Topics

 Structural steel frames including hot-rolled and cold-rolled

sections

 Types of connections in structural steelwork including rivets,

bolts and welding

 Structural steel connections including

 base connections,
 beam-to-column connections,
 column splices and
 beam-to-beam connections
References
 Chudley, R & Greeno, R 2005, Construction Technology,
Part 10.5 Structural Steelwork Frames

 Chudley, R & Greeno, R 2010, Building Construction

 Handbook, Part 5 Superstructure 2
History of Steel structures’ Construction
 INTRODUCTION

 Steel as a structure medium is not something new, as it was introduced way

back in the early 19th century.

 During World War 1 (1914-18) & 2(1939-45), more so the WW2, steel was
a much sort after material ie to make machines & equipments of WAR !

 Then later, it had its boom after the World War due to its
characteristics of ease and availability but eventually slowed down and
taken over by the then, termed ‘the new technology’, CONCRETE.

 Due to shortness of supply, this led to the use of in-situ & reinforced
concrete. As of late, steel has been refashioned and its popularity in use has
picked up or rather.
Chosen Criteria of the Construction Materials
 When deciding and making choices as to which material is better over the other the
following are considered(among others):-

 The availability of materials & labour

 Initial and overall cost

 Speed of erection

 Possibility or otherwise of standardising the sizes of the structural members.

 Size & nature of site

 Fire resistance required

Site Consideration
 Both Steel & Concrete structures can be fabricated in controlled covered &
protected factory conditions.

 However, given the same situation quality of the finish product is more reliable
when steel is involved as it does not require the strict control/supervision of casting
of concrete.

 In situation of limited site size i.e. constraints of non or little working space,
preferably & inevitably, fabrication of the individual members of a steel is carried
out ‘off site’ in the steel yard/factory shop.

 Erection will only be done ‘on site’.

 Erection/s will be carried out by skilled labour, quickly and precisely, always, within
acceptable tolerances.
Site Consideration

Go for early cover

In weather conditions that are
intense i.e. hot humid, cold,
rainy, it is very mush advisable
to complete main Structures then
Roof

Early completion of the structural frame enables other works to commence early eg
roof for ‘cover’, whereby allowing other trades to proceed ie under cover and
protection from the elements of weather.
Cost & Speed of Erection
 Repetitive or modular skeleton frames + careful & well
planning of works on site coupled with good organisation
will enhance the speed of erection.

 In most extent, cost and speed of erection are very much

dependent upon the availability of materials and labour.
Design Consideration
 To design innovatively or be different?

 The answer will determine all factors of construction e.g.

cost time quality and final product.

 Modulation and/or Standardisation of members often

improves the situation many folds especially when
repetition of all aspects of details.
Fire Protection
Aesthetics, Comfort, Use, Cost & Speed is
of no value to the environment if it is not
safe for occupation.

Minimally a structure should be able to

withstand adverse conditions (namely
FIRE!) to a certain degree/extent, so as
to allow Human / Lives’ survival and/or
then escape to safety.
Structural steel frames
 Structural steel has been frequently used as a means of constructing a
framed building.

 Steel being of a very flexible material that can be form to shape

within and into reasonable appearances. However, to be competitive
and usable as an alternative yet economical material, control &
standardisation is vital.

 The design, fabrication, supply and erection of a structural steel

frame are normally undertaken by a specialist subcontractor.

 The main contractor’s task is to provide the foundation bases in

the correct positions and to the correct levels with the necessary
holding-down fixing bolts.
Structural steel frames
 The engineer will calculate the loadings, stresses and
reactions, then select a standard steel member whose
section properties meet the design requirements.

 Structural steel frames are available as standard:

 HOT-ROLLED SECTION

 COLD-ROLLED SECTION
Hot-rolled steels
 Hot-rolled steel sections, also known as Standard Structural
Steel Sections, are standardised in shape and dimensions e.g
Universal Columns.

 A rolling process at temperatures over 1000 degrees Fahrenheit

is use to create hot-rolled steel.

 Steel products processed in this manner will have a blue-gray

finish that feels rough to the touch.

 Hot-rolled steel reconfigures itself during the cooling process,

giving the finished product looser tolerances than the original
material.
Hot-rolled steels
 Hot-rolled steel is more malleable, allowing it to be forced
into a variety of different shapes.

 This makes hot-rolled steel a good choice for the

manufacturing of structural components

 These sections are produced direct from material to

form in intense heat condition and later cooling. In the
process the material properties/‘grains’ are changed
thus giving it its strength.
Principle of Hot Rolling

Steel sections/members rolled out of the furnace.

Principle of Hot Rolling
Hot-rolling Production

In the process of extraction from ore or recycling processes (obtained from the basic
oxygen furnace), steel is produced as…
Principle of Hot Rolling

These shapes are preferred due to reasons storage & transport & ease of reheating
for the production of final produces…
Hot-Rolled steel
video[Link]
Cold-rolled steels
 Cold-formed steel sections are pressed or rolled to shape
at close to normal room temperature from thin steel
strip and are known respectively as pressed-steel or cold
rolled steel sections.

 This increases the strength of the finished product

through the use of strain hardening by as much as 20%.

 Steel processed in this manner has a gray finish that feels

smooth to the touch.
Cold-rolled steels

Steel section being rolled out of the forming rolls moulding machine.
Cold-rolled steels
 The cold-rolled process creates a finished product that is
more precise dimensionally than a hot-rolled product.

 Unfortunately, cold-rolled steel is limited to just a few

shapes, such as round, square and flat.

 Finished products created by the cold-rolled steel process

include bars, strips, rods and sheets which are usually
smaller than the same products available through hot-
rolled methods.
Hot Vs Cold Rolled

 Generally Hot-rolled sections are stronger then cold-

formed thus suggesting their use in the industry.

 Hot rolled for structural used.

Terminology of Steel Structure
Tie Beam,

U-Column Section,

Roof Beam,

Web Cleats,

Floor Beam,

Seating Cleats,

Universal Beam,
Stanchion,

Base Plate,

Holding Down Anchor

& Bolts
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
 Standard hot-rolled steel sections are given in BS 4 and BS EN
10067, which provide the following section types:

 1. Universal beams
 These are a range of sections supplied with tapered or parallel flanges.

 Designated by their serial size x mass in kilograms per metre run.

 To facilitate the rolling operation of universal beam sections, the inner

profile is a constant dimension for any given serial size.

 The serial size is therefore only an approximate width and breadth in

millimetres.
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
 2. Universal columns

 These members are rolled with parallel flanges.

 Designated same as universal beams.

 It is possible to design a column section to act as a beam

and conversely a beam section to act as a column.
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
 3. Joists
 These are a range of small-size beams that have tapered
flanges.

 Useful for lintels and small frames around openings.

 The serial size is the overall nominal dimension.

Standard hot-rolled steel sections
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
 4. Channels

 These are rolled with tapered flanges.

 Designated by their nominal overall dimension x mass per

metre run.

 They can be used for trimming and bracing members or as a

substitute for joist sections.
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
 5. Angles
 These are light framing and bracing sections with parallel
flanges.

 The flange or leg lengths can be equal or unequal.

 Designated by the nominal overall leg lengths x nominal

thickness of the flange.
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
Standard hot-rolled steel sections
 6. T bars
 These are used for the same purposes as angles.

 Available as rolled sections with a short or long stalk.

 Alternatively, they can be cut

from a standard universal
beam or column section.

 Designation is given by the

nominal overall breadth and
depth x mass per metre run.
Standard cold-rolled steel sections
 Cold-rolled steel sections to BS EN 10162 have become
a popular alternative.

 They make more effective use of steel to permit selection

of profiles more appropriate to the design loading.

 They are particularly useful in lightweight situations

where standard hot-rolled sections would be excessive.
Standard cold-rolled steel sections
…when assembled, will/can
compose a main / substantial
structural form eg…

Example: Partition Wall

Standard cold-rolled steel sections
Standard cold-rolled steel sections
These, often lightweight cold-
forms…
Standard cold-rolled steel sections
 Development of Zed and Sigma sections have proved
very successful alternatives to the traditional use of steel
angles for truss purlins.

 They have many advantages:

 They are more cost-effective per unit of weight.
 Deck fixings are shorter and simpler to locate around the
upper flange.
 A shear centre is contained within the section to provide
greater resistance to twisting.
Cold-rolled steel purlins
Z- section
Typical Z & Zigma Section Purlins for Steel Roof

Zigma Section
THE CONNECTIONs
 Connections are structural elements used to connect
different members of a structural steel frame work.

 Components of a connections are, bolt, weld, connecting

plates, connecting angles.

 The choice of connections gives the structure its state i.e. rigid
or pin/flexible.
Basic On the Connecting Medium
 Bolted Connections (3 basic types)

 a. Black bolts

 b. Turned & fitted

 c. Friction grip (high strength)

 Obviously, as these have different properties & functions,

these Bolts are made from different combination of steel
and method of production.
Types of Bolts
Black bolts are not turned to a precise diameter
throughout and, therefore, cannot be a tight fit
in the holes. Less expensive.
For light structures under static load such as
small trusses, purlins.

Turned bolts as the name imply, are turned to

be parallel throughout the length of the barrel
and must fit tightly into their holes. (these are
equally good as rivets but more expansive)
For light structures under static load such as
small trusses, purlins etc.
Friction Grip bolts are high yield steel bolts
tightened by special torque control devices.
Higher shear resistance, used when bearing
types bolts slip under shear.
Advantages and Disadvantages over Riveting
 Advantages:
 The bolting operation is very silent.
 Bolting is a cold process hence there is no risk of fire.
 Bolting is faster than riveting.
 Less man power is required.

 Disadvantages:
 Tend to be loosen when subjected to vibratory force,
hence reduction in strength.
Riveted Connections
Made up of round ductile steel bar called shank. A head at one end, the length of rivet
should enough to form of second head.

These are often with snap head, which is almost semicircular in section & are used in
structural work. However, nowadays, these are driven hot, so that upon cooling they
contract in length and form a tight connection.

Introduction of Friction Grip bolts & welding has reduced the use of rivets. Rivets
are more often used in/at the fabrication shop and used limitedly(due to better
technology available).
Riveted Connections:- Installation
 Heating of the rivet and inserting into the oversize hole
pressure to the head.

 Squeezing the plain End by Pneumatic Driver Round Head.

 On cooling reduce in length, the clamp it by force.

Riveting is no longer used…
 Introduction of Friction Grip bolts & welding has reduced
the use of rivets.

 High labour costs due to high riveting crews employed.

 High costs involved in careful inspection and removal

of poorly installed rivets.

 The high level of noise involved in driving the rivets.

Welded Connections

Wielding is normally used in fabrication to form composite structural sections,

mainly and widely used to joint/fix cleats, anchors, flanges and the like to main
structural members e.g. stanchions, beams etc.
Types of Welding Joint

Spot weld (single) ie done at intervals

Seam weld ie a continuous weld done at ends
to put in place.
to be closed/jointed.
Types of Welding Joint

Fillet weld (concave & convex) is continuous Butt weld is wielding that joints
wielding process covering (attaching) ends or openings.
maximum surfaces
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages:
 Economical- cost of materials and labours.
 Efficiency is 100% if compared with rivet (75%-90%)
 Fabrication of complex structures like “circular” is easy.
 Provide rigid joints

 Disadvantages:
 No provision of contraction or expansion therefore greater
chances of cracking.
 Inspection is difficult and sometime is more costly than rivet.
 Uneven heating and cooling, members may distort, may result in
additional stress.
Column Base Plate Connections
 There are two methods:
 Slab or bloom base
 Gusset base

 Both methods required a steel base plate to spread the column load
onto the foundation.

 The gusset base is composed of a number of members that reduce the

thickness of base plate and can be used to transmit a high bending
moment to the foundations.

 The base plate and column should be machined to give a good

interface contact. The base plate and column can be connected
together by using angle cleats, or by fillet welding.
 Column Base Plate Connections
Slab or Bloom Base

Thick enough to resist the moments

caused by the bearing pressure.

The size and thickness is proportional to

the loading and transfer of forces.

This base requires less labour in

fabrication then the gusseted base.

At the same time the slab plate base creates a

platform for fixing of the stanchion to firm
foundation.
 Column Base Plate Connections
Gusseted Base

Plate stiffened by gusset plates which act as a

Rib. Has the effect of deepening the ends of
the section thus reducing the shear stress at
the connections and can eliminate the need
to strengthen the stanchion web, however, it
tends to take-up space at the fixing level.

These are similar, in the sense that it

also has a slab plate, but because of the
effective affects of the gusset plate, the
slab need not be so thick (relatively).
Column Base Plate Connections
 The base is joined to the foundation by holding-down bolts, which
must be designed to resist the uplift and tendency of the column to
overturn.

 To allow for fixing tolerances, the bolts are initially housed in a void
or pocket, which is filled with grout at the same time as the base is
grouted onto the foundation.

 To level and plumb the columns, steel wedges are inserted between
the underside of the base plate and the top of the foundation .
Structural steel base connections:
Concrete encasing to steel components
Column Base Plate Connections
 With large base plates, a grouting hole is sometimes
Included.
 But with smaller plates, three sides of the base plate are
sealed with puddle clay, bricks or formwork and the grout
is introduced through the open edge on the fourth side.

 To protect the base from corrosion, it should be encased

with concrete up to the underside of the floor level, giving
minimum concrete cover of 75mm to all the steel
components.
Anchoring
 To ensure efficient transmission of bending moments to the
foundations, the holding-down bolts MUST be well
secured/anchored to the foundation base slab/stump.

 Fixing/Anchoring of the plate to the foundation base slab/stump

involves levelling and alignment check. Any corrections are done via
steel levelling wedges and later grouted (to fill the gap..

 Grouting of the base plates and holding-down bolts is necessary and

essential as it forms part of the levelling work. This is usually left
until the whole structure has been finally levelled and plumbed. The
grout is a neat cement or cement/sand mixture depending on the gap
to be filled
Grouting

a. 12 – 25mm ~ stiff mix of neat cement. b. 25 – 50mm ~ fluid mix of 1:2(cement/sand)

and tamped applied.

c. > 50mm ~ stiff mix of 1:2(cement/sand) and

pressure inserted.