DEEP

FOUNDATIONS
ONSHORE PILES
 Pile Foundations
 Piles are relatively long and slender members used to
transmit foundation loads through soil strata of low
bearing capacity to deeper soil or rock having a
higher bearing capacity.

 Pile resistance is comprised of

 end bearing
 shaft friction

 For many piles only one of these components is

important. This is the basis of a simple classification
End Bearing Piles

PILES SOFT SOIL

ROCK
 Friction Piles

PILES SOIL

Strength
increases
with depth
 TYPES OF PILES
MAJOR GROUPS
 There are many piling systems

 The pile installation procedure varies

considerably, and has an important influence
on the subsequent response
 Two main groups can be identified
o Driven or Displacement piles
o Drilled Shafts
 TYPES OF PILES
MAJOR GROUPS
 There are many piling systems

 The pile installation procedure varies

considerably, and has an important influence
on the subsequent response
 Two main groups can be identified
o Driven or Displacement piles
o Drilled Shafts
 TYPES OF PILES
FURTHER DIVISION
i. Driven Piles
 Prefabricated members driven into
ground includes spun pile etc.

ii. Drilled Shafts

 Drill cylindrical hole and insert
reinforcing & fill with concrete
includes caissons, bored pile,
micropile etc.
 TYPES OF PILES
FURTHER DIVISION
 TYPES OF PILES
FURTHER DIVISION
 TYPES OF PILES
FURTHER DIVISION
BASS STRAIT UPGRADE
PILE DRIVING MACHINES
 TYPES OF PILES
FURTHER DIVISION
iii. Mandrel driven shells
 Thin corrugated steel shells driven into
ground and filled with concrete.

IV. Auger Cast Piles

 Drill a slender cylindrical hole with hollow-
stem auger and then pump grout through
auger hole while auger is slowly retracted .

V. Pressure Injected Footings (PIF)

 Cast in place concrete that is rammed into
the soil using a drop hammer.
 TYPES OF PILES
FURTHER DIVISION
 TYPES OF PILE
MAJOR GROUPS

Displacement Or Driven Piles

Large Small

Preformed Formed in-situ Hollow tube, or Screw

H-section
Steel

Solid Hollow tube Tube former

Concrete, Closed end withdrawn
or Timber Steel or Concrete void filled with
concrete
 TYPES OF PILES
MAJOR GROUPS

Drilled Shafts

Unsupported Supported during

during construction construction

Steel casing Drilling mud

Void filled with

reinforced concrete
LOADING CONDITIONS FOR DEEP
FOUNDATIONS
 LOADING CONDITIONS FOR DEEP
FOUNDATIONS
 Loading of deep foundations

•One of the main reasons for

deep foundations is the ability
of deep foundations to bear
loads that shallow foundations
cannot.
•Ability to take compression
loads in soft soil
•Ability to take lateral loads
•Ability to take tension loads
PILE CAPACITY

Load Transfer to Piles

• Resistance to load
• Shaft resistance (Qs)
• Toe resistance (Qp)
• For end-bearing piles, toe
resistance predominates
• For tension piles, shaft
resistance predominates
LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM AND
FAILURE PATTERNS
DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

Load transfer mechanisms for piles

 DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

In general pile capacity are made up

of two components:
 Skin friction
 End bearing

Methods are available to compute

pile capacities for:
 Granular soils
 Clay soils
 DESIGN OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

 Onshore
Pile Foundations are based
on numerous codes such as

 BS 8004
 Eurocodes7
 ASCE 20-96
 Pile Capacity

 In general there are three types of design:

o Capacity based on Analytical method
• Alpha (α) – API method of piling is based on this.
• Beta (β)
• Lambda Method ()
o Capacity based on field test method
• SPT
• CPT
o Capacity based on Dynamic method
• Pile driving formulas
• Wave equation analysis
 PILE DESIGN CRITERIA

 The design of piles and pile groups must

satisfy three basic criteria:
a) Adequate axial and lateral capacities
b) Acceptable load deformation behavior.
c) Installation feasibility-the piles can be
driven with the available plant
 PILE CAPACITY

 Static analysis method

PILE CAPACITY

Weight of
pile; can be
-w negligible
 PILE CAPACITY

 Ultimate capacity of pile

Qu Qult = Qs + Qp
= fsAs + qpAp
Where
Qs = shaft friction or skin
resistance

Qs As = shaft area
Qp = toe resistance or end bearing
resistance
Ap = toe area
Qp
ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

Note: Ap = area of steel + soil plug

 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

Estimating Pile Capacity

Ultimate bearing capacity (Qu) of pile:
Qu = Qp + Qs
Where:
Qp : load carrying capacity of the pile point
Qs : frictional resistance (skin friction) derived from the soil-pile interface
Point Bearing Capacity, Qp
Terzaghi’s equations for shallow foundation:
Square foundation: qu  1.3c' Nc  qN q  0.4BN 
Circular foundation: qu  1.3c' Nc  qN q  0.3BN 

 general bearing capacity: qu  c' Nc*  qN q*  BN *

 substituting D for B : qu  q p  c' Nc*  qN q*  DN*
 D is relatively small: q p  c' N c*  qN q*
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

Point bearing capacity of pile, Qp

Qp  Ap q p  Ap (c' Nc*  q' N q* )

where,
Ap = area of pile tip
c’ = cohesion of the soil supporting the pile tip
qp = unit point resistance
q’ = effective vertical stress at the level of the pile tip
N c* , N q* = the bearing capacity factors
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

Frictional Resistance, Qs
Qs  pLf
where,
p = perimeter of the pile section
L = incremental pile length over which p and f are taken to be
constant
f = unit friction resistance at any depth z

Allowable Load, Qall

Qu
Qall 
FS
where,
Qall = allowable load carrying for each pile
FS = factor of safety
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
Methods of Estimating Qp

Meyerhof’s method
Sand (c’ = 0)

Qp  Ap q p  Ap q' N q*
 limiting value of Qp: Qp  Ap q' N q  Ap ql
*

 ql  0.5 pa N q tan  
*

where,
pa = atmospheric pressure ( 100 kN/m2 or 2000 lb/ft2)
’ = effective soil friction angle of the bearing stratum

Clay (’ = 0)
where,
Qp  Ap cu Nc*  Ap 9cu

cu = undrained cohesion of the soil below the tip of pile

 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

Vesic’s method
Based on the theory of expansion of cavities:

Qp  Ap q p  Ap (cNc*   o N* )
where,
 o = mean effective normal ground stress at the level of the pile point

=  1  2 K o q'  Ko = earth pressure coefficient at rest = 1- sin ’

 3 
N c* , N* = bearing capacity factors
*
 3 N
N 
* q

(1  2 K o )

 N c* 
4
ln I rr  1   1
3 2
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
Sand (c’=0)

Qp  Ap q p  Ap  'o N *

3N q*
N*  , also N*  f ( I rr ) where Irr = reduced rigidity index for soil
(1  2 K o )

Ir Es Gs
I rr  I r  rigidity index  
1 Ir 21   s q' tan  ' q' tan  '
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil
s = Poisson’s ratio of soil
Gs = shear modulus of soil
 = average volumetic strain in the plastic zone below the pile point
The general range of Ir for various soils are
Sand (relative density = 50% to 80%):75 to 150
Silt: 50 to 75
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
In order to estimate Ir and hence Irr, the following approximations by
Chen and Kulhawy (1994) may be used.
Es
 m  Es  mpa
pa
Where pa = atmospheric pressure = 100kN/m2
m = 100 to 200 (loose soil)
200 to 500 (medium dense soil)
500 to 1000 (dense soil)
  '25 
 s  0.1  0.3  for 25   '  45
 20 

  '25  q'
  0.0051  
 20  pa
ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

 Clay (’=0)
Qp=Apqp=ApcuNc*


N  ln I rr  1   1
4*
c
3 2
For ’=0
Irr = Ir
𝐸𝑠
Where 𝐼𝑟 =
3𝑐𝑢
Ir can be approximated by using
𝑐𝑢
𝐼𝑟 = 347 − 33 ≤ 300
𝑝𝑎
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

Janbu’s method

Qp  Ap (cNc*  qN q* )

 N q*  (tan    1  tan 2   ) 2 (e 2  tan   )

 Nc*  ( N q*  1) cot  '

 CORRELATIONS FOR CALCULATING QP WITH SPT

 Meyerhof (1976) suggested that qp in homogeneous

granular soil is:
L
q p  0.4 pa N 60  4 pa N 60
D
Where
N60 = the average value of the SPT number near the pile point
(about 10D above and 4D below the pile point)
Pa = atmospheric pressure (100 kN/m2)
Briaud et al. (1985) suggested the following correlation for qp in
granular soil with SPT N60
qp = 19.7pa(N60)0.36
Meyerhof (1956) also suggested that qpqc (in granular soil)
Where qc = cone penetration resistance
ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
L’  15 D
Methods of Estimating Qs
For z = 0 to L’: f  K o tan  '
'

Sand (c’=0)
For z = L’ to L: f  f z  L
Qs   pLf where,
K = effective earth pressure
Figure 2. Unit frictional resistance for sand
’o = effective vertical stress at the
depth under consideration
’ = soil-pile friction angle
 range of ’=0.5’- 0.8’
 Based on load test results in
field, average value of K are:
H-piles…………………K=1.65
Steel pipe piles………..K=1.26
Average values of K:
Precast concrete piles..K=1.5
Pile type K
Bored or jetted  Ko = 1 – sin ’
Low-displacement driven  Ko = 1 – sin ’ to 1.4Ko = 1.4(1 – sin ’ )
High-displacement driven  Ko = 1 – sin ’ to 1.8Ko = 1.8(1 – sin ’ )
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

Clay (’ = 0)
 Method Variation of ,with pile embedment length, L

f av   ( o  2cu ) Embedment length (L) 

where, 0 0.5

 o = mean effective vertical 5

10
0.336
0.245
stress for the entire 15 0.200
embedment length 20 0.173

cu = mean undrained shear 25 0.150

strength ( = 0)
30 0.136
35 0.132
40 0.127

Qs  pLf av 50 0.113
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

Figure 3. Application of  method in layered soil

The mean effective stress is:

 o = A1  A2  A3  ...
L

where A1, A2, A3, … = areas of the vertical effective stress

diagrams.
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY
 method
f  cu
Figure 4. Variation of  with cu/’o
Qs  pLf  pLcu
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

 Method
f= ’o
Where ’o = vertical effective stress
 = K tan ’R
’R = drained friction angle of remolded clay
K = earth pressure coefficient
For normally consolidated clay: K=1-sin ’R
For overly consolidated clay: K  (1  sin  'R ) OCR

Qs   fpL
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

 Estimation of Qs using SPT

From Meyerhof
For high displacement driven pile f av 0.02 pa ( N 60 )

For low displacement driven pile f av 0.01 pa ( N60 )

Where
( N 60 ) = average value of standard penetration resistance
pa = atmospheric pressure (=100kN/m2)

Qs  pLf av
 ESTIMATING PILE CAPACITY

 Point Bearing Capacity of Piles Resting on Rock

q p  qu ( N  1)
where
N =tan2(45+ ’/2)
Qu=unconfined compression strength of rock
’=drained angle of friction
 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION (DOWNWARD DRAG
FORCE)
1. If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which
a pile is driven, the fill will gradually consolidate. The
consolidation process will exert a downward drag force on the
pile during the period of consolidation.
2. If a granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay, it will induce
the process of consolidation in the clay layer and thus exert a
downward drag on the pile.
3. Lowering the water table will increase the vertical effective
stress on the soil, which will induce consolidation settlement in
clay. If a pile is located in the clay layer, it will be subjected to a
downward drag force.
 NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION

 Clay fill over Granular Soil.

similar to  method: f n  K ' o ' tan  '
Where
K’ = earth pressure coefficient = Ko = 1 – sin ’
’o = vertical effective stress at any depth z = ’fz
’f = effective unit weight of fill
’ = soil-pile friction angle = 0.5-0.7’
Hence, total downward drag force on pile is
pK '  ' f H 2f tan  '
Qn 
2
Qp  Q f
Qa   Qn
FS
NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION
 GROUP PILES (FRICTION PILE IN SAND)
Group efficiency for
friction pile in sand.
 Group Piles
Qg ( u )

Qu

where,
 = group efficiency
Qg(u) = ultimate load-bearing
capacity of the group pile
Qu = ultimate load -bearing
capacity of each pile
without the group effect.
 GROUP PILES (FRICTION PILE IN SAND)
 The piles may act in one of two ways
1. as a block with dimensions Lg x Bg x L
2. as individual piles

f [2(n1  n2  2)d  4 D]L 2(n1  n2  2)d  4 D


Qg (u )
 av =
Qu n1n2 p
Hence n1n2 pLf av

 2(n1  n2  2)d  4 D 
Qg (u )  Qu
 n n
1 2 p 
In practice
if  < 1 : Qg (u )  Qu Qu  n1n2Qs
if   1 : Qg (u )  Qu

Converse-Labarre equation:
 (n1  1)n2  (n2  1)n1 
  1  ;  where  (deg) = tan-1 (D/d)
 90 n n
1 2 
 GROUP PILES (IN SATURATED CLAY)
Group Efficiency  Step 1 : determine Qu - individual

Qu  n1n2 (Q p  Qs )
Qp  Ap [9cu ( p ) ];where cu(p) = undrained
cohesion of the clay at the pile tip

Qs  pcu L

Qu  n1n2 [ Ap 9cu ( p )  pcu L]

Step 2 : determine Qu(g) ; acting as block
with dimension (Lg x Bg x L)

Skin resistance: pg cu L  2( Lg  Bg )cu L

Point bearing capacity: Ap q p  Ap cu ( p ) N c*  ( Lg Bg )cu ( p ) N c*

Ultimate load: Qu  ( Lg Bg )cu ( p ) Nc*  2( Lg  Bg )cu L

Step 3 : compare the values obtained from Step

1 and Step 2. The lower one is the value of
Qg(u)
 SETTLEMENT

The elastic settlement of a pile is comprised of three

elements:
i. Elastic settlement of the pile in the soil due to load
transmitted along the pile shaft , Ssf.

ii. Settlement due to load at end bearing (can be

negligible in floating/friction piles), Seb.

iii. Elastic compression or shortening

of the pile, Sps.

Total settlement, Se = Ssf + Seb + Sps

 SETTLEMENT

i. Determination of Ssf
 Qws  D
Ssf    1  s2 I ws
 pL  Es
Where p = perimeter of the pile
L = embedded length of the pile
D = diameter of pile
Qws = load carried by frictional (skin) resistance under working load
 = poisson’s ratio of soil
Iws = influence factor (using Vesic’s empirical relation)
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil at or below the pile point

L
I ws  2  0.35
D
 SETTLEMENT

ii. Determination of Seb

Seb 
qwp D
Es
1   I
2
s wp

where qwp = point load per unit area at the pile point = Qwp/Ap
Iwp = influence factor  0.85

iii. Determination of Sps

S ps 
Q wp  Qws L
Ap E p
Qwp = load carried at the pile point under working load condition
 = varies between 0.5 to 0.67 (Vesic,1977)
Ap= area of the pile cross section
Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pile material
 SETTLEMENT

 Sps can also be determined by using another more simplified

general formula:

Pzc
S ps 
AE
Zc = depth to centroid of soil resistance (typically about 0.75D)
A = cross sectional area of a single foundation
E = modulus of elasticity of the foundation
= 57000(f’c)1/2 Ib/in2 or 4700 (f’c)1/2 MPa for concrete
P = Downward load on each foundation
 SETTLEMENT

Group Settlement

 Simplest relation for the settlement of group piles was given by Vesic
(1969):

Bg
S g (e)  Se
D
Where Sg(e) = elastic settlement of group piles
B(g) = width of pile group section
D = width or diameter of each pile in the group
Se = elastic settlement of each pile at comparable working load
 SETTLEMENT

 For pile groups in sand and gravel, Meyerhoff (1976) suggested the following
empirical relation for elastic settlement:

0.92q Bg I
S g ( e ) (mm) 
N 60
where
q (kN/m3) = Qg/(LgBg)
Lg and Bg = length and width of the pile group section, respectively (m)
N60 = average standard penetration number within seat of
settlement ( approx = Bg deep below the tip of the piles)
I = influence factor = 1 – L/8Bg ≥ 0.5
L = length of embedment of piles (m)
 SETTLEMENT

 Example
A 12 m long precast concrete pile is fully embedded in sand. The cross section of the
pile measures 0.305m x 0.305m. The allowable working load for the pile is 337 kN,
of which 240 kN is contributed by skin friction. Determine the elastic settlement of
the pile for Ep = 21 x 106 kN/m2, Es = 30,000 kN/m2, and s = 0.3.

Se = Ssf + Seb + Sps

S ps 
Qwp  Qws L
Ap E p
Let  = 0.6 and Ep = 21 x 106 kN/m2. Then

S ps 
97  (0.6)(240)12
 0.00148 m  1.48 mm
(0.305) 2 (21X 106 )
 SETTLEMENT

Seb 
qwp D
Es
1   I
2
s wp

Iwp = 0.85
qwp = Qwp/Ap = 97/(0.305)2 =1042.7 kN/m2

 (1042.7)(0.305 
Seb    (1  0.32
)(0.85)  0.0082m  8.2mm
 30,000 
 Qws  D L 12
Ssf    1  s2 I ws I ws  2  0.35  2  0.35  4.2
 pL  Es D 0.305

240  0.305 
S sf   (1  0.32 )(4.2)  0.00081 m  0.81 mm
( x 0.305)(12)  30,000 
 Hence total settlement is Se = 1.48 +8.2 + 0.81 = 10.49 mm
SETTLEMENT
 STATIC PILE LOAD TEST

 Used to determine pile load capacity.

 Apply static loads in increments up to
designated load and observe vertical
deflections.
 Results will be effective in determining
the ultimate bearing capacity and
assessing the deflection characteristic of
the pile.
 Codes used could be from Eurocode,
BS 8004, ASTM D1143, etc.
STATIC PILE LOAD TEST
 STATIC PILE LOAD TEST

 Dead Load test

STATIC PILE LOAD TEST

Static pile test in progress

 STATIC PILE LOAD TEST

 Reaction piles
STATIC PILE LOAD TEST

Reaction pile test in progress

 STATIC PILE LOAD TEST

 Reaction pile test disadvantages

 STATIC PILE LOAD TEST

 Static load procedure

STATIC PILE LOAD TEST
STATIC PILE LOAD TEST

Ultimate pile load capacity:

Qult = 1780 kN

Allowable pile capacity:

Qa=Qult/FS = 1780/2 =890kN

Allowable pile load capacity

based on settlement of 10% of
pile diameter.

Settlement = 450 x 0.1 =45mm

From figure, Qa = 510 kN