ELE8301 Engineering Mathematics

ELE8301(chapter 1) Prof. N. Magaji

Prof N. Magaji
Syllabus
1 Linear algebra: linear vector spaces: transformations and matrices;
spectra theory; geometric concepts; structure of linear transformations;
quadratic forms, etc; network topology and graphs; matrix analysis
techniques; cut-set; incidence and nodal admittance matrix;
2 Complex variables. Phasor rotation by π/2 Complex numbers and
operations Polar form of a complex number Applications of complex
numbers to AC linear circuits Circular motionThe importance of being
exponential
3 Optimization: Introduction & formations of the problems, graphical
method, simplex method, duality concept in Linear Programing.
4 Statistical Quality Control: Introduction, control charts of all types, ISO
9000 series & their importance, OC curves, advantages & limitations of SQL
in industries.
5 Statistical distributions: Discrete & continuous frequency distributions,
Stochastic process, Markov chain, simulation techniques.
ELE8301(chapter 1) Prof. N. Magaji

Review of Linear Algebra

Chapter 1
Lecture1
Prof N. Magaji
Basic Concepts
 Properties of matrices
 Special matrices
 Eigenvalues & eigenvectors
 Transformation and Diagonilization of Matrices
 Quadratic form
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Basic concepts
Vector in Rn is an ordered 1
set of n real numbers.  
6
e.g. v = (1,6,3,4) is in R4  3
“(1,6,3,4)” is a column  
 4
vector:  
as opposed to a row
vector: 1 6 3 4
m-by-n matrix is an object
with m rows and n columns,
1 2 8
each entry fill with a real  
number:  4 78 6 
 9 3 2
 

3
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji
Basic concepts
Transpose: reflect vector/matrix on line:
T T
a a b  a c 
   a b      
b c d  b d 
• Measure the magnitude of a vector
– Is the error in x small or large?
• General class of p-norms:
1
• 1-norm: x 1   i 1 xi
n
 n p p

x   x 
• 2-norm: x2  n
i 1
xi 
2 1/ 2
p  i 1



• -norm: x 
 max i xi
4
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji
Properties of matrices Norm 1
The length of a vector with n components,
[a1 a2 … an], is defined as ,
which is also called the 1 norm of [a1 a2 … an].

2 Norm 12  22  32  42  52
Example 1 Compute  2 2 1 
 
a) 1 norm
b) infinity Norm
A   1 3 1
 2 4 1 
 
x 1  max  2  1  2 , 2  3  4 , 1  1  1   9
The maximum of the row sums
x 
 max  2  2  1 , 1  3  1 , 2  4  15  8
Properties of matrices (Linear Independence)
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

• A set of vectors is linearly dependent

if one of the vectors can be expressed
as a linear combination of the other
vectors. 1 0 2
     
0 , 1 , 1

Example 2 :      
0 0 0
• A set of vectors is linearly independent if none of
the vectors can be expressed as a linear
combinationof the other vectors.
Example: 1 0 2
     
0 , 1 , 1

0
 
0
 
3
 6
 Properties of matrices(Rank of a matrix)
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

• The rank of a matrix is the number of

linearly independent columns of the
matrix. 1 0 2
Examples3:0 1 1

0 0 0
 has rank 2
1 0 2
 
 0
 1 0 has rank 3

0 0 1


• Note: the rank of a matrix is also the number of

linearlyindependent rows of the matrix.
7
 Properties of matrices(Singular matrix)
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

All of the following conditions are

equivalent. We say a square (n  n)
matrix is singular if any one of these
conditions (and hence all of them) is
satisfied.
The columns are linearly dependent
The rows are linearly dependent
The determinant = 0
The matrix is not invertible
The matrix is not full rank (i.e., rank < n)
8
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji
Properties of matrices (Linear Spaces)

A linear space is the set of all vectors

that can be expressed as a linear
combination of a set of basis vectors. We
say this space is the span of the basis
vectors.
Example: R3, 3-dimensional Euclidean space,
is spanned by each of the following two
bases:
1 0 0
      1 0 0
0 , 1 , 0      

0
 
0
 
1
 0 , 1 , 0

0
 
2
 
1

9
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Non-square matrices
m=3
 1 0 n=2 1 0 1
  r=2   x1   
 0 1 System Ax=b may not 0 1    1
 2 3 have a solution (x has    x2   
  2 variables but 3 2 3 1
constraints).
m=2
1 0 2 n=3  x1 
  r=2 1 0 2   1
 0 1 3 System Ax=b is   x2    
underdetermined (x  0 1 3   1
has 3 variables and 2  x3 
constraints). 10
 Orthogonal matrices
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

 Orthogonal matrices

If AT  A1  A is an orthogonal matrix

(1) ( A1 )T  ( AT ) 1  ( A1 ) 1  A1 is also orthogonal
(2) | AT A || AT || A || A |2 | I | 1 | A | 1
(3) y  Ax  The norm of a real vector is unchanged.
y y  y T y  x T AT Ax  x T x  x x

Determinant of an Orthogonal Matrix

The determinant of an orthogonal matrix has the value +1 or −1.

Eigenvalues of an Orthogonal Matrix

The eigenvalues of an orthogonal matrix A are real or complex
conjugates in pairs and have absolute value 1. 11
 Matrix inversion
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

To solve Ax=b, we can write a closed-form

solution if we can find a matrix A-1
s.t. AA-1 =A-1A=I (identity matrix)
Then Ax=b iff x=A-1b:
x = Ix = A-1Ax = A-1b
A is non-singular iff A-1 exists iff Ax=b has a
unique solution.
Note: If A-1,B-1 exist, then (AB)-1 = B-1A-1,
and (AT)-1 = (A-1)T

12
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Determinants
If det(A) = 0, then A is singular.
If det(A) ≠ 0, then A is invertible.
To compute:
Simple example:
a b 
Matlab: det(A) det   ad  bc
c d 
m-by-n matrix A is rank-deficient if it has
rank r < m (≤ n)
Thm: rank(A) < r iff det(A) = 0 for all t-by-t
submatrices, r ≤ t ≤ m
13
 Determinants
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

m-by-n matrix A is rank-deficient if it has

rank r < m (≤ n)
Thm: rank(A) < r iff
det(A) = 0 for all t-by-t submatrices,
r≤t≤m

14
 Computation of Eigenvalues and
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Eigenvectors
Let A be an n  n matrix with eigenvalue  and corresponding
eigenvector x. Thus Ax = x. This equation may be written
Ax – x = 0
given
(A – In)x = 0
Solving the equation |A – In| = 0 for  leads to all the eigenvalues
of A.
On expending the determinant |A – In|, we get a polynomial in .
This polynomial is called the characteristic polynomial of A.
The equation |A – In| = 0 is called the characteristic equation of
A.

15
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Eigenvalues & eigenvectors

(A – λI)x = 0
λ is an eigenvalue iff det(A – λI) = 0
Example 4:

1 4 5 
 
A  0 3 / 4 6 
 0 0 1 / 2
 

1   4 5 
 
det( A  I )   0 3/ 4   6   (1   )(3 / 4   )(1 / 2   )
 0 1 / 2   
 0

  1,   3 / 4,   1 / 2
16
 Eigenvalues & eigenvectors
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Example 5: Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the

matrix   4  6
A 
 3 5 
Solution Let us first derive the characteristic polynomial of A.
We get
  4  6 1 0  4    6 
A  I 2        
 3 5   0 1   3 5   
A  I 2  (4   )(5   )  18  2    2
We now solve the characteristic equation of A.
2    2  0  (  2)(  1)  0    2 or  1
The eigenvalues of A are 2 and –1.
The corresponding eigenvectors are found by using these values
of  in the equation(A – I2)x = 0. There are many eigenvectors
corresponding to each eigenvalue.
17
 Eigenvalues & eigenvectors
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Example 6 Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix

 5 4 2
A  4 5 2
2 2 2
 
Solution The matrix A – I3 is obtained by subtracting  from
the diagonal elements of [Link]
5   4 2 
A  I 3   4 5   2 
 2   
 2 2 
The characteristic polynomial of A is |A – I3|. Using row and
column operations to simplify determinants, we get
5 4 2 1  1  0
A  I 3  4 5 2  4 5 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
18
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji
Eigenvalues & eigenvectors
Example 6(cont.)
1  0 0
 4 9 2
2 4 2
 (1   )[(9   )(2   )  8]  (1   )[2  11  10]
 (1   )(  10)(  1)  (  10)(  1) 2
We now solving the characteristic equation of A:
 (  10)(  1) 2  0
  10 or 1
The eigenvalues of A are 10 and 1.
The corresponding eigenvectors are found by using three values
of  in the equation (A – I3)x = 0.
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Example 6 (cont.)
1 = 10
We get ( A  10 I 3 )x  0
 5 4 2   x1 
 4  5 2   x2   0
 2 2  8  x3 

The solution to this system of equations are x1 = 2r, x2 = 2r,

and x3 = r, where r is a scalar.
Thus the eigenspace of 1 = 10 is the one-dimensional space
of vectors of the form. 2
r 2
 
1 
20
 Example 6(cont.)
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

2 = 1
Let  = 1 in (A – I3)x = 0. We get
( A  1I 3 )x  0
4 4 2  x1 
 4 4 2   x2   0
2 2 1   x3 
The solution to this system of equations can be shown to be
x1 = – s – t, x2 = s, and x3 = 2t, where s and t are scalars.
Thus the eigenspace of 2 = 1 is the space of vectors of the
form.
 s  t 
 s 
 
 2t 
21
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Separating the parameters s and t, we can write

 s  t   1  1
 s   s  1  t  0
     
 2t   0  2
Thus the eigenspace of  = 1 is a two-dimensional subspace of
R3 with basis
 1  1 
    
 1,  0 
  0  0 
    
If an eigenvalue occurs as a k times repeated root of the
characteristic equation, we say that it is of multiplicity k.
Thus =10 has multiplicity 1, while =1 has multiplicity 2
in this example.
22
 2.3 Diagonalization of Matrices
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Definition
Let A and B be square matrices of the same size. B is said to be
similar to A if there exists an invertible matrix C such that
B = C–1AC. The transformation of the matrix A into the matrix B
in this manner is called a similarity transformation.

Theorem 2.1
Similar matrices have the same eigenvalues.

Definition
A square matrix A is said to be diagonalizable if there exists a
matrix C such that D = C–1AC is a diagonal matrix.

23
 Example 7
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Consider the following matrices A and C with C is invertible.

Use the similarity transformation C–1AC to transform A into a
matrix B. 7  10  2 5
A  C 
 3  4   1 3
Solution
1
1  2 5 7  10 2 5
B  C AC 
1 3 3  4  1 3
3  5 7  10 2 5

 1 2  3  4  1 3
 6  10 2 5

 1 2  1 3

2 0
0 1
24
 Theorem 2.2
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Let A be an n  n matrix.
(a) If A has n linearly independent eigenvectors, it is
diagonalizable. The matrix C whose columns consist of n
linearly independent eigenvectors can be used in a similarity
transformation C–1AC to give a diagonal matrix D. The
diagonal elements of D will be the eigenvalues of A.
(b) If A is diagonalizable, then it has n linearly independent
eigenvectors

Example 8
 4  6
A
(a) Show that the matrix 3 5  is diagonalizable.
(b) Find a diagonal matrix D that is similar to A.
(c) Determine the similarity transformation that diagonalizes A.
25
 Example 8(cont.)
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Solution
(a) The eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvector of this
matrix were found to be :
 1   2
1  2, v1  r   2  1, and v 2  s  
 1  1
Since A, a 2  2 matrix, has two linearly independent
eigenvectors, it is diagonalizable.
(b) A is similar to the diagonal matrix D, which has diagonal
elements 1 = 2 and 2 = –1. Thus
  4  6 2 0 
A  is similar to D   
 3 5   0  1

26
 (c) Select two convenient linearly independent eigenvectors, say
 1   2
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji
v1    and v 2   
 1  1
Let these vectors be the column vectors of the diagonalizing
matrix C.   1  2
C
 1 1 
We get
1
1   1  2    4  6   1  2
C AC  
1 2   3 5   1 1 
 1 2    4  6   1  2  2 0 
        D
 1  1  3 5  1 1  0  1

If A is similar to a diagonal matrix D under the transformation

C–1AC, then it can be shown that Ak = CDkC–1.
This result can be used to compute Ak. Let us derive this result
and then apply it.D k  (C 1 AC ) k  (C 1 AC )  (C 1 AC )  C 1 Ak C
 
1
 A  CD C
k times
k k 27
 Example 9
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Compute A9 for the following matrix A.

  4  6
A 
 3 5 
Solution
A is the matrix of the previous example. Use the values of C and
D from that example. We get
9
 2 0   29 0  512 0 
D 
9
  0 (1)9    0 1

 0 1    

A9  CD9C 1
1
 1  2 512 0   1  2  514  1026
 
 1 1   0  1  1 1   513 1025

28
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji
Special matrices
Matrix A is symmetric if A = AT
A is positive definite if xTAx>0 for all non-zero x (positive semi-
definite if inequality is not strict)
 1 0 0  a 
  
a b c  0 1 0  b   a 2  b 2  c 2
 0 0 1  c 
  
 1 0 0  a 
  
a b c  0  1 0  b   a 2  b 2  c 2
 0 0 1  c 
  
Useful fact: Any matrix of form ATA is positive semi-
[Link] see this, xT(ATA)x = (xTAT)(Ax) = (Ax)T(Ax) ≥ 0

29
 Quadratic Forms.
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Transformation to Principal Axes

By definition, a quadratic form Q in the components x1, … , xn
of a vector x is a sum n2 of terms, namely,
n n
Q  x Ax   a jk x j xk
T

j 1 k 1

 a11 x12  a12 x1 x2   a1n x1 xn

(7)  a21 x2 x1  a22 x2 2   a2 n x 2 xn

 an1 xn x1  an 2 xn x2   ann xn 2 .
A = [ajk] is called the coefficient matrix of the form. We may
assume that A is symmetric, because we can take off-diagonal
terms together in pairs and write the result as a sum of two
equal terms; see the following example.
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

EXAMPLE 10 Quadratic Form.

Symmetric Coefficient Matrix
Let
 3 4   x1 
x Ax   x1 x2  
T
 x 
 6 2  2
 3 x12  4 x1 x2  6 x2 x1  2 x2 2
 3 x12  10 x1 x2  2 x2 2 .
Here 4 + 6 = 10 = 5 + 5.

A square matrix A is called a skew-symmetric matrix iff A T   A .

i.e. A is skew-symmetric matrix  A T   A  aij  a ji i, j

 TUTORIAL
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Q1 Determine bases for the following subspace of R3

(a) the plane 3x – 2y + 5z = 0 (b) the plane x – y = 0
(c) the line x = 2t, y = -t, z = 4t (d) all vectors of the form (a, b, c), where b = a + c

Solution:

(a) 3x - 2y + 5z = 0  x = (2/3)y – (5/3)z

Suppose y = t, z = s
x   (2 / 3)t  (5 / 3)s   2 / 3  5 / 3

Then y 
      
   t    1  t   0 s
z
  
 s 
  0 
   1 
 
  2 / 3  5 / 3 
 
Hence B =   1  ,  0  
   
 0   1  
   

(b) x – y = 0  x = y
Suppose y = t, z = s
x  t  1  0  1   0  
         
Then y  t  1 t  0 s Hence B =   1  ,  0  
           
z   0 1 
   0  1  
 s        

x   2t   2   2  
       
(c) y   t  1 t Hence B =   1 
       
  4  
z 
 4t 
 
 4 
  

a   a  1  0  1   0  
 b    a  c   1  a  1  c Hence B   1  , 1  
(d)
            
   0  1  
c  
 c   
0 
1 
     
 TUTORIAL
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

 2 1 3
Q2 If A 
 4 8 6  , find A
1

0 7 5 
 

Solution
 2 16  18

From the example 2.23, adj  A  20 10 0  A  60
  and

 28  14 12 

 2 16  18
1 
Then, A1 
 20 10 0 
60

 28  14 12 

Q3 First find the eigenvalues through the secular equation:

 i
0  2  1  0    1.
i 
1
So the eigenvalues of sy are  .
2
For the eigenvector corresponding to   1 :
 0  i  c   c 1  1
     1.    c   id  a   
i 0   d  d y
2  i
where the eigenvector has been normalised ( a 
y a y  1 ).

For the eigenvector corresponding to   1 :

0  i  c   c 1  1 
     1.     c   id  by   .
i 0   d  d 2   i
Check the orthogonality:
 1 
1  i
1 1
a y by    1  1  0 .
2   i 2
The matrix sy is indeed Hermitian:
1  0 i * 1 0  i
sy        sy
2  i * 0 2 i 0 
 TUTORIAL
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Q4 Determine the conjugate transpose is called the Hermitian transpose

z T = zH
Complex conjugate of a matrix A is a matrix derived from A by taking the complex conjugate
of all the elements in A.

3  i 2  3  i 2 
A=    A =   2i 1  i 
 2i 1  i   

Hermitian transpose is the transpose of its own complex conjugate.

5  i t i 0 5  i t i 0
A=   A =
 12  5i t 2   12
  5i t 2 

5  i 12
AH = A* = A  =  t  i 5i 
T
 
 0 t 2 
Q5 : Compute the 1,-2-, -, and Frobenious norms of the matrix
 TUTORIAL
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

 0 3 1
(1) Prove that A  3 0 5  is a skew-symmetric matrix.
 1 5 0 
 

(2) (a) Show that if A is a 3x3 matrix such that A t   A , then detA=0.

 1 2 74 
(b) Given that B   2 1 67 ,
 
 74 67 1 
use (a) , or otherwise , to show det(I  B)  0 .
Hence deduce that det(I  B 4 )  0 .
(3) (a) If  ,  and  are the roots of x 3  px  q  0 , find a cubic equation whose
roots are  2 ,  2 and  2 .
x 2 3
(b) Solve the equation 2 x 3  0 .
2 3 x
Hence, or otherwise, solve the equation
x 3  38x 2  361x  900  0 .
ELE8301(chapter 1) Prof. N. Magaji

ELE8301
Chapter 1
Lecture 2
Outline
1 Network topology and graphs;
2 matrix analysis techniques;
3 cut-set matrix analysis
4 Loop incidence matrix and nodal admittance matrix;
Network topology
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

 Network topology is a graphical representation of electric circuits. It is

useful for analyzing complex electric circuits by converting them
into network graphs. Network topology is also called
as Graph theory
 The study of network topology recognizes eight basic topologies:
point-to-point, bus, star, ring or circular, mesh, tree, hybrid, or daisy
chain
 A tree of a graph is a connected subgraph that contains all
nodes of the graph and it has no loop. Tree is very important
for loop and curset analyses. A Tree of a graph is generally not
unqiue. Branches that are not in the tree are called links.

37
Network topology
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Matrices Associated with Network Graphs

Following are the three matrices that are used in Graph theory.
1) Incidence Matrix
2) Fundamental Loop Matrix
3) Fundamental Cut set Matrix
The loop matrix B and the cut set matrix Q will be introduced.

38
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji 1 Incidence matrix
Incidence matrix is that matrix which
represents the graph such that with the
help of that matrix we can draw a graph.
This matrix can be denoted as [AC] As in
every matrix, there are also rows and
columns in incidence matrix [AC].
The rows of [AC] represent the number of
nodes
Column of the matrix [AC] represent the
number of branches in the given graph.
The entries of incidence matrix is always -
1, 0, +1.
Steps to draw the incidence matrix :-
 If a given kth node has outgoing branch, Fig. 3
then we will write +1.
 If a given kth node has incoming branch,
then we will write -1. Figure 3 has 4 nodes and
 Rest other branches will be considered 0. 6 branches. Thus the
incidence matrix for this
figure will be 4 rows and
6 columns 39
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji 1 Incidence matrix(cont.)
For Figure 3 graph
the incidence matrix
is written as:

Fig. 3

40
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji 2 Loop Analysis
Consider a connected graph with b branches and nt nodes.
Pick a tree T There are n = nt-1 tree branches and l = b-nt
links. Number the links first to be 1,2….l and number the tree
from l+1 to b . Every link and a unique path of tree
branches
The graphdefines
of Fig. a4 fundamental
illustrates loop.
Assign the direction of loop
fundamental loop for the chosen current to the same as the
Tree direction of the link the KVL for
each fundamental loop are.

Fig.4 Fundamental loop

41
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji 2 Loop Analysis
In matrix form
LV=0
v1
v2
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 v3 0 
0 0  1 1 v4 0 
 1 0 1 1
   
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 v5 0 
0  
0 0 1  0 1 1 0 v6 0 
v7
v8

42
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji 2 Loop Analysis(cont.)
In matrix form
LV=0
Properties of the loop impedance matrix
For a RLC networks in sinusoid steady state the loop impedance
matrix
Z i(jw) = BZb(jw)BT and has the following properties
 If there is no coupling element the matrix Zb(jw) is diagonal and
the loop impedance matrix is symmetric.
 If there is no coupling element the matrix Zb(jw) can be written by
inspection
Zii ( jw) is the sum of impedance in the loop i and
Zjk(jw) is the sum or negative sum of impedance of branch i
impedance common to loop j the plus sign applied
if the branch i direction agree with the loop j direction

43
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji 3 Cut set Analysis
Cut set analysis is a dual of loop analysis
Every tree branch defines a unique cut set
The fundamental cut set of the circuit of
Fig.5 is shown in Fig.6
KCL can be written for each
cut set as shown

Fig.4 Cut set

j1
j2
 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 j3 0 
In matrix form 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 j4 0 
   
Qj=0  0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 j5 0 
   
 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 j6 0 
j7
j8 44
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji 3 Cut set Analysis(cont.)
Properties of cut set matrix
For RLC circuit with sinusoid sources in steady state the properties of
the
Cut set admittance matrix are Yq
Yq (jw) = QYb (jw) QT
If the network has no coupling element the branch admittance is
diagonal and the cut set admittance matrix Yq is symmetric
If there are no coupling Yq can be written by inspection
Yii(jw) is the sum of admittance in the cut set and
Yik(jw) j is the sum or negative sum of branch admittance common
to cut set i and cut set k the plus sign applied
if the branch i and branch k has the same direction

45
 Tutorial
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Consider a tree graph with tree branches T[1,2,3]

network shown in figure Q1
Determine
(a) No. of branches, nodes and links
(b) incidence matrix, (A)
(c) cut set incidence matrix, (B)
(d) loop incidence matrix, (C)
e

1 2
d 3 c

a
b

Solution
(a) No. of branches, b = n – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3
No. of links, _ e b e (n 1) e n
1 5 3 2

46
 Tutorial
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Draw a directed graph of the circuit

of Fig. 1 and obtain two possible
trees that can be drawn from it.

Fig.1 Cut set

47
 Tutorial
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Example 2 Fig. 2
Write the fundamental loop equation
for the circuit shown in Fig.2

Fig. 2

48
 Tutorial
ELE8301(chapter1) Prof. N. Magaji

Example 3
Write the cut set equation of Fig. 3 by inspection.

Fig. 3

49