Metrology

MEEG 219

Module I : General Measurement Concept

Lecture 1 : Introduction to Measurement

Bijendra Shrestha
 Metrology

How much sand?

Pressure?

Furnace Temperature? Height?

7 November 2016 Lecture 1: Measurement 2
 Metrology

7 November 2016 Lecture 1: Measurement 3

 Metrology
What is Metrology?
• Science of measurement
• Purpose:
– To establish means of
determining physical
quantities, such as
dimensions, temperature,
force, etc.

But what is Measurement?

7 November 2016 Lecture 1: Measurement 4

 General Measurement Concept
What is Measurement?
• Act or the result of a
Quantitative Comparison
between a
predetermined standard
and an unknown
magnitude.

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 General Measurement Concept
What is Measurement?

Predetermined Standard

Unknown magnitude

-Obtain the qualitative information about a physical object

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 General Measurement Concept

• “ A is longer than B” – Statement incomplete,

until and unless we answer how much

• Must be able to express this difference in

quantitative terms i.e, in terms of numbers.

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 Element of Measurement
1. Measurand : Physical quantity or property like
length, angle, diameter, thickness etc to be
measured.
2. Reference : Physical quantity or property to
which qualitative comparisons are made.
3. Comparator : means of comparing measurand
with some reference.

Note: Measuring device/process need to be calibrated against a Standard  Calibration

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 Standard
• Basic element of measurement without which no
measurement is possible.
• Standard is something that is set up and
established by authority as a rule for the
measurement of quantity, weight, extent, value
or quality etc.
• standard
– Primary
– Secondary
– working

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 General Measurement Concept
Primary Standard
• Highest standard
• Copies of international
prototypes
• Kept throughout world
in National
laboratories
• Eg: International
Prototype Kilogram One kilogram mass of a
platinum-iridium alloy
(IPK) as in fig maintained by Bureau
International des Poids et
7 November 2016 Lecture 1: Measurement Mesures in Sèvres, France. 10
 General Measurement Concept
Secondary Standard
• Calibrated from
Primary Standard
• References kept
measurement
laboratories &
industrial
organizations One kilogram mass of a
platinum-iridium alloy
maintained by Bureau
International des Poids et
7 November 2016 Lecture 1: Measurement Mesures in Sèvres, France. 11
 General Measurement Concept
Working Standard
• Standard one order
less than Secondary
standards
• Used by workers and
technicians for actual
measurement
One kilogram mass of a
platinum-iridium alloy
maintained by Bureau
International des Poids et
7 November 2016 Lecture 1: Measurement Mesures in Sèvres, France. 12
 What about Errors?

• Difference between the true value of

measurand and measured value
• Error = True value – Measured value

Error in measurement expressed or evaluated either as an

absolute error or as a relative error.
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 Example 1:The actual length of a land is 500 feet. A
measuring instrument shows the length to be 508 feet.

Absolute error = [Actual value – measured value]

= [508-500] feet
= 8 feet

Relative Error = Absolute Error / Experimental value

= 8 feet / 500 feet
= 0.016

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• Absolute error is the amount of physical error
in a measurement.
• Relative error gives an indication of how good
a measurement is relative to the size of the
thing being measured.

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Let’s say that two students measure two objects with a meter stick.
One student measures the height of a room and gets a value of
3.215 meters.
Another student measures the height of a small cylinder and
measures 0.075 meters

Absolute error = 0.001 m

Relative error ceiling height = (0.001m / 3.125m) x 100 = 0.0003%
Relative error cylinder height = (0.001m / 0.075m) x 100 = 0.01%

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The accuracy of measurement, and hence the error depends upon
many factor such as:
•Calibration standard : caused due to the variation in the
calibrated scale from it’s normal value.
•Environment: caused due to humidity condition,
Temperature and altitude.
•Workpiece
•Instruments
•Person

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 “No matter, how modern is the measuring instrument, how skillful
is the operator, how accurate the measurement process, there
would always be some error.”

•To minimize the error, a number of observations are made and their average is
taken as the value of that measurement.

Single Sample Test:

if observation made under identical condition – Same observer, same
instrument and similar working conditions

Multi Sample Test

if observation made using alternate test condition – Different observer,
different instrument, etc
• it avoids many controllable errors eg. Personal error, instrument error

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 Types of Errors
• Gross Errors
• Systematic Errors
– Instrumental Errors
– Environmental Errors
– Observational Errors
– Avoidable Errors
• Random Errors

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 Gross Errors

I asked him to
weigh a box full
of water, he
weighed a box
full of wood chips

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Gross Errors
• Occur due to Human mistakes
• During reading instruments, recording &
calculating results
• Probably impossible to eliminate the gross
errors completely

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 Systematic Errors

• Errors related to equipment

• Due to inaccuracy in system
• Predictable and expected

If properly analyzed they can be determined and

reduced.

Also called as controllable errors.

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 Systematic Errors

• Instrumental Errors
Due to
– Inherent shortcomings in the
instruments
– Misuse of instruments
– Assembly error

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 Systematic Errors

• Environmental Errors
Caused due to
– Variation in atmospheric condition at the place of
measurement
– eg: effect of pressure, temperature, humidity, dust,
vibrations, external magnetic or electrostatic fields
Note: Temperature is most significant factor which causes error in measurement due to
expansion or contraction of component being measured or of the instrument used for
measurement.

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 Systematic Errors

• Observational errors
Due to
– Carelessness of
operators
– Parallax
– Less chance of
observational error in
instruments with digital
display

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Avoidable Errors

•Occur due to parallax, non alignment of work piece centers, improper

location of measuring instrument

For eg: Placing thermometer in sunlight while measuring temperature

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 Random Errors

• Occur randomly and accidental in nature

• Unpredictable
• Difficult to eliminate but the results can be
corrected

• These include errors caused due to variation in

position of setting standard and work piece,
errors due to displacement of lever joints of
instruments, etc.
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 Accuracy vs. Precision

Precise but not accurate Accurate but not precise

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Precision:
•It is the repeatability of the measuring process.
•It indicates to what extent the identically performed measurements
agree with each other.

“If instrument is not precise it will give different results for the same
dimension when measured again and again.”

Accuracy
•It is degree to which the measured value of the quality characteristic
agrees with the true value.

“Practically difficult to measure exactly true value and therefore

set of observation is made whose mean value is taken as the true
value of the quality measured.”
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 Methods of Measurement

• Direct method of measurement

– no mathematical calculation
• Indirect method of measurement
– Parameters measured
– Final value derived by mathematical relation
– eg.: Area = Length x Breadth

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 Other methods of Measurement

• Fundamental method
• Comparison method
• Substitutional method
• Transportation method
• Differential method
• Co incidence method
• Null method
• Deflection method
• Complimentary method
• Composite method
• Element method
• Contact and contactless method
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 Function of metrology
• To ensure conservation of national/international
standards.
• To guarantee their accuracy by comparison with
international standards.
• To carry out scientific and technical work in all fields of
metrology and method of measurement.
• To take part in the work of other national organizations
interested in metrology.
• To inspect the use of instruments and the measurement
operations.
• To detect frauds of measurement
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 Instruments
• Serves as an extension of human faculties and enables to
determine the value of unknown quantity or variable which
his unaided human faculties cannot measure.

• Measuring instrument provides information about the

physical value of some variable being measured.

• Instrument would sense a physical parameter (e.g. velocity,

pressure, temperature, etc), process and translate it into
format and range which can be interpreted by the observer.

• Instrument must also provide the controls by which the

operator can obtain, manipulate and response to the
information.
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 Classification of Instrument
The instruments may be classified as follows:
• Absolute and secondary instruments
• Analog and Digital instruments
• Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic instruments
• Manual and automatic instruments
• Self-contained and remote indicating instruments
• Self operated and power operated instruments

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• The performance of an instrument is
described by means of quantitative qualities
termed as characteristics.
– Static Characteristics : Quantities to be measured
are constant or vary slowly with time (accuracy,
error, etc)
– Dynamic Characteristics: measure a time varying
process variable (Speed)

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 Static Characteristics
Important Parameter
• Accuracy and Precision
• Repeatability/Reproducibility
• Tolerance
• Range or span
• Linearity
• Sensitivity of measurement
• Threshold
• Resolution
• Sensitivity to disturbance
• Hysteresis effects
• Dead space
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 Repeatability/Reproducibility
• Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings
when the same input is applied repetitively over a short
period of time, with the same measurement conditions,
same instrument and observer, same location and same
conditions of use maintained throughout.

• Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings

for the same input when there are changes in the method
of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location,
conditions of use and time of measurement.

• Both terms thus describe output readings for the same

input.

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 Tolerance
• Defined as the maximum error expected in an instrument.
• Explains the maximum deviation of an output component at
a certain value.

Range or span
• Defined as the range of reading between minimum value and
maximum value for the measurement of an instrument.
Example: 0-20 V range of a multimeter

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 Linearity
• Ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically
• measurement system has a linear relationship between input
and output
• Change in output is proportional to the change in the value of
the measurand.
• Expressed by the straight line equation

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 Threshold
• The minimum value below which no output change can be
detected when the input of an instrument is increased gradually
from zero is called the Threshold of the instrument.

• Threshold defines the minimum value of input which is

necessary to cause a detectable change from zero output.

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• Calibration
– one of the primary processes used to maintain instrument accuracy.
Calibration is the process of configuring an instrument to provide a result
for a sample within an acceptable range.

• Hysteresis
– when we increase the input of an instrument it gives some output readings (follow
a curve), now if we decrease the same input and it gives different readings (follow
another curve) then this effect of instrument is called hysteresis.
– The phenomenon of hysteresis in materials is due mainly to the presence of
internal stresses.

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• Sensitivity
– All measuring instruments are very sensitive.
– Sensitivity is the smallest change in an input signal that can cause the
measuring device to respond.
– if the sensitivity of a Voltmeter is say 1 mV, then if you apply a potential
difference of 1 mV, the display moves, if you apply less than 1 mV e.g.. 0.3 mV,
it does not move.

• Bias
• Magnification
• others

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 Standard of Measurement
• Nearly all measurement in workshop involve
measurement of dimension.
• Concerned with the measurement of Length
and Angle.
• Very essential that some standards has to be
prescribe for the length.
• Without standards of fundamental units
(Length, Mass, Time), it would not have been
possible for civilization to exist.
“Standard” is defined as something that is set
up and established by authority as a rule for
measurement of quantity, weight, value or
quality etc.

•Any system of measurement must be related to known

standard otherwise the measurement has no meaning.

•The role of standards is to support the system which

makes uniform measurement throughout the world and
helps in maintain interchangeability in mass production.
 System of Measurement
• A measuring system is based on fundamental
units. Eg. Length, Mass, Time, Temperature,
etc.
• Following are the system of measurement use
in different countries:
a. F.P.S System
b. Metric System
c. S.I System
 F.P.S System

Length = Yard
Mass, Weight or force = Pound
Time = Seconds
Temperature = degree Fahrenheit
 Metric System
Metric System is the predominant system in
the world.

Length = Meter
Mass = Kilogram (kg)
Weight or force = Kilogram force (kgf)
Temperature = degree centigrade
 S.I. System
• S.I. = System International
• This system is extension and refinement of the metric
system.

1. Length = Meter (m)

2. Time = Second (s)
3. Mass = Kilogram (kg)
4. Temperature = Kelvin (K)
5. Electric Current = ampere (A)
6. Luminous Intensity = Candela (cd)
7. Quantity of Substance = Mole (mol)
Note: This 7 basic unit cover all disciplines
 Standards of Measurement
(Linear Measurement)
• Line Standard
• End Standard
• Wavelength Standard

•standard were made of materials which could change their size with
temperature and other conditions.
•Great care and attention was needed to maintain same conditions so that the
fundamental unit remains same.
•It was found that the wavelength of monochromatic light never changed with
other conditions.
•Yard and metre could be very easily expressed in terms of the wavelength of
light
 Line Standard
• When the length is measured as the distance
between centers of two engraved lines – Line
Standard.
• Yard and Meter are line standards.
• Example of line measurement is the rule with
divisions shown as line marked on it.
 Characteristics of Line Standard
• A scale is a quick and easy to use over a wide range.

• The scale markings are not subjected to wear. However, the

leading ends are subjected to wear and this may lead to
undersize measurement.

• Scales can be accurately engraved but the engraved lines

themselves posses thickness and it is not possible to take
measurements with high accuracy.

• Scale are subjected to parallax error.

• Assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required if

sufficiently accuracy is to be achieved.
 Yard
– Bronze bar made of 1”square cross section and 38” long
– Made from an alloy named ‘Baily’s metal’
• Contains 82% Cu, 13% Tin (Sn) & 5% Zn
– Two counter bored holes, ½” diameter, ½”deep, 1” from
each end of the bar
– Two gold plugs inserted in the holes at the base of each
counter bore
– Diameter of gold plug : 0.10“
– The top surface of gold plugs are highly polished
– Lines engraved on the plug (3 lines transverse, 2 lines
longitudinally)
– Yard : distance between two central transverse line of the
plug at 62°F
 Line Standards

• Yard

36” Neutral
Axis

½ ‘’ 1 ‘’

Enlarged view
38”
of Gold Plug
showing
engraved line
½ ‘’ Dia Gold Plug
 Airy Point
• When straight bars above 125 – 200 mm length are
supported horizontally for measurements by two
supports at its end – it will sag in the middle.

• If the supports are provided towards the centre,

then ends will bend down.

“ Both will results in an error in measurement”

 • Sir G. B. Airy Airy points
– Provides the distance between the supports
• n : number of support
1
 L • L : length of bar
n 2 1

The Error can be minimized by providing the supports at such

distance that the slope at the ends is zero and the end faces of the
bar are mutually parallel.

Note:
•Airy points are marked for lengths above 125-200 mm.
•Below 125 mm length, the length bars can be used unsupported.
 Meter
– Established originally by International Bureau of
Weights and Measures in the year 1875.
– Made of Platinum-iridium alloy (90% Platinum, 10%
Iridium)
– Having cross sectional as shown in fig
16 mm

16 mm

International Prototype metre cross -section

The upper surface of the bar is highly polished and has two fine line engraved over it.
• Meter: Distance between the center portions of
two lines engraved on the polished surface of a bar
of pure platinum-iridium alloy.

• The bar is kept at 0 degree Celsius and under

normal atmospheric pressure.

– Total length of 102 cm

 End Standard

7 November 2016 Lecture 1: Measurement 58

 End Standard
• Length is expressed as the distance between
two flat parallel faces – End Standard
• Example: Measurement by ends of
micrometer anvils, Vernier callipers etc.
• Used in precision engineering as well as in
standard laboratories (eg NPL : National
Physical Laboratory).
 Characteristic of End Standards
• These standards are highly accurate and used
for measurement of close tolerance in
precision engineering as well as in standard
laboratories, inspections department etc.
• They require more time for measurements
and measures one dimension at a time.
• They are subjected to wear on their
measuring faces.
• They are not subjected to parallax effect.
 Comparison between Line Standard and End Standard

Characteristics Line Standard End Standard

Principle Length is expressed as the Length is expressed as the
distance between two lines distance between two flat
parallel faces.
Ease and Time of Measurement is quick and Use of end standard requires
measurement easy. skill and is time consuming.
Effect of Wear Scale markings are not Subjected to wear on their
subject to wear. measuring surfaces.
Alignment Cannot be easily aligned with Can be easily aligned with
the axis of measurement. the axis of measurement.
Manufacture and Cost Simple to manufacture at low Manufacturing process is
cost. complex and cost is high.
Parallax Effect Subjected to parallax error. Not subjected to parallax
effect.
Example Scale (yard, meter, etc) V. Calliper, Micrometers, etc
 Problem in Line and End Standard
• Material could change their size with temperature
and other conditions

So, What is the solution?

Wavelength of Monochromatic Light never changed with other conditions.

Therefore, Yard and metre could be expressed in terms of wavelength of light.
 Wavelength Standard
• In 1829, Jacqnes Babinet, a French Philosopher suggested use of
wavelength of monochromatic light for wavelength standard

• In 1907, the international Armstrong unit was defined

– In terms of wavelength of Red Cadmium in dry air at 15°C
– One wavelength of Red Cadmium = 6438.469 A°

• 7th General Conference of Weights and Measures in Paris approved

the definition as an alternative of International Prototype Meter
1 meter = 1650763.73 wavelength
1 yard = 0.9144 meter
= 0.9144 * 1650763.73 wavelength
= 1509458.3 wavelengths
• Advantages
– Not influenced by variation of environmental factors
(temperature, pressure, humidity and ageing)
– No need to store it under security
– No fear of it being destroyed as in case of yard or meter
– Not Subjected to destruction by wear and tear
– Easily available to all standardizing houses, laboratories
and industries
– Can be easily transferred to other standards
End of Module I