How Harmonic Mitigating Transformers

Outperform K-Rated Transformers

Abstract

The use of K-rated transformers has become a popular means of addressing harmonic related overheating
problems where personal computers, telecommunications equipment, broadcasting equipment and other similar
power electronics are found in high concentrations. These non-linear loads generate harmonic currents which
can substantially increase transformer losses. The K-rated transformer has a more rugged design intended to
prevent failure due to overheating. Unfortunately, a transformer designed simply to protect itself fails to address
the other important problems associated with harmonics. Specifically, in order to prevent high voltage distortion
levels from adversely affecting the equipment loads, the transformer must be capable of canceling harmonic
currents and fluxes within its windings. Harmonic Mitigating Transformers (HMTs) will not only prevent
transformer overheating failures but will also reduce failures in connected equipment by ensuring that IEEE Std
519 voltage distortion limits are met throughout the power distribution system.

1. Introduction

It is quite commonly known that harmonics generated by non-linear loads can cause serious overheating
problems in standard distribution transformers. Even under much less than fully loaded conditions, transformers
have been known to fail catastrophically. One of the main reasons for this is that harmonic currents will
dramatically increase the eddy current losses in a transformer.
The relationship is as follows[1]:

hmax
PEC = PEC −1 ∑ I h2 h 2
h =1

Where: PEC = total eddy current losses

PEC-1 = eddy current losses at fundamental
Ih = rms current at harmonic h
h = harmonic number
This has prompted transformer manufacturers to build more robust designs which can tolerate the additional
harmonic losses. In the interest of standardization, a rating scheme has been adopted known as K-factor. K-
factor reflects the increase in eddy current losses and is defined as follows[2]:

hmax
K = ∑ I h2 h 2
h =1

Where: Ih = rms current at harmonic h, in per unit

of rated rms current

A K-rated transformer then, is one that can be loaded to its full load rating when servicing a non-linear load with a
K-factor rating no greater than the transformer’s K-rating. Standard K-factor ratings are 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 and
50.
It is important to note that specifying an extremely high K-rating is not necessarily a good thing. For example, a
K-30 transformer is only required if the load it services is actually a K-30 load and if it is expected to operate at or
near full load rating. Specifying too high a K-rating will result in an oversized transformer which can introduce
problems such as very high inrush currents, excessive fault levels, higher core losses and a larger footprint.
The harmonics problem however, is much more than simply the overheating of electrical distribution equipment.
When servicing a high concentration of non-linear loads, power distribution systems can experience a wide
variety of problems, which include:
 How Harmonic Mitigating Transformers Outperform K-Rated Transformers

1. Power factor correction capacitor failures due to overloading and / or system resonance
2. Overheating cables, transformers and other distribution equipment reducing their life span
3. High voltage distortion (typically in the form of flat-topping) especially when operating on weak sources,
such as emergency generators or UPS systems.
4. False tripping of circuit breakers
5. Premature failure of rotating equipment (motors, generators, etc.)
6. Misoperation or component failure in PLCs, computers or other sensitive loads

Of all the problems listed above, those resulting from high voltage distortion are often the most severe and
generally the most difficult to identify.

2. How Harmonic Currents Create Voltage Distortion

Voltage distortion is created as harmonic currents, generated by non-linear loads, pass through the impedance of
a power distribution system. Current at any frequency flowing through an impedance will result in a voltage drop
in the system at that frequency. This is a simple application of Ohms Law, Vh = Ih x Zh, where:
Vh = voltage at harmonic number h
Ih = current at harmonic number h
Zh = impedance of system to harmonic h

The accumulative effect of the voltage drops at each frequency produces voltage distortion. A common term
used to indicate the amount of waveform distortion is Total Harmonic Distortion, or THD. THD is expressed in
percent and for power systems can be applied to both voltage and current. Voltage total harmonic distortion (Vthd)
is defined as a root mean square of all the harmonic voltage drops and is expressed as follows:
2 2 2 2
Vthd = V 2 +V 3 +V 4 +V 5 +.... x 100%
V1
Current distortion is a measure of the combined effect of the various harmonic currents present:
2 2 2 2
Ithd = I 2
+I 3
+I 4 +I 5
+.... x 100%
I 1
Voltage distortion then is a function of both the system impedance and the amount of harmonic current in the
system. High system impedance due to long cable runs, high impedance transformers, generators, UPS
systems, etc. usually causes high voltage distortion levels.

The basic relationship between current and voltage distortion can be seen by examining the waveforms
themselves. A typical non-linear load, the Switch-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) is shown in Figure 1. This device
draws current only during the peaks of the voltage waveform while charging the smoothing capacitor. As the
applied voltage drops during the rest of the cycle, the capacitor discharges to support the load. The pulses of
current which recharge the capacitor cause voltage drops which clip-off or flat-top the voltage peaks.

3. The Effect of Voltage Flat-topping on the Rectifier Lls

Switch-mode Power Supply Bridge
iac Smoothing Switch-mode
How voltage flat-topping affects the operation of an vac Capacitor dc-to-dc
Cf
converter
SMPS is a fairly controversial topic. Most equipment Load
manufacturers specify < 5% Vthd in their installation
manuals but readily admit that many installations exceed Typical Circuit Diagram of Switch-mode
these recommendations. IEEE Std 519 also lists 5% Vthd Power Supply

as a recommended limit and states, “Computers and ‹ Pulsed Current

allied equipment such as programmable controllers – Switch-mode draws current only
while capacitor is charging
frequently require ac sources that have no more than a ‹ Voltage Flat-topping
5% harmonic voltage distortion factor, …. Higher levels – Pulsed current creates voltage drop
of harmonics result in erratic, sometimes subtle, at peak of voltage waveform Voltage Current
malfunctions of the equipment that can, in some cases,
Figure 1: Relationship between pulsed current and
have serious consequences.”
voltage flat-topping

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 How Harmonic Mitigating Transformers Outperform K-Rated Transformers

Often the equipment appears to operate normally but the long-term effect of exposure to a severely distorted or
flattened voltage waveform is rarely considered. A drop in peak voltage will directly reduce the DC bus voltage
within an SMPS. Figure 2 shows how the DC bus voltage depends directly upon the peak value of the supply
voltage rather than upon its average or RMS values. During each voltage half cycle, the smoothing capacitor is
charged by the voltage peak. It then discharges to support the DC voltage as the supply voltage drops to zero
and returns to its peak value. The result is a DC voltage with a slight DC ripple.

When the SMPS is supplied by a

sinusoidal voltage waveform, the DC 200 V=70%
bus voltage remains high. When the 150 ‹ Voltage flat-topping
peak is flat-topped however, the DC 100 reduces DC bus voltage
bus voltage will be lowered V 50
‹ Lower charging voltage
0
proportionately. With a reduced DC on smoothing capacitor,
-50
bus voltage, the SMPS must draw reduces stored energy
-100
more current to satisfy the power Power Interruption
demands of the load (P = V x I). This
-150 ‹ With less stored energy
-200
increase in current will increase the ride-through capability
DC Bus Voltage with: Sinusoidal Input Voltage (blue)
internal I2R losses and the heat Flat-topped Input Voltage (red) is reduced
these losses produce. Components
Energy Stored in a capacitor:
within the SMPS will then run hotter
and can fail prematurely. 10% drop in peak voltage W C = 1/2 C V 2 joules
reduces With drop-out voltage = 70% (V2 = 0.7 pu)
Another negative effect of a lower ride-through capability When V1 = 1 pu,
peak supply voltage is reduced ride- by 37% Δ WC = 1/2 C (V12 - V2 2 ) = 0.255 C
through capability (see Figure 3). When V1 = 0.9pu,
With a full peak voltage, the Δ WC = 1/2 C (V12 - V2 2 ) = 0.16 C
smoothing capacitor in the SMPS will
Figure 3: Voltage flat-topping reduces SMPS ride-through capability
often have enough charged energy
to support the load during a brief
power interruption. This can explain
200
why a personal computer is ‹ Voltage flat-topping
150
unaffected when lighting in the area reduces DC bus voltage
100
flickers during a thunderstorm or V 50 ‹ Lower DC voltage,
other inclement weather condition. increases current and
0
With a flattened voltage waveform
-50 I2 R losses (heat)
however, the smoothing capacitor
-100
will not get fully charged. With less -150
‹ Pre-mature component
stored energy, this capacitor may no -200
failure results from
longer be capable of supporting a DC Bus Voltage with: Sinusoidal Input Voltage (blue) higher operating
load during the full duration of a Flat-topped Input Voltage (red) temperatures
power interruption and the equipment
can shutdown. 10% drop in peak voltage P=VxI
produces
If V = 0.9 pu, I = P = P = 1.11 P
The problem of voltage flat-topping 11% increase in current
V 0.9
becomes even more severe when and
weak sources such as standby 23% increase in I 2 R losses I2 x R = (1.11)2 x R = 1.23 x R
generators or UPS systems are
used. This is due to their higher Figure 2: Voltage flat-topping lowers SMPS DC bus voltage increasing losses
source impedance. A generator’s
impedance, for instance, can be
several times higher than that of a distribution transformer. Therefore, if under normal utility power, voltage
distortion at an emergency transfer switch is around 3% or 4%, it would very likely be over 10% when transferred
to the standby generator during a power interruption. Often harmonic problems become obvious only when
operating under emergency conditions.

High voltage distortion has been known to prevent closed transition returns to utility when power is restored after
an interruption. The highly distorted voltage waveform at the generator can prevent synchronization with the

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 How Harmonic Mitigating Transformers Outperform K-Rated Transformers

normal power source. Without proper synchronization, the two sources cannot be paralleled and therefore, the
load must be dropped before it can be transferred back to normal power[3].

4. Using HMTs to Prevent Voltage Flat-topping

Harmonic Mitigating Transformers are specially designed to reduce system voltage distortion in addition to
reducing the heating effects caused by the harmonic currents. This is accomplished by cancelling load generated
harmonic fluxes and currents within the transformer’s windings:
1. Zero sequence harmonic currents, which include the 3rd, 9th and 15th, are prevented from circulating in the
primary windings by cancelling their fluxes within the secondary windings.
2. Single output HMTs are available in 2 models with differing phase shifts which when paired will induce
cancellation of 5th, 7th, 17th & 19th harmonic currents upstream.
3. Dual output HMTs phase shift to cancel the balanced portion of 5th, 7th, 17th & 19th harmonic currents within
their secondary windings.
4. Three output HMTs phase shift to cancel the balanced portion of 5th, 7th, 11th & 13th harmonic currents
within their secondary windings.
5. Reduction of harmonic currents in the primary windings and upstream of the HMT reduces the harmonic
voltage drops and voltage distortion these drops produce.
6. Losses are also reduced because the transformer and upstream distribution equipment is subjected to less
harmonic current.

This means that an HMT will produce significantly less voltage distortion than a conventional or K-rated
transformer when servicing similar non-linear loads. In Table 1, the performance of various HMT models is
compared with a typical K13 transformer. Included as well, is a simple dual output phase shifting transformer
(Forked Wye) which is also finding application as a harmonic cancelling transformer. This transformer has dual
outputs which are phase shifted by 30o to cancel the balanced 5th and 7th harmonic currents in much the same
manner as the dual output HMT. The principal difference from the HMT is in the treatment of the 3rd and other
triplen harmonics. Where the HMT prevents these currents from circulating in its primary windings, the Forked
Wye does not. This means that voltage distortion at the 3rd harmonic will be just as high as it would be in the K13
and conventional transformer.
Computer modeling was used to determine the
voltage distortion that would appear at each Vthd at Transformer Output
transformer’s output when servicing a K-13 non-linear Full 75% 50%
load of Ithd = 88%. As can be seen, the HMT load load load
transformers produced lower voltage distortion than
K13 Transformer 10.5% 7.8% 5.2%
both the K13 and the Forked Wye. The multiple
output HMTs achieved the best results by treating 5th, Forked Wye 7.9% 5.9% 3.9%
7th and other higher order harmonics in addition to the
triplens (3rd, 9th & 15th). Single Output HMT 6.9% 5.2% 3.4%

With this load profile, the K13 transformer will meet Dual Output HMT 3.8% 2.8% 1.9%
the 5% Vthd limit only when loaded to less than 50%. Three Output HMT 3.6% 2.7% 1.8%
The multiple output HMT’s, on the other hand, can be
fully loaded without overly distorting the voltage Table 1: Modeling of Voltage Distortion at the output of
waveform and the single output HMT can be loaded 112.5 KVA Transformers with K-13 load profile.
to 75% before exceeding 5% Vthd.
This analysis supports the use of multiple output HMTs when a distribution system is required to service a high
concentration of non-linear loads. This would include computer rooms, call centers, broadcasting studios,
telecommunications sites, Internet Service Providers and hospitals to name a few. When the loading is not
expected to be as severe, the single output HMT may prove to be sufficient to prevent problems from developing.
In any event, the K13 transformer is not a suitable alternative.

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 How Harmonic Mitigating Transformers Outperform K-Rated Transformers

5. Case Studies Demonstrating How HMTs Will Eliminate Equipment Failure By

Reducing Voltage Distortion

A Chicago area bank was troubled by consistent failures of equipment power supplies in one of its critical
communications rooms. Poor power quality was considered a potential cause of the problem but it was believed
that the 75 kVA UPS that serviced the load should have addressed all of the power quality needs of the
equipment.
Charles Andersen of ATA, a local electrical testing company, was called upon to monitor the site in an attempt to
determine the cause of the equipment failures. Continuous monitoring over a period of 20 days, uncovered no
troublesome impulses, surges, sags or power interruptions. An extensive review of the grounding system also
produced no significant findings. During this investigation period the equipment failures continued. What the
monitoring did identify however, was that the voltage downstream of the UPS was severely flat-topped with Vthd
consistently above 8%.
To resolve the high voltage distortion problem, a 75 kVA, three output HMT was installed downstream of the UPS.
By treating the entire spectrum of odd order harmonics (up to and including the 15th) the HMT was able to reduce
the current distortion of the load from 65% to less than 10%. The direct result of this current distortion reduction
was a dramatic drop in voltage distortion to less than 4%. With the installation of the HMT, power supply failures
dropped from an average of 5 per month to less than 1. In time, these are expected to reduce even further as the
residual effect of the long term exposure to distorted voltage begins to subside.
In another application, dual output HMTs were used to service a Test Area at a major silicon chip manufacturer.
Prior to the installation of the HMTs, consistent failures in the equipment being tested were resulting in annual
repairs in the amount of $200,000. The improvement in voltage distortion that accompanied the HMT installation
virtually eliminated the equipment failures and the savings in maintenance costs more than justified the HMT
purchase.

6. Conclusion

With their ability to treat both power quality and overheating harmonic concerns, Harmonic Mitigating
Transformers significantly outperform their K-rated cousins. Power distribution systems designed with HMTs are
capable of servicing any level of non-linear loading without suffering negative consequences. This should justify
more widespread use of the HMT in applications where high concentrations of non-linear loads are found.
Continued use of K-rated transformers, on the other hand, will lead to distribution systems that are incapable of
being fully utilized without distorting the voltage waveform above recommended maximum levels.

7. References

1. IEEE Emerald Book, Recommended Practice for Power and Grounding Sensitive Electronic Equipment, IEEE
Std 1100-1992
2. IEEE std 519-1992, Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power
Systems
3. Practical Guide to Quality Power for Sensitive Electronic Equipment, 2nd Edition, EC&M Books
4. Taming the Rogue Wave: Techniques for Reducing Harmonic Distortion, Tony Hoevenaars, P. Eng.,
Published in EC&M Magazine June 1997

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