Ms L Swanepoel

THE ATOM
The basic building block of matter

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 Ms L Swanepoel

What you should be able to do by

the end of this section:

• Know a brief history of the Periodic Table and of the atom.

• Define matter and explain how it is composed of building blocks
known as atoms.
• Know the elements can be classified into metals, nonmetals and
semimetals (metalloids).
• Know the elements are found in groups (vertical columns) have
similar chemical properties.
• Know the horizontal rows of elements are called periods.
• Know each element on the Periodic Table has an atomic number,
mass number, name and symbol.
• Know the names and symbols of the first 20 elements and some
common heavy metals.
• Know definitions and examples of atoms, elements, compounds and
mixtures.
• Know that a chemical formula shows the ratio of the symbols of the
elements and the number of atoms for each symbol in a compound.
• Write chemical formulae for compounds or elemental molecules.
• Name compounds and molecules.
• Know the difference between a physical and chemical change.
• Identify different types of chemical reactions.
• Write chemical reactions using chemical equations.
• Draw molecule diagrams.

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Review of previous knowledge

1. Elements

In grade 7 you learnt that all elements are either metals or nonmetals and
that they are arranged on the Periodic Table by abbreviated symbols to
represent their names.

Fill in the symbols of the first 20 elements on the Periodic Table

Number Element Symbol Number Element Symbol

1 Hydrogen 11 Sodium
2 Helium 12 Magnesium
3 Lithium 13 Aluminium
4 Beryllium 14 Silicon
5 Boron 15 Phosphorus
6 Carbon 16 Sulphur
7 Nitrogen 17 Chlorine
8 Oxygen 18 Argon
9 Fluorine 19 Potassium
10 Neon 20 Calcium

The elements on the Periodic Table are arranged in a certain way. The
arrangement tells us amongst other things which of the elements are
metals and which are nonmetals.

A table of metals and nonmetals

Examples of Metals Examples of Nonmetals

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Properties of metals and nonmetals

Properties of Metals Properties on Nonmetals

2. Compounds

A table of common compounds

Formula of Name of Formula of Name of

compound Compound compound compound
H 2O NaCℓ

Carbon dioxide O2

Note:
Compounds are not found on the Periodic Table, as they are a combination
of elements. The Period Table contains only single elements.

Now that we have recapped the basics, let’s start at the very beginning of
the story of the Atom and the Periodic Table.

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An amazing story

Ancient times
Now

The Standard
Model

Progress in our understanding of matter through the ages

Since ancient times, people have asked: “What is the world made of?”,
“What holds it together?”. They have realised that the world, or matter, is
made up by simple building blocks. Matter was thought to be made up of
four elements: earth, fire, water and air. But now we define “matter” as
“anything that has mass and takes up space”. Today we have a
much deeper understanding of matter, as evident from the evolution of
the Periodic Table.

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The Story of the Periodic Table

❖ Ancient
times Platinum, tin, zinc (along with other metals) were
found in their native form as relatively easy to mine.

❖ 400BC Empedocles
He proposed matter consists of four elements:
Air, earth, fire and water

❖ 1669 Hennig Brand

He discovered and isolated a chemical element
from urine, by evaporation and dry distillation.
He named it phosphorus (“light bearer”),
because it glowed in the dark.

❖ 1680 Robert Boyle

He rediscovered phosphorus and defined elements
as “substances that cannot be broken down
into simpler substances by chemical reactions”.

❖ 1789 Antoine Lavoisier

He drew up the first version of the modern
list of elements: including oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus,
mercury and sulphur

❖ 1800’s Elements with similar properties were divided into groups.

❖ 1863 John Newlands

He concluded that similar properties occur at
regular intervals, repeating every 8 elements.

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❖ 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev

- He drew up the first Periodic Table.
- He arranged the elements in order of
increasing atomic mass.
- He noted that the chemical properties
of the elements showed a periodic
trend.
The father of
- He left gaps for elements that might the
Periodic Table
be discovered later.

❖ 1900’s The Periodic Table improved due to a better understanding

of atoms. The elements were arranged according to the
number of protons they contain in their nuclei.
❖ 2015 The 7th row in the Periodic Table was completed, with
elements 113, 115, 117 and 118 confirmed. Therefore the
newest elements on the Periodic Table are nihonium (113),

moscovium (115), tennessine (117) and oganesson (118).

❖ Modern Elements are synthesised in particle accelerators and nuclear

age reactions rather than discovered in nature.

Study the picture on the right.

What do think this picture shows? Hint:
The photo was taken with a special
microscope that makes images of things
that are extremely small. In fact, the
yellow spheres in the image represent things
so small that trillions of them would fit inside
the full stop at the end of this sentence.
Each yellow sphere is an atom of lead. Do you know what atoms are?
Atoms are the building blocks of matter, i.e. all the “stuff” in the universe.
Scientists use models to help describe the inner structure of the atom.
Herewith a brief history of how the model of the atom has evolved over
time.

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The Story of the Atom

450 B.C. Democritus

He introduces the idea of “atomos” as uncuttable particles.

The “Marble Model”

1803 John Dalton
He re-introduces “atomos” as the term atom;
atoms being the smallest particles of matter.

1897 J.J. Thomson

The “Plum Pudding Model”
He discovers the electron while working with
cathode rays, particles with a negative charge.
He calls the particles “electrons” which are
scattered throughout a "sea" of positive
charges, like a plum pudding.

1911 Ernest Rutherford (together with his post-grad

students Marsden and Geiger) The “Nuclear Model”

He discovers the nucleus and protons

at the centres of atoms, which
he calls the nucleus. He says
that the nucleus is filled with
positive protons and electrons
randomly orbiting the nucleus.

The “Planetary Model”

1913 Niels Bohr
He proposes a Planetary Model for
the atom, where electrons
move around the nucleus in
fixed orbits named energy levels
(like planets orbit around the sun).

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1926 Erwin Schrödinger

The Quantum Mechanical Model
Schrödinger used mathematical
equations to describe the likelihood
of finding an electron in a certain
position, called an orbital. This atomic
model is known as the quantum
mechanical model of the atom.

Today - We know that electrons are always

in motion around the nucleus.
- Electrons are fundamental particles,
i.e. they cannot be broken into
any smaller particles
- Protons and neutrons vibrate
within the nucleus.
- Protons and neutrons are not
fundamental particles, i.e. they
are made up of smaller particles
- Quarks vibrate within the protons
and neutrons. Quarks are fundamental particles.

Evolution of the Model of the Atom

1897)

Definition: A model is a descriptive, graphic, or 3-dimensional

representation of a theory that enhances understanding.

The activity that follows is analogous to what scientists do to explore and

probe the structure of the atom.
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Explore – The hidden object

Task 1
Work in a small group:
You are given a piece of cardboard with a hidden object
underneath it, on a white piece of paper. Your task is to
work out what you can about the object, without looking
under the cardboard! Take a marble and cover it with
board marker ink/water paint. Roll the marble under the
cardboard and observe its path. The path should be visible,
but trace it out with the board marker to make it clearer.
Task 2
Discuss in your group:
Observe: What did you see happen?
Explain: What is your hypothesis (idea) about the
object?
Test: Plan where to roll the marble this time. If your
hypothesis is correct, what do you predict will
happen?
Task 3
Conclude:
What did you find out in your test?

_______________________________________________

_______________________________________________

Can you conclude that your idea about the object is correct
or wrong?

_______________________________________________
Task 4
Discuss in your group:
What can you NOT conclude?

____ _______________________________________________

Can you propose any further tests which will help you?

_______________________________________________

How is this activity similar to how scientists probe the

structure of the atom today?

_______________________________________________

_______________________________________________

_______________________________________________

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The inner structure of the atom

The model of the atom has evolved through the ages, and today scientists
have a good idea of what an atom looks like. Knowledge about the atom
helps us to understand why materials have different properties and why
some materials bond with others. Let us take a closer look at the
microscopic structure of the atom.

Inside the atom:

• Protons and neutrons make
up the nucleus of an atom.
• Electrons spin around the
nucleus.
• Protons and neutrons form
the center, i.e. the nucleus.
• Electrons spin around
outside the nucleus in
regions called energy levels.

The atom contains three subatomic particles that build up a neutral atom:
Protons Neutrons Electrons

Each particle has a particular symbol, charge and relative mass:

The electron is so small that its mass is negligible compared to the mass
of the proton and neutron. Only the protons and neutrons contribute to
the mass of the atom. Consequently, all the mass of an atom is situated
in its nucleus. Atomic mass = number of p+ + number of n0
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THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

I II B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 III IV V VI VII VIII
Atomic number 1
1 1 (Z) H 2
H He
1 4
1
2 3 4 Atomic mass 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
7 9 10.8 12 14 16 19 20

3 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg A Si P S C Ar
23 24.3 27 28 31 32 35.5 40

4 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63.5 65.4 70 72.6 75 79 80 84

5 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.5 88 89 91 93 96 99 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 121 128 127 131
Lanthanides

6 55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg T Pb Bi Po At Rn
133 137.3 178.5 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 200.6 204.4 207 209 - - -
Actinides

7 87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo
[223] [226]

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanides

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
139 140 141 144 145 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
Actinides

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
227 231 232 238 [262]

NOTE: The red step-line separates the metals

from the nonmetals.

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NOTE:

# Protons = Atomic number

# Electrons = # Protons
# Neutrons = Atomic mass – Atomic Number

Exercise

Calculating the number (#) of each particle in an atom.

1. Label each number and symbol on the element given below:

2. Use your Periodic Table to find the numbers of protons, neutrons,

and electrons for atoms of the following elements. Fill in the missing
information:

Element Element Mass Atomic

#Protons #Neutrons #Electrons
Name Symbol Number Number

Boron B 11 5 5 6 5

Sodium 24 11

Y 89 39

Copper 29 35

Tc 98 43

Pb 207

Thallium 204 81

H 0

Carbon 12

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General summary
❖ Elements are categorized into groups that share the same chemical
properties, which developed into the Periodic Table.
❖ The chemical behaviour of elements is determined by the electron
structure of their atoms.
❖ The Periodic Table of elements is a tabular display of the chemical
elements arranged, in groups and periods, by atomic number and
recurring chemical properties.
❖ Each element on the Periodic Table has an atomic number, mass
number, name and symbol (see below).

Atomic number 1
(Z) H Hydrogen
1

Atomic mass (A)

❖ Experiments looked into the atom and determined it has a dense tiny
nucleus (with positive protons and electrically neutral neutrons
inside) and a cloud of negative electrons around the nucleus.
❖ It indicated that atoms were made up of simpler building blocks
(electrically positive, negative and neutral particles) in different
combinations, which determines atoms’ different chemical properties.
❖ Label the parts of the atom below:

❖ Atomic number = ______________

❖ Atomic mass = _______ + _______

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Arrangement of the elements on

the Periodic Table

The elements on the Periodic Table are arranged in very specific patterns.
The vertical columns of elements are called groups, and have similar
chemical properties. The horizontal rows of elements are called periods.

Elements are arranged according to:

1. Increasing atomic number

o Definition: The Atomic Number is the number of

protons in an atom of an element.
o The element with the smallest atomic number is hydrogen (H:
atomic number = 1).
o Hydrogen is in the top left hand corner of the table.
o The elements with the largest atomic number are found at the
bottom of the table.

2. Increasing atomic mass

o Definition: The Atomic Mass is the number of protons

and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
o Hydrogen has the lowest mass number in the Periodic Table,
hence it is the lightest.
o The last element in the table has the highest mass number and
is the heaviest.

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3. The three major regions (Metals, Nonmetals, Semimetals)

The Periodic Table has three major regions: metals on the left,
nonmetals (except hydrogen) on the right, and metalloids in
between.

It is important to distinguish two further special sections:

• The main group elements - the first two columns on the left
and the last six columns on the right.
• The transition metals and rare earth metals – the middle block
between the main group elements and the rows at the bottom.

1. Metals are in the middle and to the left of the step-line (except
hydrogen). The step-line separates the metals from the
nonmetals.

Metals have metallic properties:

• They are shiny.
• They are malleable and ductile.
• They conduct heat and electricity well.

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2. Nonmetals are to the right of the step-line.

Nonmetals have non-metallic properties:

• They are dull.
• They are brittle.
• They do not conduct heat and electricity

3. Metalloids (semimetals) are found along the step-line. They are

shaded on the Periodic Table given on page 12.
They are: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po.

Semimetals have some metallic and non-metallic properties:

• They are dull or shiny.
• They conduct heat and electricity; not as well as metals.
• They are good semiconductors.
• They are often malleable and ductile.

4. Chemical similarity in Groups

The elements in a group have similar 'electron patterns', so they

behave similarly in chemical reactions. Like families, of sorts.

A. Main Group Elements

Group 1 – Alkali metals
Found in the first column of the main group: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr.
Note that H is a nonmetal placed in group 1, because of its similar
electron pattern. General properties:
• Very reactive (they react vigorously to violently)
• Soft
• Low boiling and melting points, Relatively low density

Group 2 – Alkaline-earth metals

Found in the second column of the main group: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba,
Ra. General properties:
• Reactive, but less so than the alkali metals
• Soft
• Low boiling and melting points
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Group 3 – Boron family

Found in the third column (of the main group): B, Aℓ, Ga, In, Tℓ.

Group 4 – Carbon family

Found in the fourth column (of the main group): C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb.

Group 5 – Nitrogen family

Found in the fifth column (of the main group): N, P, Ar, Sb, Bi.

Group 6 – Oxygen family

Found in the sixth column (of the main group): O, S, Se, Te, Po.

Group 7 – Halogens (Latin for “salt maker”)

Found in the seventh column (of the main group): F, Cℓ, Br, I.
They form salts when reacted with metals.

Group 8 – Noble gases

Found in the eighth column (main block): He Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn.
They are unreactive, meaning they do not react with other elements
(with some exceptions).

B. Transition metals
Found in the middle block of the Periodic Table. These elements
serve as a “bridge” between the light metals (located on the left
side of the Periodic Table) and the nonmetals (located on the right
side of the Periodic Table). The transition metals are also known as
the heavy metals, with the following properties:
• High melting and boiling points
• High density & strong (they are useful engineering materials)
• Less reactive than the light metals (which are in group 1 & 2)
• Good catalysts
• Form coloured compounds

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Uses of the elements

Research: List the most important uses of the first 20 elements
and some heavy metals below.

Z Element Uses Z Element Uses

1 Hydrogen 11 Sodium

2 Helium 12 Magnesium

3 Lithium 13 Aluminium

4 Beryllium 14 Silicon

5 Boron 15 Phosphorus

6 Carbon 16 Sulphur

7 Nitrogen 17 Chlorine

8 Oxygen 18 Argon

9 Fluorine 19 Potassium

10 Neon 20 Calcium

29 Copper 82 Lead

30 Zinc 47 Silver

26 Iron 79 Gold

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Atoms, elements, compounds &

mixtures

All material are classified as either a pure substance (i.e. one substance
throughout) or a mixture of substances. Look at these diagrams to help
you distinguish between atoms, elements, compounds and mixtures.

Memorize all definitions verbatim:

Atom
Definition: The smallest particle of an element that retains the
composition of that element.

Element
Definition: A material that is made up of atoms of only one kind.

Compound
Definition: A substance that is formed when two or more different
elements combine together chemically in a fixed ratio.
Examples include water (H2O) and sodium chloride (NaCl).

Mixture
Definition: A physical combination of two or more different substances
(elements or compounds). The components of a mixture are
not the same, and they can be separated by physical
separation methods.
Examples include air(mixture of N2, O2, H2) and salt water.

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Elemental molecule
Definition: A substance consisting of only one type of element (non-
metal) chemically joined together.
Examples include diatomic molecules (H2, Cℓ2) & ozone (O3).

Table of differences between compounds and mixtures

Complete the table:

Compounds Mixtures
Composition constant
Impure substances
Chemical change occurs and
a new substance is formed
No heat energy is involved
Properties differ from those
of component substances
Components can be separated by
physical methods
Examples: Examples:

Activity:

Classify each of the following substances as mixtures, compounds or

elements by completing the table below:
Saltwater solution Gold Nitrogen Air
Distilled water Sand and stones Hydrochloric acid Oxygen
Carbon dioxide Peas and beans Sugar Copper

Element Compound Mixture

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Mixture components are separated by six separation techniques, including

these:
• mechanical sorting • evaporation
• magnet • fractional distillation
• filtration • chromatography

Mixtures

A. Separating a mixture by means of a difference in size, shape

or colour
Method: Mechanical sorting e.g. peas and beans
Result:

B. Separating a mixture by means of difference in magnetism

Method: Using a magnet to separate iron and sulphur
Result:
1. __________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________

C. Separating mixtures by means of difference in solubility

C.1. Separating a mixture of an insoluble solid and a liquid
Method: Filtration, e.g. to separate sand and water
Results:
1. ____________________________
2. ____________________________
3. ____________________________
4. ____________________________
5. ____________________________
6. ____________________________

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C.2. Separating a mixture of a soluble solid and a liquid

Method: Evaporation, e.g. to separate salt and water
Results:
1. ____________________________
2. __________________________
3. ____________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________

C.3. Separating a mixture of an insoluble solid

Method: Filtration and Evaporation, e.g. to separate salt and sand
Results:

1. ____________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________
6. ____________________________________________________

D. Separating by means of difference in density

Method: Using a separating funnel e.g. to separate oil and water
Results:
1. _____________________________
2. _____________________________
3. _____________________________
4. _____________________________
5. _____________________________

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E. Separating by means of difference in boiling point

Method: Fractional distillation e.g. to separate alcohol and water
Results:

Liebig

These are the parts of the _________________ condenser.

The boiling flask contains the ______________________ we want to
separate. We want to collect the distillate and leave behind the solvent.
The boiling flask is held above a __________________________ that
makes the _______________________ boil gently. The boiling flask is
connected to the long, thin __________________. The end of the
condensing tube is called the ________________________. There is a
beaker to collect the liquid solvent that drips from the spout. The
condensing tube is inside a wide glass tube called the _____________.
There is a hose that brings cold water from a tap into the
______________________; the water flows up through the cooling
jacket and runs out again through another ______________________.

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How does the Liebig condenser distil the solvent?

In the boiling flask, the _________________________ becomes hot and

the solvent evaporates. ‘Evaporate’ means that the solvent changes from
being a ___________________ to being a ________________. The hot
vapour goes up into the long thin _______________. The vapour is very
hot, but when the hot vapour touches the cold tube, the vapour
condenses. The vapour changes from __________ to ______________.
The reason why the _____________ tube is always cold is
____________________. The liquid is pure because the solute could not
______________ and so the solute was left behind in the ____________.

Note:
• Liquids that mix are called miscible.
• Liquids that do not mix are called immiscible.
• This method of distillation can be used to separate a mixture of a
soluble solid and solvent needs to be recovered.

Exercise:

1. Explain the following terms and give two examples (different to the
above) of each.

1.1 Element

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
1.2 Compound

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

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2. What is the relationship between atoms and elements?

______________________________________________________
3. How are the elements, as they are known today, classified on the
Periodic Table?

______________________________________________________
4. Elements are classified into THREE major types namely:

______________________________________________________
5. Use the Periodic Table.
5.1 Name the following elements:
H _______________ He _______________

Li _______________ Be _______________

B _______________ C _______________

N _______________ O _______________

F _______________ Ne _______________

Na ______________ Mg _______________

Al _______________ Si ________________

P _______________ S _________________

Cl _______________ Ar ________________

K _______________ Mn ________________

Cr _______________ Co ________________

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Ni _______________ Cu ________________

Zn _______________ Br ________________

Kr _______________ Au ________________

Pb _______________ I _________________

5.2 Distinguish between metals and nonmetals and metalloids.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

5.3 Classify the category of matter in each block using letters A to E:

• A = element • C = mixture of elements
• B = compound • D = mixture of compounds
• E = mixture of elements and compounds

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5.3 The table below contains the boiling points of some elements.

Use the table to determine the state (phase) at room temperature of each
of the following elements:

a) Oxygen ______ b) Bromine ______ c) Nitrogen ______

d) Polonium ______ e) Argon ______ f) Neon ______

g) Platinum ______ h) Calcium ______ i) Nickel ______

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Worksheet:

1 What do the atomic number and the mass number

respectively tell us about the atoms of an element?

1.1 Atomic number:

______________________________________________________

1.2 Mass number:

______________________________________________________

2 How many protons are there in an oxygen atom? How many

electrons?
______________________________________________________

3 How many neutrons are there in an oxygen atom?

______________________________________________________

4 What is the charge on protons, neutrons and electrons respectively?

______________________________________________________

5 The symbol of an element consists of only one or two letters that

are derived from the (Latin) name of the element.
When the symbol consists of only one letter, this letter is a_______.
The symbol for potassium, for example, is___________. When the
symbol consists of two letters, the first letter is always a
_________________and the second letter is a _________________.
For example, the symbol for the element argon is ____________.

6 The Periodic Table of Elements is divided into _______ groups

and______ periods.

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Naming compounds

The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system

was developed for naming compounds.

A compound is two or more different elements chemically

combined in a fixed ratio.

We write a compound with a CHEMICAL FORMULA.

A chemical formula contains the symbols of each element in a

compound, in a fixed ratio.

A chemical formula shows:

2. The elements which make up the compound.
3. The ratio of the different elements combining to form one
molecule of a compound, e.g. in NH3 the ratio is 1:3.
4. ONE MOLECULE of the compound.
5. The name of the compound.(e.g. NH3 is Ammonia)

Examples:

• Iron sulphide is made up of iron and sulphur (1:1) -Formula FeS

• Hydrochloric acid is made up of H and Cl (1:1) -Formula HCl
• Water is made up of 2 H-atoms and 1 O-atom (2:1) -Formula H2O
• Carbon dioxide has 1 C-atom joined to 2 O-atoms (1:2) -Formula CO2
• Sulphuric acid has 2 H, 1 S, and 4 O-atoms (2:1:4) - Formula H2SO4
• 3 H2SO4 represents three molecules of sulphuric acid with
6 H-atoms, 3 S-atoms and 12 O-atoms.
• 7 H2CO3 represents seven molecules of carbonic acid with
14 H-atoms, 7 C-atoms and 21 O-atoms.

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General Rules for Naming of Compounds:

1. Compounds are generally named from their constituent elements:

• NaCℓ is sodium chloride
• MgS is magnesium sulphide
• AℓP is aluminium phosphide
• CaO is calcium oxide
• KI is potassium iodide

2. In a compound consisting of a metal and a non-metal, the non-metal

name changes its suffix to for example “ide”:
• KBr is potassium bromide
• MgO is magnesium oxide
• AℓN is aluminium nitride

3. Other compounds have common names:

• H2O is water
• NH3 is ammonia
• CH4 is methane
• CH3COOH is acetic acid (or ethanoic acid, found in vinegar)

4. The “foot” number in a formula is called a subscript and represents

the number of atoms of that specific element within the formula.

5. Compounds made up of NONMETALS have prefixes in their names

representing the subscript:
• Carbon monoxide (CO), where mon refers to one.
• carbon dioxide (CO2), where di refers to two.
• sulphur trioxide (SO3), where tri refers to three.
• carbon tetrachloride (CCℓ4), where tetra refers to four.
• phosphorus pentachloride (PCℓ5), where penta refers to five.
• sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), where hexa refers to six.

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Diatomic Molecules

The diatomic molecules consist of two of the same elements chemically

combined.

Take note of the following facts about diatomic molecules:

• They are elemental molecules, consisting of the same elements that
are chemically bonded together in pairs.
• They are NOT COMPOUNDS, because they DO NOT consist of
different elements that are chemically combined together.
• They cannot exist as single atoms in nature, but naturally pair.
• The diatomic molecules are:
o the halogens
o the abundant gases in air
▪ hydrogen
▪ oxygen
▪ nitrogen

Fill in the following table:

Name of the diatomic molecule Formula

1. Hydrogen H2

2. Oxygen O2

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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Writing Formulae

1. When a metal is bonded to a

non-metal, both form ions
(i.e. atoms with a charge).
Metals form positive ions
(cations), and nonmetals
form negative ions (anions).

2. In a formula the cation is written first, followed by the anion.

3. The subscripts in the formula must produce an electrically neutral

formula unit (i.e. the total amount of positive charge must equal the
total amount of negative charge in the formula).
E.g.
Name of compound Cation Anion Formula
Sodium chloride Na+ Cℓ- NaCℓ
Potassium sulphide K+ S2- K 2S
Lithium nitride Li+ N3- Li3N
Magnesium oxide Mg2+ O2- MgO
Barium phosphide Ba2+ P3- Ba3P2
Aluminium iodide Aℓ3+ I- AℓI3
Iron(III) oxide Fe3+ O2- Fe2O3
Copper(II) nitride Cu2+ N3- Cu3N2

4. The subscripts should be the smallest set of whole numbers possible.

5. A subscript after parentheses shows the number of group ion

“entities” in a formula, e.g. Ca(OH)2.

6. Remember: Ca(OH)2 does NOT mean CaOH2.

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Exercise:

Write formulae for the following compounds:

1 Lithium fluoride
________________________________________________
2 Calcium oxide
________________________________________________
3 Water
________________________________________________
4 Sodium fluoride
________________________________________________
5 Potassium iodide
________________________________________________
6 Aluminium nitride
________________________________________________
7 Hydrochloric acid (hydrogen chloride)
________________________________________________

Dot molecule diagrams

The two compounds, CO and CO2, consist of the same two elements:
carbon and oxygen. If we name them both 'carbon oxide' (since they both
consist of carbon and oxygen), we could easily confuse them.
Compounds have unique molecule shapes, represented by dot diagrams.
Below is an example:

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 Ms L Swanepoel

Research Assignment

Research the compounds and molecules given in the table below,

then draw the dot (molecule) diagram for each of the following:

SUBSTANCE MOLECULE DIAGRAM

water (H2O)

oxygen (O2)

ammonia (NH3)

carbon dioxide (CO2)

sulphur dioxide (SO2)

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 Ms L Swanepoel

ACTIVITY

1. Formula Compound name Compound picture - one molecule

CO2

NH4

Dihydrogen sulphide

Methane

2. Write the formula and name of each substance consisting of:

a. Two nitrogen atoms___________________________________

b. Three oxygen atoms __________________________________

c. Zinc, sulphur and oxygen in the ratio 1:1:4 ________________

d. Lead and oxygen in the ratio 1:1 ________________________

e. Calcium and nitrogen in the ratio 2:3 _____________________

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 Ms L Swanepoel

Chemical Reactions

In any chemical reaction there is always a chemical change. You need to

be able to identify when a change is of a chemical or physical nature.

DEFINITION: A chemical change is a change in the composition

of reacting substances, resulting in a new product
being formed.
DEFINITION: A physical change is a change only in the
appearance or phase or smell of a substance,
without a change in its chemical composition and
which does not result in a new product being
formed.

In chemical reactions, bonds break in the reactants and new bonds form
in the products. Energy is absorbed to break a bond: energy is released
when a bond is formed. The reactants and products contain the same
atoms, but they are rearranged during the reaction. As a result, the
atoms are in different combinations in the products than they were in the
reactants. Chemical reactions are represented with symbols:

REACTANTS PRODUCT
1.
C + O2 → CO2
• The subscript indicates the number of atoms of an element
found in the formula.

2. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
• The coefficients (numbers written in front of the compounds)
indicate the molecule ratio in which the molecules react.
• In this example it means two hydrogen molecules react with one
oxygen molecule, to form two water molecules.
• The molecule ratio in the reaction is 2:1:2 (We say “2 to 1 to
2”).
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Three types of chemical reactions

We will consider three types of chemical reactions:

1. Synthesis
2. Decomposition
3. Displacement

Herewith a schematic representation of the three types of

reactions:

synthesis
A + B A B

decomposition
A B A + B

+ displacement +
A B C C B A

You will now investigate each type of reaction in different experiments.

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 Ms L Swanepoel

1. Synthesis reactions

A synthesis reaction is the joining together of two or more reactants to

produce a single product. Sometimes synthesis reactions can result in the
formation of more than one product, e.g. in photosynthesis.
To predict the products of a synthesis reaction, you can use the following
generalised reaction:
A + B → AB
Synthesis is also known as a combination reaction. Let’s illustrate.

EXPERIMENT: The synthesis of aluminium iodide

DEMO OUTDOORS
• Powder iodine crystals (3 teaspoonfuls) using a pestle and mortal,
and transfer into a small beaker.
• Add 1½ to 2 teaspoons aluminium powder with 3 teaspoons iodine
powder (CAUTION: DO NOT GRIND TOGETHER!), and mix using a
wooden splint or plastic spoon.
• Transfer the iodine-aluminium mixture into a tin lid, placed in a fully
filled container of sand.
• Add four drops of water onto the mixture. Stand back and observe.

Observations:

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________
Reaction equation in words:

___________________________________________________________
Conclusion:

___________________________________________________________

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 Ms L Swanepoel

EXPERIMENT: Combustion of H2 (The test for hydrogen gas)

• Mix granulated zinc with dilute hydrochloric acid in a test tube.

• Collect the hydrogen gas produced into a second test tube inverted
over the reaction test tube.
• Once collected, hold the open end of the gas filled test tube over an
open flame.

Results:

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Conclusion:

• Pure hydrogen burns in air to form water.

• When hydrogen is mixed with oxygen in air and it is ignited, an
explosion can be heard with a squeaky popping sound.
• This is called The Pop Test.

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 Ms L Swanepoel

2. Decomposition reactions

A decomposition reaction is the opposite of synthesis. Decomposition is

the breakdown of a single substance into two or more separate simpler
substances. This process requires an input of energy in the form of heat,
light or electricity or the use of a catalyst.

To predict the products of a decomposition reaction, you can use the

following generalised reaction:
AB → A + B
Let us do two experiments to illustrate decomposition.

EXPERIMENT 1: The decomposition of copper carbonate (CuCO 3)

1. Put a large spatula full of copper carbonate (CuCO3) in a test tube.

2. Fit a delivery tube and clamp the test tube so that the delivery tube
dips into a second test tube containing clear limewater, i.e. Ca(OH)2.

3. Heat the solid gently at first, then more strongly.

4. Lift the delivery tube from the limewater before the heating is
stopped, to avoid “suck-back”.

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Observation:
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Conclusion:

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Equation:
___________________________________________________________

EXPERIMENT 2: The decomposition of copper chloride (CuCl2)

AIM: To investigate the decomposition of CuCl2 using electricity.

APPARATUS:
• beaker

• cardboard disk large enough to cover the top of the beaker

• two graphite electrodes

• 2 bits of wire

• copper chloride solutions

• 9 volt battery

Make the following observations before starting:

What colour is the copper chloride solution?

___________________________________________________________
What colour are the graphite electrodes?

___________________________________________________________
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METHOD:
1. Pour the copper chloride solution into the beaker.
2. Make two small holes in the cardboard disk and push the electrodes
through the holes as shown on the following diagram.
3. Place the disk over the beaker, so that the greater part of each
electrode is under the surface of the solution.
4. Connect the tops of the electrodes to the ends of the battery using
the wire lengths. Have a look at the diagram of the experimental set-
up.
5. Allow the reaction to proceed for a few minutes and observe what
happens.
6. When the reaction has proceeded for approximately 10 minutes, the
wires can be disconnected and the set-up disassembled.

OBSERVATIONS:

• After the reaction had proceeded for a while, what do you observe on
the surface of the two electrodes?
___________________________________________________________
• What colour was the copper chloride at the end of the reaction?
___________________________________________________________
• How did the appearance of the graphite electrodes change?
___________________________________________________________
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 Ms L Swanepoel

The electrode attached to the positive terminal of the battery is the

positive electrode and called the anode. The electrode attached to the
negative terminal of the battery is the negative electrode and called
the cathode.

RESULTS (fill in the table):

The copper Electrode 1 Electrode 2

chloride (anode) (cathode)
solution

Before the
experiment

After the
experiment

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION:

• What gave the copper chloride solution its intense blue colour?

___________________________________________________________

• Do you think that some of the copper chloride may have changed
into something else during the reaction? Explain why you think so.

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

• How would you explain the bubbles on the surface of the first
electrode? Do you have any idea what they might have been? Hint:
what did the electrode smell like afterwards?

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 Ms L Swanepoel

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

• Do you know what the reddish-brown coating on the second

electrode is? Hint: Which metal has that same characteristic
reddish-brown colour?
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

• How do we know that a chemical reaction has occurred?

___________________________________________________________

CONCLUSION:

Write a conclusion for the investigation. In your conclusion you should

rewrite the aim of the investigation into a statement about the findings of
your investigation.
___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

3. Displacement Reactions

Reaction of metals with water

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EXPERIMENT: Group 1 & 2 metal reactions with water (DEMO)

Pieces of alkali and alkali-earth metals are freshly cut and the surfaces
examined for lustre. Pieces are then added to water in a thick glass bowl
with indicator to test the acidity of the solution after each experiment.

Observations:
Group 1 – specifically lithium, sodium and potassium
1. Relative hardness: ____________________________________
2. Reaction with water:
Lithium________________________________________________
Sodium________________________________________________
Potassium______________________________________________
3. What observation indicates that the reactions with water are
exothermic (give off heat)?

___________________________________________________________
4. Name the gas that was released during the reaction. _____________
5. How could we test for this gas in the laboratory?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Group 2 – specifically magnesium and calcium
6. Reaction with water:
Calcium_________________________________________________
Magnesium______________________________________________

7. Testing for acidity of each group 1 and 2 metal:

a. What colour does the indicator go?________________________
b. Is the product acidic or alkaline? _________________________

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 Ms L Swanepoel

END OF SECTION EXERCISE

Question 1

Determine the formulae of the following compounds:

1.1 Aluminium phosphide _____________________________________
1.2 Magnesium sulfide _____________________________________
1.3 Lithium flouride _____________________________________
1.4 Potassium oxide _____________________________________
1.5 Calcium chloride _____________________________________

1.6 Study the following table and complete all the blank spaces.

Formula Which elements does it consist of? Name of substance

Na2O
KBr
CuS

Question 2

Calculate the number of atoms for each element in the following

compounds:

2.1 3 NaHCO3

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
2.2 2 Ca(OH)2

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

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Question 3

In an experiment to investigate the physical properties of Group 1 metals,

the teacher demonstrated some properties of sodium and potassium while
the learners made some observations about. The learners recorded their
observations regarding the relative hardness, low density and reaction
with water of the two metals. Small pieces of metal were cut and filter
paper was used to remove as much oil as possible. (Note: The alkali
metals are stored in oil). The pieces were added to water in a beaker, and
Universal indicator solution used to test the solution after each
experiment.

3.1 Record the results on:

3.1.1 the relative hardness of the two metals _________________

3.1.2 the comparison of the metals’ reaction with water

_______________________________________________________

3.2 Write word equations for the reactions.

• Sodium with water:

________________________________________________
• Potassium with water:

_________________________________________________

3.3 Are the reactions endo- or exothermic? Why do you say so?

___________________________________________________________

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3.4 A gas was released during the reaction.

i. Explain the test for this gas in the laboratory.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

ii. State possible uses for the identified gas.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

3.5 When an electric current passes through pure water, it decomposes

into its constituent elements. Write an equation for this reaction:

_______________________________________________________

Question 4

Give the word or phrase that best describes the following:

1.1. The basic building block of all matter.

1.2. The sub-atomic particle with negligible

mass.

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 Ms L Swanepoel

1.3. A number that specifies how many

protons are in the nucleus of an atom
of an element.

1.4. The sum of the number of protons and

neutrons in an atom.

Question 5

Match the columns by drawing a straight line between the substance in the
first column and fact in the second column. There is only one correct option
for each substance and fact.

Substance Fact

The air we
An element made up of molecules
breathe in

Sodium fluoride A compound

Helium A mixture of gases

Distilled water An element made up of atoms

Can be decomposed into hydrogen

Nitrogen gas
gas and oxygen gas

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 Ms L Swanepoel

Question 6

What is the difference between an element and a compound?

Give the chemical symbol for the following elements:

Hydrogen b) Copper

Chlorine d) Aluminium

Give the name for the following elements:

Mg b) Ca

Fe d) F

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 Ms L Swanepoel

Question 7

Which particle (A, B or C) is negatively

charged?
What is the name of particle C?

Which particle (A, B or C) has a small mass

when compared to the other sub-atomic
particles?

What is the name of the part of the atom made

up of particles B and C?

Question 8

Look at the three diagrams below of samples of substances and answer the
questions that follow:

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 Ms L Swanepoel

Which of these samples does not contain a

pure substance?

Which of these samples contains only an

element?

Which of these samples contains only a

compound?

Which sample or samples contain only

molecules?

Question 9

Complete the table below:

Name of Chemical What is it Picture

substance formula made of?

1 sulphur atom
Sulphur
6.1. and
dioxide
2 oxygen atoms

6.2. H 2O

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 Ms L Swanepoel

1 carbon atom
and
6.3. Methane
4 hydrogen
atoms

Hydrogen
6.4.
chloride

6.5. Borane BH3

Question 10

The electrolysis of blue copper

chloride is an interesting process
that shows that a chemical
reaction can break down a
compound into its different
elements.
It involves running an electrical
current though an aqueous
solution of copper chloride (copper
chloride dissolved in water).
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 Ms L Swanepoel

Is the copper chloride solution an

element or mixture?

Give a suitable name for the apparatus

labelled A in the diagram above.

Give the name for the apparatus

labelled B in the diagram above.

As the current is passed through the copper chloride solution, the solution
turns clear. Explain why this is observed.

What else can be observed as the current is passed through the copper
chloride solution? (Hint: State what substances are formed, what they look
like and what phase they are in)

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