31.

1 Introduction

The circulation of air in different sections of dairy plant is very important to

maintain better quality of air inside the plant. It is also necessary to provide
adequate level of illumination in different sections as well as at specific location of
the section in order to carry out different operations with safety of workers and
inspection of the operations. The control of fly is very essential to maintain
sanitary conditions and to meet safety standards for various products.

31.2 Ventilation in Dairy Plant

The term ventilation refers the circulation of air in order to maintain quality of air
in the plant. The ventilation system includes supply of fresh air and removal of
fumes, heat, dust, toxic gases and undesirable odours. Efficiently designed
ventilation provides adequate quantity of fresh air of standard quality. In dairy
plants, large quantity of water, cleaning solutions, hot water and steam is used for
various purposes. Vaporization of water and flash vapour produced in different
sections are causing to increase the relative humidity of the air. Higher level of
relative humidity is not desirable as it creates uncomfortable conditions for the
persons working in the plant. For human comfort, relative humidity of 60-65% and
air temperature of 22-24 0C are desirable for majority of people. It is reported that
each person requires about 0.5-0.75 m 3 of fresh air per minute for breathing. The
comfort condition is difficult to obtain in a fluid milk plant without providing
effective control on the quality of air. Higher humidity is also responsible for
corrosion and growth of molds. It may be noted that it may not be possible to
achieve desirable condition of air only by ventilation but it may be necessary to use
air conditioning system to achieve optimum quality of air in the plant. Ventilation
is important in dairies from point of view of sanitation as well as quality of the
products. The quality of milk and milk products are adversely affected by odours
absorbed in poorly ventilated rooms.

31.2.1 Objectives of ventilation

 To provide requisite quantity of oxygen by way of fresh air

 Removal of ventilated air
 Circulation of fresh air in room
 Maintenance of necessary level of RH
 To maintain proper temperature of room
 To eliminate dust, odor, smoke, etc from the air
 To remove any pathogenic and other bacteria that might be present.
31.2.2 Methods of ventilation

The conventional methods such as providing windows for cross ventilation,

opening of doors, windows and using electric fans are not adequate in dairy plants.
These can serve the purpose in small rooms and the sections where generation of
water vapour is very less. Therefore, ventilating equipments are required to be
installed for replacement of air in large food processing rooms. This can be
achieved by providing ceiling ventilators or ventilating sash or ventilating
skylights. Ventilation for milk receiving room, can washer area, crate washer
section etc. requires special considerations as water vapour generated in these
sections is very high. A large quantity air replacement with control is necessary for
these sections depending on the size of the section. Thus, the purpose of efficient
ventilation is to remove stale air containing excessive water vapour. The number of
air changes desired (i.e. number of times the volume of the air of the room is
changed by fresh air per hour) types of processes, environmental conditions and
number of persons working in these rooms. The methods used for ventilation can
be classified as under.

1. Natural ventilation

 Difference in temperature between the air inside and outside

 Pressure difference caused by the wind
2. Mechanism ventilation

 Simple input and/or output fans

 Plenum ventilation systems
Sensible heating or cooling of air changes the relative humidity of air. The problem
of higher humidity is the major consideration in design of efficient ventilation. The
knowledge of psychrometry is important in order to measure and monitor the
quality of air. The use of different types of air filters followed by suitable air
processing/replacement is necessary for optimum result. These aspects are
important at design stage of the plant so that location of windows and mechanical
system can be accommodated in the plant. The purpose of mechanical ventilation
system is to provide large quantities of air changes. It gives 10-15 air changes
while normal ventilation gives 4-5 changes. The problems associated with plenum
ventilation are the noise and improper distribution of air. It is desirable air should
be distributed without producing excessive draft with minimum possible noise
level. In large sections many diffusers are installed on the ceiling/wall to distribute
the air without producing excessive draft. Rectangular or circular air duct with
flow control dampers may be used in specific requirement of the plant.

1 air exchange = total cubic meter of air in the room

Total number of air changes is the number of times the total volume of the room
exchanged per hour. For example, if the number of air changes is 10, it means that
the total volume of the air of the room is changed 10 times in one hour time.

31.2.3 Maintenance of Ventilating Systems

1. Cleaning, removal of dirt and dust as well as and painting of ventilating

sash, ventilating skylights and ceiling ventilating at regular interval.
 2. Regular cleaning of fans and blower blades is important for efficient
operation. Dust and dirt deposited on the blades of fans and blower may
cause unbalancing which may result into vibration and noise. Maintenance
should be done carefully so that blades are not damaged.

3. Filters used in the system are to be cleaned on regular basis considering the
quality of air and type of filter

4. Wherever corrosion noticed at fan housing or any part of the system, it

should be wire brushed and painting is done using antirust paint.

5. The totally enclosed motor should be kept free from lint, dust and paint in
order to maintain better heat transfer to cool the motor.

6. Check the electrical connections at regular interval.

31.3 Illumination

Lighting has played very important role in industrialization as it has reduced the
difference between day and night conditions to carry out various operations. Dairy
plant operates during day and night time to process the milk and to manufacture
different products. Proper level of illumination is important for reducing the strain
on the eyes of workers and providing safe working conditions in the plant.
Selection of most energy efficient lighting system for various sections is very
important in dairy and food plants. A well designed, energy efficient lighting
system can mean higher lighting levels and lower energy costs. It is possible to
reduce energy costs by making small changes to the lighting system. The terms
used in connection with illumination are explained below

Illumination usually refers to energy radiated in the visible spectrum from 0.38 to
0.70 u wave length. Illumination is important in the processing plant from the
standpoint of visual operation, safety, cleanliness, inspection and colour
recognition. Bright light should not be defined as good illumination, because it
may cause pain in the eyes. A good illumination is defined as illumination which
produces no strain on eyes.

31.3.1 Requirements of good lighting

1. Enough light for all visual tasks

2. Proper distribution and diffusion of light

3. Absence of glare
Wall and ceilings should be painted in light colour, not only to minimize the
contrast between work and surroundings but also to give maximum results from
illumination. A window area equal to 20 % of the floor area is suggested where
dependence is placed upon natural light.

To fulfill the requirement of proper illumination, light should be well diffused

without flickering. To achieve optimum result, background ceiling should have a
minimum reflectance of 75 % and side walls from 50 to 65 % and the floor a
reflectance of about 20%. The reflectance of the floor, walls and ceiling with a
given light depends upon the roughness and colour of the surface. A dark colour
will absorb more light, giving a lower reflectance, whereas a light colour reflects a
large portion of the light. The illumination in a milk plant should be such that the
work can be done accurately, with speed and ease without straining the vision of
the employees. It is necessary to understand the following terminology to select the
most efficient source of light.

• Lumens: It is a measure of light output from a lamp. e.g. 40 watt (W)

incandescent bulb produces about 13 lumens per watt (13 lm/W).
• Lux or Foot-Candle: The light level at the working surface is measured in
lux or foot-candle (fc). [10 lux =1fc]. e.g. Outside illumination level in
summer will be around 80,000 lux or 8,000 fc.
• Average Rated Life: The average time it takes for 50% of light bulbs to fail
is called average rated life.
• Colour Rendering Indexes (CRI): The ability of light sources to render
colours the same way sunlight does is called CRI.

It is necessary to get maximum lumens per watt to reduce energy costs for
illumination. Typical lumen outputs are shown in Table 31.1

Table 31.1 General characteristics of light sources used for lighting

31.3.1 Types of light
[Link] Incandescent

Incandescent lamps are not energy efficient as shown in Table 31.1. Incandescent
lights also attract flies and other insects and are quickly coated with dirt that further
reduces the amount of light available. These lamps have relatively short rated life.

[Link] Fluorescent

Fluorescent light should be the main light source in dairy plants. Fluorescent light
is very energy efficient compared to incandescent bulbs. It has long rated life and
gives good quality light and Lumens/W is very high. There are 2 types of
fluorescent systems used in industry namely compact and tube fluorescents.
Fluorescent tubes are available in a variety of lengths and diameters.

Advantages of fluorescent lighting are given below.

• Fluorescent lighting takes less energy to provide the desired level of light.
• Fluorescent tube lamps last 20000 h
• Conversion from incandescent to fluorescent will reduce energy usage by up to
75%.

Fluorescent typically has a payback time of less than 2 years.

Table 31.2 Power consumption and light output of incandescent light bulbs
and compact fluorscent light bulbs
[Link] Light emitting diode (LED)
Light Emitting Diode or LED systems are not yet used in commercial factories.
Research is required to ensure this technology for various applications. Energy
efficiency of LED lamps can be very high (50 lumens/W) and life is much longer
(up to 100,000 h) than other light systems. If the technology can be adapted for
barn environments, it is expected that LED lighting systems will provide large on-
farm energy savings in the future.

Advantages of LED are as under.

• Environmental friendly-energy efficient with 1/5th of the power consumption of

incandescent lamps.
• Long life LEDs lasts up to 100,000 h compared to incandescent bulbs at 1,000 h
or 20,000 h fluorescent lamps
• Low maintenance cost
• Miniaturization small size allows them to be used in areas not easily accessible
• High reliability LEDs are solid-state devices, without moving parts, glass or
filament to break. They are robust and vibration proof.
• Fully dimmable
• Multicolour available in all colours
• High speed response immediate response, no preheat or starting time required.
31.4 Fly Control by Air Curtain

Air lock: It prevents contact of external air to internal air of cold store, it works as
buffer. Its temperature is higher than the temperature of cold store and less than the
temperature of external air. Air lock requires some space and at that space we
cannot store the product.

Air curtain: Blowing of air at certain velocity with the blower producing air to
prevent the entry of air from outside the door is called air curtain. Air lock system
is not suitable if it is required to open the door frequently. Air curtain is a stream of
air at usually certain velocity blown down it to prevent direct entry of external air.
Its advantages are:

 It controls the temperature

 The door can be kept open
 Control of dust and flying insects
Ventilation is the intentional introduction of outdoor air into a space. Ventilation is mainly used to
control indoor air quality by diluting and displacing indoor pollutants; it can also be used to control
indoor temperature, humidity, and air motion to benefit thermal comfort, satisfaction with other
aspects of indoor environment, or other objectives.
The intentional introduction of outdoor air is usually categorized as either mechanical
ventilation, natural ventilation,[2] or mixed-mode ventilation (hybrid ventilation).

 Mechanical ventilation is the intentional fan driven flow of outdoor air into a building.
Mechanical ventilation systems may include supply fans (which push outdoor air into a
building), exhaust fans (which draw air out of building and thereby cause equal ventilation
flow into a building), or a combination of both. Mechanical ventilation is often provided by
equipment that is also used to heat and cool a space.
 Natural ventilation is the intentional passive flow of outdoor air into a building through
planned openings (such as louvers, doors, and windows). Natural ventilation does not
require mechanical systems to move outdoor air. Instead, it relies entirely on passive
physical phenomena, such as wind pressure, or the stack effect. Natural ventilation openings
may be fixed, or adjustable. Adjustable openings may be controlled automatically
(automated), controlled by occupants (operable), or a combination of both.
 Mixed-mode ventilation systems use both mechanical and natural processes. The
mechanical and natural components may be used at the same time, or at different times of
day, or in different seasons of the year.[3] Since natural ventilation flow depends on
environmental conditions, it may not always provide an appropriate amount of ventilation. In
this case, mechanical systems may be used to supplement or regulate the naturally driven
flow.
Ventilation is typically described as separate from infiltration.

 Infiltration is the circumstantial flow of air from outdoors to indoors through leaks
(unplanned openings) in a building envelope. When a building design relies on infiltration to
maintain indoor air quality, this flow has been referred to as adventitious ventilation.[4]
The design of buildings that promote occupant health and well being requires clear
understanding of the ways that ventilation airflow interacts with, dilutes, displaces or introduces
pollutants within the occupied space. Although ventilation is an integral component to maintaining
good indoor air quality, it may not be satisfactory alone.[5] In scenarios where outdoor pollution
would deteriorate indoor air quality, other treatment devices such as filtration may also be
necessary. In kitchen ventilation systems, or for laboratory fume hoods, the design of effective
effluent capture can be more important than the bulk amount of ventilation in a space. More
generally, the way that an air distribution system causes ventilation to flow into and out of a
space impacts the ability for a particular ventilation rate to remove internally generated pollutants.
The ability for a system to reduce pollution in a space is described as its "ventilation
effectiveness". However, the overall impacts of ventilation on indoor air quality can depend on
 more complex factors such as the sources of pollution, and the ways that activities and airflow
interact to affect occupant exposure.
An array of factors related to design and operation of ventilation systems are regulated by
various codes and standards. Standards dealing with the design and operation of ventilation
systems for the purpose of achieving acceptable indoor air quality include: ASHRAE Standards
62.1 and 62.2, the International Residential Code, the International Mechanical Code, and
the United Kingdom Building Regulations Part F. Other standards focused on energy
conservation also impact the design and operation of ventilation systems, including: ASHRAE
Standard 90.1, and the International Energy Conservation Code.
In many instances, ventilation for indoor air quality is simultaneously beneficial for the control of
thermal comfort. At these times, it can be useful to increase the rate of ventilation beyond the
minimum required for indoor air quality. Two examples include air-side economizer cooling
and ventilative pre-cooling. In other instances, ventilation for indoor air quality contributes to the
need for - and energy use by - mechanical heating and cooling equipment. In hot and humid
climates, dehumidification of ventilation air can be a particularly energy intensive process.
Ventilation should be considered for its relationship to "venting" for appliances and combustion
equipment such as water heaters, furnaces, boilers, and wood stoves. Most importantly, the
design of building ventilation must be careful to avoid the backdraft of combustion products from
"naturally vented" appliances into the occupied space. This issue is of greater importance for
buildings with more air tight envelopes. To avoid the hazard, many modern combustion
appliances utilize "direct venting" which draws combustion air directly from outdoors, instead of
from the indoor environment.

From the view point of comfortable living & working conditions, the
good and efficient ventilation system should meet the following functional
requirements:

 Rate of Supply of Fresh Air

 Air movements or Air Changes
 Temperature of Air
 Humidity
 Purity of Air
01. The Rate of Supply of Fresh Air:
A ventilating system should be capable of supplying fresh air inside a room
and also removing the used air to outside. The quantity of fresh air to be
supplied into a room depends upon the use of the house to which it is
subjected. The rate of supplying fresh air is decided by considering several
factors such as a number of occupants, type of work, period of working, the
age of occupants, etc.

Also Read: Importance of Fresh Air in Your Home & Life!

 02. Air movement or Air Change:
At the place of work, air has to be moved or changed to cause proper
ventilation of the space. The rate of air change depends on the number of
persons inside, room temperature, nature of the work, etc. Air change per
hour is the volume of air entered into a room in one hour with respect to the
total volume of air.  All standard codes have prescribed a number of air
change required for different categories of rooms, like living room, kitchen,
bathroom, etc.

Also Read: What is Air Change in Room?

03. The Temperature of Air:
It is desirable that the incoming air for ventilation should be cool in the
summer and warm in winter before it enters the room. When the velocity of
the incoming air is high, its temperature should not be lower than the room
temperature.
04. Humidity:
Air contains a certain amount of water vapour in it. When the work is
required to be done at a high temperature, low humidity and grater air
movements are necessary for removing a greater portion of heat from the
body.

05. The Purity of Air:

It is essential that the ventilating air should be free from impurities such as
odours,    organic matter, inorganic dust, and unhealthy fumes of gases. All
these impurities depend on the habits of occupants, the volume of the
room, surrounding condition, the source of ventilating air, etc. To get pure
ventilating air, the entry of ventilation system should not be situated in the
neighbourhood of chimneys, latrines, kitchens or other sources.

Good airflow is important, as improper ventilation system can lead to

illnesses and general discomfort as well as cause damage due to poor
moisture and temperature control.

What is industrial ventilation?

Ventilation is the mechanical system in a building that brings in "fresh" outdoor air
and removes the "contaminated" indoor air.
In a workplace, ventilation is used to control exposure to airborne contaminants. It is
commonly used to remove contaminants such as fumes, dusts, and vapours, in
order to provide a healthy and safe working environment. Ventilation can be
accomplished by natural means (e.g., opening a window) or mechanical means (e.g.,
fans or blowers).
Industrial systems are designed to move out (exhaust) and bring in (intake) a specific
amount of air at a specific speed (velocity), which results in the removal of
undesirable contaminants. While all ventilation systems follow the same basic
principles, each system is designed specifically to match to the type of work and the
rate of contaminant release at that workplace.

Why have an industrial ventilation system?

Ventilation is considered an "engineering control" to remove or control contaminants
released in indoor work environments. It is one of the preferred ways to control
employee exposure to air contaminants.
Other ways to control contaminants include:

 eliminate the use of the hazardous chemical or material,

 substitute with less toxic chemicals,
 process change, or
 work practice change.
What is the purpose of a ventilation system?
There are four purposes of ventilation:

1. Provide a continuous supply of fresh outside air.

2. Maintain temperature and humidity at comfortable levels.
3. Reduce potential fire or explosion hazards.
4. Remove or dilute airborne contaminants.

What are the parts of an industrial ventilation system?

An industrial ventilation system has two main parts: a fresh air supply system and an
exhaust system.
In general, the supply system is a heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system
(HVAC) and consists of:

 air inlet,
 air filtering equipment,
 heating/cooling equipment,
 fan,
 ducts,
 air distribution registers.

The exhaust system consists of:

 an "air intake" area,

 ducts to move air from one area to another,
 air cleaning device(s),
 fan(s) to bring in outside air and exhaust the indoor contaminated air, and
 discharge stacks.

The Industrial Ventilation series of documents discusses the elements of the exhaust
system.

What are the basic types of ventilation systems?

There are two types of mechanical ventilation systems used in industrial settings:
General industrial ventilation reduces the concentration of the air contaminants, or
controls the amount of heat that accumulates in hot industrial environments, by
mixing (diluting) the contaminated air with fresh, clean, uncontaminated air. This
ventilation system is also known as dilution ventilation.
Local exhaust ventilation captures contaminants at, or very near, the source and
exhausts them outside.
What are the main features of dilution ventilation?
Dilution ventilation supplies and exhausts large amounts of air to and from an area or
building. It usually involves large exhaust fans placed in the walls or roof of a
building.
Dilution ventilation controls pollutants generated at a worksite by ventilating the
entire workplace. The use of general ventilation distributes pollutants, to some
degree, throughout the entire worksite and could therefore affect persons who are far
from the source of contamination.
Dilution ventilation can be made more effective if the exhaust fan is located close to
exposed workers and the makeup air is located behind the worker so that the
contaminated air is drawn away from the worker's breathing zone. See Figures 1 to 4
for examples of better ventilation system layouts, and Figure 5 for poor dilution
ventilation design.
When used to control chemical pollutants, dilution must be limited to only situations
where:

 the amounts of pollutants generated are not very high,

 their toxicity is relatively moderate,
 workers do not carry out their tasks in the immediate vicinity of the source
of contamination, and
 the emission rate of contaminants is relatively uniform.

It is therefore unusual to recommend the use of dilution ventilation for the control of
chemical substances except in the case of solvents which have admissible exposure
concentrations of more than 100 parts per million.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4
Figures 1 to 4: Examples of recommended dilution ventilation layouts

Figure 5
Example of not recommended dilution ventilation layout
What are the limitations of dilution ventilation?
As a method for protecting workers, it is important to know that dilution ventilation:

 Does not completely remove contaminants.

 Cannot be used for highly toxic chemicals.
 Is not effective for dusts or metal fumes or large amounts of gases or
vapours.
 Requires large amounts of makeup air to be heated or cooled.
 Is not effective for handling surges of gases or vapours or irregular
emissions.

Regular "floor" or "desk" fans are also sometimes used as a method of ventilation,
but these fans typically blow the contaminant around the work area without
effectively controlling it. Opening doors or windows can be used as dilution
ventilation, but again, this method is not reliable since air movement is not controlled.
As a general note, the air or "volumetric" flow rate of dilution ventilation depends
largely on the how fast the contaminant enters the air as well as the efficiency of the
fresh air and workroom air mixing process.

What is local exhaust ventilation?

Local exhaust system is used to control air contaminants by trapping them at or near
the source, in contrast to dilution ventilation which lets the contaminant spread
throughout the workplace. Local exhaust is generally a far more effective way of
controlling highly toxic contaminants before they reach the workers' breathing zones.
This type of system is usually the preferred control method if:

 Air contaminants pose serious health risk.

 Large amounts of dusts or fumes are generated.
 Increased heating costs from ventilation in cold weather are a concern.
 Emission sources are few in number.
 Emission sources are near the workers' breathing zones.

In a general way, a local exhaust system operates similar to a household vacuum

cleaner with the hose as close as possible to the place where dirt would be created.

What are the components of local exhaust ventilation?

A local exhaust system has five basic elements (see Figure 6):

 The "hood" or opening that captures the contaminant at the source.

 Ducts that transport the airborne chemicals through the system (exhaust
air) and the air that is recirculated.
 An air cleaning device that removes the contaminant from the moving air
in the system (not always required).
  Fans that move the air through the system and discharges the exhaust air
outdoors.
 An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged.

Figure 6
Components of a Local Exhaust Ventilation System

How do I know which type of ventilation system is best for

my workplace?
All industrial ventilation systems, when designed properly, should be able to provide
long-term worker protection. The two types of ventilation, dilution and local exhaust,
are compared in the following table.

Comparison of Ventilation Systems

Dilution Ventilation Local Exhaust Ventilation
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Usually lower Does not completely Captures contaminant at Higher cost for
equipment and remove contaminants. source and removes it design, installation
installation costs. from the workplace. and equipment.
Requires less Cannot be used for The only choice for Requires regular
maintenance. highly toxic chemicals. highly toxic airborne cleaning, inspection
chemicals. and maintenance.
Effective control for Ineffective for dusts or Can handle many types
small amounts of low metal fumes or large of contaminants
 
toxicity chemicals. amounts of gases or including dusts and metal
vapours. fumes.
Effective control for Requires large amounts Requires smaller amount  
flammable or of heated or cooled of makeup air since
combustible gases or makeup air. smaller amounts of air
vapours. are being exhausted.
Best ventilation for Ineffective for handling Less energy costs since
mobile or dispersed surges of gases or there is less makeup air
 
contaminant sources. vapours or irregular to heat or cool.
emissions.

In general, what are limitations of any ventilation system?

Some limitations include:

 The systems deteriorate over the years because of contaminant build-up

within the system, especially filters.
 Require ongoing maintenance.
 Regular and routine testing is needed to identify problems early and
implement corrective measures.
 Only qualified persons should make modifications to a ventilation system
to make sure the system continues to work effectively.

The following is an example of changes that can affect how a system works:

Figure 7
Addition of an exhaust duct branch
When an additional exhaust branch is added to an existing duct the local exhaust
ventilation will pull air into the system from the new location. This will reduce the
airflow from other locations that are further away from the exhaust fan. The airflow
through the entire ventilation system will be affected. This change will result in a
rapid plugging of the system and in an exhaust airflow, throughout all ducts, that may
not be adequate enough to remove the contaminants.

What should I know about make-up air?

An important and sometimes overlooked aspect of local ventilation is the need to
provide enough air to replace the air that is exhausted from the workplace. If enough
make-up air is not provided when large volumes of air are exhausted, the workplace
becomes "starved" for air and negative pressure is created.
Negative pressure in the workplace increases resistance on the ventilation system
causing it to move less air. Air will also enter a building through cracks around doors
or windows or other small openings to try to "equal" the rate of air being removed.
The result is that workers may be exposed to cold air in the winter, and additional
heating costs may occur.
One way to figure out if a room is under negative pressure is to open the door about
3 millimeters and hold a smoke tube (or another object that releases smoke) in front
of the opening. If the smoke is drawn into the room, the room is under negative
pressure. If the smoke is pushed away from the room, the room is under positive
pressure. If the smoke raises straight into the air, then the pressure in the room is
the same as the outside pressure.
Another way to judge if a building is under excessive negative pressure is to open a
door that pushes towards outside. If you have to pull (or push from inside) hard to
open the door, the building is under negative pressure (the outside pressure is
higher than inside, and forces the door shut).
A separate intake fan, located away from the exhaust fans, should be used to bring
in fresh, uncontaminated air from outside. This air must be clean and heated in
winter or cooled in summer, as needed.