MODULE 2
MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you should be able to compare the different structures and mechanisms involved in
membrane transport and understand signal transduction pathways that mediate sensing and processing of
stimuli.
ENGAGE
The plasma membrane forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s internal environment
(everything inside the cell) from the external environment (everything outside the cell). It is a selective
barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell. This selectivity helps establish and maintain
the appropriate environment for normal cellular activities.
The plasma membrane also plays a key role in communication among cells and between cells and their
external environment.
The plasma membrane, a flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of a cell, is
best described by using a structural model called the fluid mosaic model. According to this model, the
molecular arrangement of the plasma membrane resembles a continually moving sea of fluid lipids that
contains a mosaic of many different proteins. Some proteins float freely like icebergs in the lipid sea,
whereas others are anchored at specific locations like islands. The membrane lipids allow passage of several
types of lipid-soluble molecules but act as a barrier to the entry or exit of charged or polar substances. Some
of the proteins in the plasma membrane allow movement of polar molecules and ions into and out of the cell.
Other proteins can act as signal receptors or as molecules that link the plasma membrane to intracellular or
extracellular proteins.
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
The Lipid Bilayer The basic structural framework of the plasma membrane is the lipid bilayer, two back-to-
back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules—phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids. About
75% of the membrane lipids are phospholipids, lipids that contain phosphorus. The bilayer arrangement
occurs because the lipids are amphipathic molecules, which means that they have both polar and nonpolar
parts.
Arrangement of Membrane Proteins
Membrane proteins are classified as integral or peripheral according to whether they are firmly embedded in
the membrane. Integral proteins extend into or through the lipid bilayer and are firmly embedded in it. Most
integral proteins are transmembrane proteins, which means that they span the entire lipid bilayer and
protrude into both the cytosol and extracellular fluid. A few integral proteins are tightly attached to one side
of the bilayer by covalent bonding to fatty acids. Like membrane lipids, integral membrane proteins are
amphipathic. Their hydrophilic regions protrude into either the watery extracellular fluid or the cytosol, and
their hydrophobic regions extend among the fatty acid tails. As their name implies, peripheral proteins are
not as firmly embedded in the membrane. They are attached to the polar heads of membrane lipids or to
integral proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane. Many integral proteins are glycoproteins,
proteins with carbohydrate groups attached to the ends that protrude into the extracellular fluid. The
carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins form an extensive sugary coat called the glycocalyx.
The pattern of carbohydrates in the glycocalyx varies from one cell to another. Therefore, the glycocalyx
acts like a molecular “signature” that enables cells to recognize one another.
The fluid mosaic arrangement of lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane.2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
EXPLORE
Functions of Membrane Proteins
Generally, the types of lipids in cellular membranes vary only slightly. In contrast, the membranes of different
cells and various intracellular organelles have remarkably different assortments of proteins that determine
many of the membrane’s functions.
• Some integral proteins form ion channels, pores or holes that specific ions, such as potassium ions (K),
can flow through to get into or out of the cell. Most ion channels are selective; they allow only a single type
of ion to pass through.
• Other integral proteins act as carriers, selectively moving a polar substance or ion from one side of the
membrane to the other. Carriers are also known as transporters.
• Integral proteins called receptors serve as cellular recognition sites. Each type of receptor recognizes and
binds a specific type of molecule. For instance, insulin receptors bind the hormone insulin. A specific
molecule that binds to a receptor is called a ligand of that receptor.
• Some integral proteins are enzymes that catalyze specific chemical reactions at the inside or outside
surface of the cell.
• Integral proteins may also serve as linkers that anchor proteins in the plasma membranes of neighboring
cells to one another or to protein filaments inside and outside the cell. Peripheral proteins also serve as
enzymes and linkers.
• Membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids often serve as cell identity markers. They may enable a cell to
(1) recognize other cells of the same kind during tissue formation or (2) recognize and respond to potentially
dangerous foreign cells.
In addition, peripheral proteins help support the plasma membrane, anchor integral proteins, and participate
in mechanical activities such as moving materials and organelles within cells, changing cell shape in dividing
and muscle cells, and attaching cells to one another.
Signal transduction (also known as cell signaling) is the transmission of molecular signals from a cell's
exterior to its interior. Signals received by cells must be transmitted effectively into the cell to ensure an
appropriate response. This step is initiated by cell-surface receptors.
Learn more about signal tranduction from the learning materials below.
For OBL: [Link]
For CBL: Signal Transduction
Required Reading: Chapter 3 of the accompanying e-book of Tortora, G.
(2014).Human Anatomy and Physiology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
EXPLAIN
Active and Passive Transport
•In passive processes, a substance moves down its concentration gradient across the membrane using its
own kinetic energy of motion. In active processes, cellular energy is used to drive the substance “uphill”
against its concentration gradient.
•In diffusion, molecules or ions move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
until an equilibrium is reached. The rate of diffusion across a plasma membrane is affected by the steepness
of the concentration gradient, temperature, mass of the diffusing substance, surface area available for
diffusion, and the distance over which diffusion must occur.
•Nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, steroids, and fat-soluble
vitamins (A, E, D, and K) plus small, polar, uncharged molecules such as water, urea, and small alcohols
diffuse through the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane via simple diffusion.
•In channel-mediated facilitated diffusion, a solute moves down its concentration gradient across the lipid
bilayer through a membrane channel. Examples include ion channels that allow specific ions such as K, Cl,
Na, or Ca2 (which are too hydrophilic to penetrate the membrane’s nonpolar interior) to move across the
plasma membrane. In carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion, a solute such as glucose binds to a specific
carrier protein on one side of the membrane and is released on the other side after the carrier undergoes a
change in shape.
•Osmosis is a type of diffusion in which there is net movement of water through a selectively permeable
membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration. In an isotonic
solution, red blood cells maintain their normal shape; in a hypotonic solution, they swell and undergo
hemolysis; in a hypertonic solution, they shrink and undergo crenation.
•Substances can cross the membrane against their concentration gradient by active transport. Actively
transported substances include ions such as Na, K, H, Ca 2, I, and Cl; amino acids; and monosaccharides.
Two sources of energy drive active transport: Energy obtained from hydrolysis of ATP is the source in
primary active transport, and energy stored in a Na or H concentration gradient is the source in secondary
active transport. The most prevalent primary active transport pump is the sodium–potassium pump, also
known as Na–K ATPase. Secondary active transport mechanisms include both symporters and antiporters
that are powered by either a Na or H concentration gradient. Symporters move two substances in the same
direction across the membrane; antiporters move two substances in opposite directions.
•In endocytosis, tiny vesicles detach from the plasma membrane to move materials across the membrane
into a cell; in exocytosis, vesicles merge with the plasma membrane to move materials out of a cell.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is the selective uptake of large molecules and particles (ligands) that bind to
specific receptors in membrane areas called clathrin-coated pits. In bulk-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis), the
ingestion of extracellular fluid, a vesicle surrounds the fluid to take it into the cell.
•Phagocytosis is the ingestion of solid particles. Some white blood cells destroy microbes that enter the
body in this way.
•In transcytosis, vesicles undergo endocytosis on one side of a cell, move across the cell, and undergo
exocytosis on the opposite side.
Learn more about active and passive transport from the learning materials below.
For OBL: [Link]
For CBL: Active and Passive Transport
Required Reading: Chapter 3 of the accompanying e-book of Tortora, G. (2014).Human Anatomy
and Physiology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
What insights about active, passive, and bulk cell transport and signal transduction have you learned
from watching the video? Be ready to share it during our feedback session.
ELABORATE
Total No. of Points: 20
Instructions: Read and carefully understand the question below. Offer a substantial explanation for the
response. Your answer should be 150-200 words for each question. Include in-text citations and references
(follow APA 6th v). After that, attach a Plagscan result of your output (for OBL only).
1. How is signal amplification is most often achieved?
2. How do receptor-mediated endocytosis and phagocytosis differ from bulk-phase endocytosis?
Scoring: See the scoring guide on Appendix A
Note: This assessment is graded. Accomplish properly and submit them on/before the specified deadline.
SUBMISSION OF OUTPUT:
For OBL: Post your file on our google classroom submission bin. Rename the file as LAST NAME_Given
Name_ Elaborate e.g. DELA CRUZ_JOHN_ELABORATE
For CBL: Save in OTG and send via courier or e-mail to instructor. Rename the file as LAST NAME_Given
Name_ Elaborate e.g. DELA CRUZ_JOHN_ELABORATE
EVALUATE
Total No. of Points: 20
Instructions: Read and carefully understand the question below. Offer a substantial explanation for the response.
Your answer should be 200-300 words for each question. Include in-text citations and references (follow APA 6 th
v). After that, attach a Plagscan result of your output (for OBL only).
1. What is the main difference between primary and secondary active transport mechanisms?
2. What is the role of ATP in the operation of this Sodium-Potassium pump?
Scoring: See the scoring guide on Appendix A
Note: This assessment is graded. Accomplish properly and submit them on/before the specified deadline.
SUBMISSION OF OUTPUT:
For OBL: Post your file on our google classroom submission bin. Rename the file as LAST NAME_Given
Name_ Evaluate e.g. DELA CRUZ_JOHN_EVALUATE
For CBL: Save in OTG and send via courier or e-mail to instructor. Rename the file as LAST NAME_Given
Name_ Evaluate e.g. DELA CRUZ_JOHN_EVALUATE
REFERENCES
Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (2014) by Gerard J. Tortora and Bryan N N. Derrickson
[Link]
[Link]
Dear future Louisian Psychologist,
Congratulations on finishing module 2.
You may now proceed to module 3.
Good luck!
N e x t