide nce
and inde pende nce on judgme nt, they tested the contrast hypothe sis that
commercials that break gende r role ste reotyping raise women ’s se lf-confi-
dence and inde pende nce on judgme nt. The authors conclude d that e ven if
Gend er Stereotypes in Portugu es e Televis ion Advertisem en ts 163
women do not buy the adve rtise d product, they buy the implicit image of
feminity conve ye d by commercials, whe ther they know it or not.
The prese nt analysis indicate s that Portugue se te levision commercials
conform to wide patte rns within We ste rn tele vision, and present a highly
ste reotypical picture of males and females, despite gove rnmental and pro-
fessional pressure s towards a more egalitarian socie ty. Conte nt analyse s
make a de scription of the socie tal contexts within which pe ople acquire
and adjust to gende r roles. As Durkin (1987) pointe d out they he lp to de-
te rmine aspe cts of a society’s social stere otype s which serve to justify and
foste r differe ntial opportunitie s be twee n the gende rs. Important work re-
mains to be done after de scriptive studie s as such this which have showe d
the exte nt and type of gende r ste reotyping on tele vision: how tele vision fit
into the ove rall proce ss of acquiring and maintaining stere otype s.
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