Switching and Intelligent Networks (ECEG-5284)

Chapter Two

Circuit Switching Networks

2.1 Introduction to Switched Communication Networks

For transmission of data beyond a local area, communication is typically achieved by

transmitting data from source to destination through a network of intermediate

switching nodes; this switched network design is typically used to implement LANs as

well. The switching nodes are not concerned with the content of the data; rather, their

purpose is to provide a switching facility that will move the data from node to node

until they reach their destination. Figure 2.1 illustrates a simple network. The devices

attached to the network may be referred to as stations. The stations may be computers,

terminals, telephones, or other communicating devices. We refer to the switching devices

whose purpose is to provide communication as nodes. Nodes are connected to one

another in some topology by transmission links. Each station attaches to a node, and the

collection of nodes is referred to as a communications network.

Figure 2.1 Simple Switching Network

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Important observations in simple switching networks (Figure 2.1):

 Some nodes connect only to other nodes (e.g., 5 and 7). Their sole task is the

internal (to the network) switching of data. Other nodes have one or more stations

attached as well; in addition to their switching functions, such nodes accept data

from and deliver data to the attached stations.

 Node-station links are generally dedicated point-to-point links. Node-node links

are usually multiplexed.

 Usually, the network is not fully connected; that is, there is not a direct link

between every possible pair of nodes. However, it is always desirable to have more

than one possible path through the network for each pair of stations. This enhances

the reliability of the network.

In a switched communication network, data entering the network from a station are

routed to the destination by being switched from node to node. For example, in Figure

2.1, data from station A intended for station F are sent to node 4. They may then be routed

via nodes 5 and 6 or nodes 7 and 6 to the destination.

Two different technologies are used in wide area switched networks: circuit switching

and packet switching. These two technologies differ in the way the nodes switch

information from one link to another on the way from source to destination.

2.2 Circuit Switching Networks

Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a dedicated communication

path between two stations. That path is a connected sequence of links between network

nodes. On each physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the connection.

Communication via circuit switching involves three phases, which can be explained with

reference to Figure 2.1.

1. Circuit establishment. Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end

(station-to-station) circuit must be established. For example, station A sends a

request to node 4 requesting a connection to station E. Typically, the link from A

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to 4 is a dedicated line, so that part of the connection already exists. Node 4 must

find the next leg in a route leading to E. Based on routing information and

measures of availability and perhaps cost, node 4 selects the link to node 5,

allocates a free channel (using FDM or TDM) on that link, and sends a message

requesting connection to E. So far, a dedicated path has been established from A

through 4 to 5. Because a number of stations may attach to 4, it must be able to

establish internal paths from multiple stations to multiple nodes. The remainder

of the process proceeds similarly. Node 5 allocates a channel to node 6 and

internally ties that channel to the channel from node 4. Node 6 completes the

connection to E. In completing the connection, a test is made to determine if E is

busy or is prepared to accept the connection.

2. Data transfer. Data can now be transmitted from A through the network to E. The

transmission may be analog or digital, depending on the nature of the network.

As the carriers evolve to fully integrated digital networks, the use of digital

(binary) transmission for both voice and data is becoming the dominant method.

The path is A-4 link, internal switching through 4, 4-5 channel, internal switching

through 5, 5-6 channel, internal switching through 6, 6-E link. Generally, the

connection is full duplex.

3. Circuit disconnect. After some period of data transfer, the connection is

terminated, usually by the action of one of the two stations. Signals must be

propagated to nodes 4, 5, and 6 to deallocate the dedicated resources.

Circuit switching can be rather inefficient. Channel capacity is dedicated for the duration

of a connection, even if no data are being transferred. For a voice connection, utilization

may be rather high, but it still does not approach 100%. For a client/server or terminal-to-

computer connection, the capacity may be idle during most of the time of the connection.

In terms of performance, there is a delay prior to signal transfer for call establishment.

However, once the circuit is established, the network is effectively transparent to the
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users. Information is transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than the

propagation delay through the transmission links. The delay at each node is negligible.

Figure 2.2 Example Connection Over a Public Circuit-Switching Network

Applications of circuit switching may include;

1. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN): is actually a collection of national

networks interconnected to form the international service (Figure 2.2).

2. Private Branch Exchange (PBX): used to interconnect telephones within a building

or office.

3. Private Networks: set up by a corporation or other large organization to

interconnect its various sites.

4. Data Switches: is similar to the PBX but is designed to interconnect digital data

processing devices, such as terminals and computers.

Circuit-switching technology has been driven by those applications that handle voice

traffic. One of the key requirements for voice traffic is that there must be virtually no

transmission delay and certainly no variation in delay. A constant signal transmission

rate must be maintained, because transmission and reception occur at the same signal

rate. These requirements are necessary to allow normal human conversation. Further, the

quality of the received signal must be sufficiently high to provide, at a minimum,

intelligibility.

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Circuit switching achieved its widespread, dominant position because it is well suited to

the analog transmission of voice signals. In today’s digital world, its inefficiencies are

more apparent. However, despite the inefficiency, circuit switching will remain an

attractive choice for both local area and wide area networking. One of its key strengths is

that it is transparent. Once a circuit is established, it appears as a direct connection to the

two attached stations; no special networking logic is needed at the station.

2.2.1 Circuit Switching Concepts

The technology of circuit switching is best approached by examining the operation of a

single circuit-switching node. A network built around a single circuit-switching node

consists of a collection of stations attached to a central switching unit. The central switch

establishes a dedicated path between any two devices that wish to communicate. Figure

2.3 depicts the major elements of such a one-node network. The dotted lines inside the

switch symbolize the connections that are currently active.

Figure 2.3 Elements of a Circuit-Switch Node

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The heart of a modern system is a digital switch. The function of the digital switch is to

provide a transparent signal path between any pair of attached devices. The path is

transparent in that it appears to the attached pair of devices that there is a direct

connection between them which must allow full-duplex transmission.

The network interface element represents the functions and hardware needed to connect

digital devices, such as data processing devices and digital telephones, to the network.

Analog telephones can also be attached if the network interface contains the logic for

converting to digital signals.

The control unit performs three general tasks.

 First, it establishes connections. This is generally done on demand, that is, at the

request of an attached device. To establish the connection, the control unit must

handle and acknowledge the request, determine if the intended destination is free,

and construct a path through the switch.

 Second, the control unit must maintain the connection. Because the digital switch

uses time division principles, this may require ongoing manipulation of the

switching elements. However, the bits of the communication are transferred

transparently (from the point of view of the attached devices).

 Third, the control unit must tear down the connection, either in response to a

request from one of the parties or for its own reasons.

An important characteristic of a circuit-switching device is whether it is blocking or non-

blocking. Blocking occurs when the network is unable to connect two stations because all

possible paths between them are already in use. A blocking network is one in which such

blocking is possible. Hence a non-blocking network permits all stations to be connected

(in pairs) at once and grants all possible connection requests as long as the called party is

free. When a network is supporting only voice traffic, a blocking configuration is

generally acceptable, because it is expected that most phone calls are of short duration

and that therefore only a fraction of the telephones will be engaged at any time. However,
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when data processing devices are involved, these assumptions may be invalid. For

example, for a data entry application, a terminal may be continuously connected to a

computer for hours at a time. Hence, for data applications, there is a requirement for a

non-blocking or “nearly non-blocking” (very low probability of blocking) configuration.

2.2.2 Circuit Switching Techniques

We turn now to an examination of the switching techniques internal to a single circuit-

switching node.

[Link] Space Division Switching

As its name implies, a space division switch is one in which the signal paths are physically

separate from one another (divided in space). Each connection requires the establishment

of a physical path through the switch that is dedicated solely to the transfer of signals

between the two endpoints. The basic building block of the switch is a metallic cross-

point or semiconductor gate that can be enabled and disabled by a control unit.

Figure 2.4 shows a simple crossbar matrix with 10 full-duplex I/O lines. The matrix has

10 inputs and 10 outputs; each station attaches to the matrix via one input and one output

line. Interconnection is possible between any two lines by enabling the appropriate cross-

point. Note that a total of 100 cross-points is required.

Figure 2.4 Space Division Switch

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The crossbar switch has a number of limitations:

 The number of cross-points grows with the square of the number of attached

stations. This is costly for a large switch.

 The loss of a cross-point prevents connection between the two devices whose lines

intersect at that cross-point.

 The cross-points are inefficiently utilized; even when all of the attached devices

are active, only a small fraction of the cross-points are engaged.

To overcome these limitations, multiple-stage switches are employed. Figure 2.4 is an

example of a three-stage switch. This type of arrangement has two advantages over a

single-stage crossbar matrix:

 The number of cross-points is reduced, increasing crossbar utilization. In this

example, the total number of cross-points for 10 stations is reduced from 100 to 48.

 There is more than one path through the network to connect two endpoints,

increasing reliability.

Of course, a multistage network requires a more complex control scheme. To establish a

path in a single-stage network, it is only necessary to enable a single gate. In a multistage

network, a free path through the stages must be determined and the appropriate gates

enabled.

Figure 2.5 Three-Stage Space Division Switch

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A consideration with a multistage space division switch is that it may be blocking. It

should be clear from Figure 2.4 that a single-stage crossbar matrix is non-blocking; that

is, a path is always available to connect an input to an output. That this may not be the

case with a multiple-stage switch can be seen in Figure 2.5. The heavier lines indicate the

lines that are already in use. In this state, input line 10, for example, cannot be connected

to output line 3, 4, or 5, even though all of these output lines are available. A multiple-

stage switch can be made non-blocking by increasing the number or size of the

intermediate switches, but of course this increases the cost.

Fig. 2.6 shows the three stage switching structure to accommodate 128 input and 128

output terminals with 16 first stage and last stage.

Fig. 2.6. Three stage switching structure.

In Fig 2.6 the N input lines are divided into 𝑁/𝑛 groups of 𝑛 lines each. Each group of 𝑛

inputs is accomodated by an 𝑛 −input, 𝑘 output matrix. The output matrices are identical

to the input matrices except they are reversed. The intermediate stages are 𝑘 in number

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and 𝑁/𝑛 inputs and 𝑁/𝑛 outputs. The interstage connections are often called junctors.

Each of the 𝑘 paths utilizes a separate center stage array. An arbitrary input can find 𝑘

alternate output. Thus multistage structure provides alternate paths. Also the switching

link is connected to a limited number of crosspoints. This enables the minimized

capacitive loading.

The total number of crosspoints 𝑁𝑋 for three stage is

𝑁 2 𝑁 2
𝑁𝑋 = 2𝑁𝐾 + 𝐾 ( ) = 𝐾 (2𝑁 + ( ) )
𝑛 𝑛
The three stage switching matrix require that 𝑘 > 2𝑛– 1 to generate no blocking. 𝑘 =
2𝑛– 1
Substituting this in 𝑁𝑋 , we have
𝑁 2 𝑁 2
𝑁𝑋 = 2𝑁(2𝑛– 1) + (2𝑛– 1) ( ) = (2𝑛 − 1) (2𝑁 + ( ) )
𝑛 𝑛

For large 𝑁, 𝑛 = √𝑁⁄2

Thus,
2
𝑁
𝑁𝑋 = 2𝑁 (2√𝑁⁄2 – 1) + (2√𝑁⁄2 – 1) ( ) = 2𝑁 (2√𝑁⁄2 – 1) + (2√𝑁⁄2 – 1) 2𝑁
√𝑁⁄2

𝑁𝑋 = 4𝑁 (2√𝑁⁄2 – 1) ≈ 4𝑁 (2√𝑁⁄2) = 4√2𝑁 3⁄2

The savings in crosspoints becoming more pronounced with increasing N. When very

large number of lines must be accomodated, switching structures with more stages, even

upto eight stages are used. The probability that all k links are busy is given by
𝐵 = [1 − (1 − 𝑃)2 ]𝑘
Where 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑝⁄𝑘 , with utilization probability 𝑝.

Example 2.1. A three stage switching structure is to accomodate 𝑁 = 128 input and 128

output terminals. For 16 first stage and 16 last stage, determine the number of cross points

for nonblocking.

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Example 2.2. If the number of crosspoints in example 2.1 is to be reduced by the factor of

3 with non-blocking what is the probability that a call will be blocked? Assume the

utilization probability 𝑝 = 15%.

Time Division Switching

Time division switching involves the sharing of crosspoints for shorter periods of time.

This paves way for the reassign of crosspoints and its associated circuits for other needed

connections. Therefore, in time division switching, greater savings in crosspoints can be

achieved. Hence, by using a dynamic control mechanisms, a switching element can be

assigned to many inlet-outlet pairs for few microseconds. This is the principle of time

division switching.

Time division switching uses time division multiplexing to achieve switching. Two

popular methods that are used in time division multiplexing are (a) the time slot

interchange (TSI) and (b) the TDM bus. In ordinary time division mutliplexing, the data

reaches the output in the same order as they sent. But TSI changes the ordering of slots

based on the desired connections. The demultiplexer separates the slots and passes them

to the proper outputs. The TDM uses a control unit. The control unit opens and closes the

gates according to the switching need. The principle of time division switching can be

equally applied to analog and digital signals.

Two Dimensional Digital Switching

Large digital switches require switching operations in both a space dimension and a time

dimension. There are a large variety of network configurations that can be used to

accomplish these requirements. It may be organized with time switch as first stage and

the space switch as the second stage or vice versa. The resulting configurations are

referred as time space (TS) Switching Systems or space time (ST) switches respectively.

Three stage time and space combinations of TST and STS configurations are more popular

and flexible. Very large division switches includes many combinations of time and space

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switches. Typical configurations are TSST, TSSSST, and TSTSTSTS. These switches

support 40000 lines or more economically.

Time-space (TS) Switching

This switch consists of only two stages. This structure contains a time stage T followed

by a space stage S as shown in Fig. 2.7. Thus this structure is referred to as time-space

(TS) switch. The space array have N inlets and N outlets. For each inlet line, a time slot

interchanger with T slots is introduced. Each TSI is provided with a time slot memories

and a gate select memory needs to be provided for the space array.

Fig. 2.7. Time space (TS) switching.

Let each time slot interchanger have T slots. If the space array is a 𝑁 × 𝑁, then the

simultaneous connections possible is 𝑁𝑇. If 𝑇 = 128 and 𝑁 = 16, 2048 connections can be

supported. This structure is not free of blocking. If space array is at the inlet side and time

switch is at the output side, the structure is referred as space time (ST) switching. Both

TS and ST arrangements are equally effective.

TS system is used in DMS 100 digital switching system developed in canada (1979). It

handles 61000 trunks and accommodates 39000 trunks.

Blocking probability:

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The blocking probability of TS switching is calculated as follows.

𝜌
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 =
𝑇
Where 𝜌 is fraction of time that a particular link is busy measured in Erlangs

𝑇 is number of time slots in a frame.

The probability that any other subscriber is active on the same link
(𝑇 − 1)𝜌
=
𝑇
The probability that a particular called subscriber is chosen by A
1 1
=
𝑁𝑇 𝑇
where 𝑁 = Number of inlets (or outlets) for 𝑁 × 𝑁 space array.

𝑁𝑇 = Simultaneous connection

The probability that the same time slot on a different outlet is chosen by the other

subscribers on the same inlet

(𝑇 − 1)(𝑁 − 1)𝜌
=
𝑇(𝑁𝑇 − 1)
𝜌 (𝑇−1)(𝑁−1)𝜌
From Blocking probability 𝐵 = 𝑇×𝑁𝑇 𝑇(𝑁𝑇−1)

As 𝑇 ≫ 1, 𝑁 ≫ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑇 ≫ 1
𝑃
𝐵=
𝑁𝑇 3
Implementaion complexity. In general the complexity of the switching is represented

interms of number of cross points (N) and its associated cost. The number of cross points

in space stage can be easily calculated which is based on the array size. The time stage

uses significant amount of memory which adds the cost of the whole system. To take this

into account the cost of memory bit is assumed one hundredth of the cost of cross point.

Thus,
𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐵𝑋 + 𝑁𝐵𝑇
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐼𝐶) = 𝑁𝑋 + = 𝑁𝑋 +
100 100

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Example 2.3. If 𝑁 = 80, 𝑁𝐵𝑋 = 13, 440 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝐵𝑇 = 24,960 for a typical TS switch, calculate

the implementation complexity.

𝑁𝐵𝑋 + 𝑁𝐵𝑇 13,400 + 24960
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑁𝑋 + = 80 × 80 + = 6784 equivalent cross points.
100 100
STS and TST Switching

The multiple stages overcomes the limitations of the individual switches and cost savings

can also be achieved. TST, STS, TSST, TSSSST and TSTSTSTSTSTSTS are the switching

system configurations used in digital switching system. However, the TST structure is

the most common.

STS Switching. The input side space stage as well as the output side space stage is free

to utilise any free time switch modules. In the diagram shown in Fig. 2.8, the time slot 2

is connected to the TSM 2 where the time slot alloted is 16 and passed to the (M – 1)th

line of output space array. Thus the path is provided. This structure is of non-blocking

nature.

Fig. 2. 8. STS switching structure.

Blocking probability. The STS switch is identical to the probability graph of three stage

space switches. Similar to that, the blocking probability of an STS switch is

𝑘
𝑝 2
𝐵 = [1 − (1 − ) ]
𝛽

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where 𝑝 = probability that a link is busy

𝐾
𝛽 = 𝑁 = is the factor by which the percentage of links that are busy is reduced. (𝛽 < 1)

𝐾 = number of center stage TSM.

Implementation Complexity (IC). While calculating IC, the total number of two space

stage cross points, total number of two space stage control bits, number of time stage

memory bits and number of time stage control bits are to be considered. Thus,
2𝐾𝐶 log 2 𝑁 + 𝐾𝐶(8) + 𝐾𝐶 log 2 𝐶
𝐼𝐶 = 2𝐾𝑁 +
100
where 𝐾 = The minimum number of centre stage TSM to provide desired grade of

service.

𝐶 = number of channel.

TST Switching. In TST switching the space stage is sandwiched between two time stage

switches. Of all the multistage switching, TST is a popular one.

Ag. 2.8. TST switching structure.

Blocking probability. The blocking probability is minimised if the number of space stage

time slots L is made to be large. By direct analogy of three stage space switches, the TST

switch is strictly non-blocking if

𝐿 = 2𝑇 − 1
where 𝑇 = number of time slot of time switch.

𝐿 = number of space slot of space switch.

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The general expression of blocking probability for a TST switch with non-blocking

individual stage is
𝐵 = [1 − (1 − 𝑝𝑇/𝐿)2 ]𝐿
For 3 stage 𝐵 = [1 − (1 − 𝑝𝑇/2)2 ]2

Implementation complexity. The implementation complexity (IC) of a TST switch can be

derived as
𝑁𝐿 log 2 𝑁 + 2𝑁𝑇(8) + 2𝑁𝐿 log 2 𝑇
𝐼𝐶 = 𝑁 2 +
100
Example 2.4. Determine the implementation complexity of 2048 channel TST switch with

16 TDM links and 128 channels. Let the time slot of space switch is 25. (𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑁 = 16, 𝐿 =

25, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = 128),

Soft switch structure

The latest trend in the development of circuit-switching technology is generally referred

to as the softswitch. In essence, a softswitch is a general-purpose computer running

specialized software that turns it into a smart phone switch. Softswitches cost

significantly less than traditional circuit switches and can provide more functionality. In

particular, in addition to handling the traditional circuit-switching functions, a softswitch

can convert a stream of digitized voice bits into packets. This opens up a number of

options for transmission, including the increasingly popular voice over IP (Internet

Protocol) approach.

In any telephone network switch, the most complex element is the software that controls

call processing. This software performs call routing and implements call-processing logic

for hundreds of custom calling features. Typically, this software runs on a proprietary

processor that is integrated with the physical circuit-switching hardware. A more flexible

approach is to physically separate the call processing function from the hardware

switching function. In softswitch terminology, the physical switching function is

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performed by a media gateway (MG) and the call processing logic resides in a media

gateway controller (MGC).

Figure 2.6 contrasts the architecture of a traditional telephone network circuit switch with

the softswitch architecture. In the latter case, the MG and MGC are distinct entities and

may be provided by different vendors. To facilitate interoperability, two Internet

standards have been issued for a media gateway control protocol between the MG and

MGC: RFC 2805 (Media Gateway Control Protocol Architecture and Requirements) and

RFC 3525 (Gateway Control Protocol Version 1). Softswitch functionality is also defined

in the H series or ITU-T Recommendations, which covers audiovisual and multimedia

systems.

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